1:

CLASSROOM IN WATANAK, CAMBODIA > The Australian aid budget has recently given greater emphasis to basic education. PIC David Sproule/Oxfam CAA

ACCESS TO AND PRIVATISATION OF EDUCATION1

AUTHORS: LEAH ASHLEY AND KIRSTEN MACKAY PARTNER ORGANISATION: GLOBAL CAMPAIGN FOR EDUCATION

BACKGROUND
Education is an important human right; guaranteed by Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and considered a cornerstone in the achievement of the human rights framework (UNESCO 2002). It is essential in achieving social and individual development and plays a significant role in nation building, conflict resolution and poverty alleviation (Watt & Rowden 2002; UNICEF 2002). For young people, education is an especially important right, providing the experience and knowledge required to live a sustainable and fulfiling life and to participate fully in local and global communities (LearningChannel.org 2002). Unfortunately it is a right that is often denied to young people, who are mostly reliant on external parties to provide them with educational facilities and resources (Commonwealth of Learning 2002: IYP submission). The processes of globalisation have both positive and negative effects on young people and their right to education. Improvements in communication technology and educational delivery have the potential to improve the quality of education and make it increasingly accessible. Global human rights movements, the UNs Education for All goals and the Global Campaign for Education (GCE)2 have placed pressure on key players to ensure young people have access to quality educational resources and are able to attend schooling without harassment and discrimination (Dos Santos 2001). The impacts of globalisation on youth and education [have] a lot to do with your starting point in the world - whether you are on the advantaged or disadvantaged side of things (Niel, C. 2002: IYP submission, Australia). For the advantaged, young people live in a knowledge society and benefit from this. They have lots of choices and have a proper education (Gennaio, Guiliano 2002: IYP submission, Italy). However, the positive effects of globalisation are countered by the negative impacts of factors such as higher costs of provision, national budget misallocation, poor resource mobilisation, privatisation, international debt and economic instability
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(Watkins 2001). Trends towards privatisation and increased relationships with corporations have created a sentiment of distrust and disillusionment with the education system and fostered the idea that as in other places, education will become available only to the elite (anonymous 2002: IYP submission, The Netherlands). There are fears that young peoples lack of access to relevant and quality education will lead to greater global inequality. For example, evidence from Africa highlights that African youth cannot take advantage of the information revolution and are likely to be even more marginalised and intellectually and economically stagnant (Ogum, O. 2002: IYP submission, Republic of South Africa). There are some trends that cut across all the issues relating to youth and education. Firstly, it is essential that governments and other sectors ensure that there is adequate funding to all schools to enable education capacity and quality and to make education accessible to all. Secondly, while the processes of globalisation make education more accessible to the privileged, marginalised, disadvantaged and isolated groups are left behind. Thus, the key players in the education system must ensure it is inclusive and addresses rather than aggravates inequalities. Throughout this chapter we explore how globalisations impact on youth and education has increased inequalities yet has the potential to reduce these inequalities.

DEFINITIONS
EDUCATION: the act or process of acquiring knowledge, the training and knowledge acquired by this process, and the act or process of imparting knowledge. In this we adapt the UNESCO policy (1997) definition that a basic education for all should incorporate: i. education of all young children ii. primary schooling, or a supplementary alternative if not available/accessible iii. literacy education for youth/adults, and familiarisation with daily-life issues iv. education of general public, targeting the disadvantaged, via all available information channels. The content of such an education should include, but not be limited to, the following skills: literacy, income generation, health care, child care, family planning, food management, union education, labour laws, civil and voting rights, peace education, environmental management, HIV/AIDS and drug awareness (UNESCO 1997). PRIMARY EDUCATION: can be defined either by age or years of schooling. Often primary education refers to the education of children below the age of 11 or 12, or the equivalent of the first 4-8 years of schooling. In this chapter we have adopted the latter definition of primary education, in accordance with GCE and the World Bank, where the first eight years of education constitutes primary and basic education. SECONDARY EDUCATION: this form of education immediately follows primary education and is commonly targeted towards young people between the ages of 11 and 18 years, but is dependant on the provision of basic primary education (Krebs 1994). HIGHER EDUCATION: this form of education may include college study, university education, training for various trades or occupations, specialisation in an academic area, or other vocational training (Krebs 1994). MASS EDUCATION: is a model that involves transplanting the education of one cultural system onto another, while maintaining the original categories of knowledge. It is often standardised and commodified, with a focus on literacy and empirical knowledge at the expense of other knowledge (Gidley 2000).
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KEY PLAYERS
GOVERNMENTS: are commonly cited as having the primary responsibility for the provision of education for their citizens (Kuehn 1997). However, globalisation has had a substantial impact on the autonomy of the state. Governments commitment to education is often undermined by poor fiscal and monetary policy, budgetary obligations such as debt repayment, poor resource mobilisation and inappropriate spending priorities such as defence (Oxfam International 2002). BRETTON WOODS INSTITUTIONS (WORLD BANK, IMF AND WTO): are key players in reducing international trade barriers and the recent trend to privatise public services. Privatisation has taken responsibility for education out of the hands of the state and, in the process, has placed education out of the reach of many people. UNESCO AND OTHER UN INSTITUTIONS: are instrumental in coordinating the Jomtien and Dakar Conventions, and the subsequent development of the Education for All (EFA) goals. UN institutions monitor the progress of nations and regions towards the EFA and millennium goals. NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONS: provide funding, expertise and resources that can be used to support education and capacity building. Some non-government organisations (NGOs) establish their own educational institutions and incorporate their beliefs and agenda into the curriculum, such as in the case of missionary schools. NGOs often monitor and report on the actions of multilateral institutions and governments and play an important advocacy role, which raises the profile of education for all as a fundamental human right (see Global Campaign for Education). PRIVATE EDUCATIONAL AUTHORITIES: are playing an increasingly important role in the provision of education through the processes of globalisation and trade liberalisation. This raises issues of equity in, access to, and quality of, education (Klein 2001). UNIONS: Student unions are essential because education is largely targeted at youth and it is important that they have a sense of ownership and participation in decision-making. Teachers unions can raise the status of the profession, ensure the rights of educators are protected and play an important role in acting as the link to encourage young people into the profession. FAMILIES: Families play an important role in ensuring young people have access to education through financial and domestic support, as well as providing nonformal education.

PIC Katherine Ingram/OxfamCAA

MAIN ISSUES
The UDHR enshrines the right to an education and to a choice of the education received. Globalisations role in the fulfilment of these rights for young people raises six main issues, which are discussed below. Although there are both positive and negative impacts in relation to each issue, many of the benefits flow to the already privileged youth, while many of the burdens of globalisation are borne by the disadvantaged. This is exemplified by the World Banks (2002) illiteracy statistics, which estimated global illiteracy in 2000 at approximately 14 percent of all young people. While illiteracy in high-income nations was negligible, in low-income nations it was 24 percent. It is girls and young women who are most affected by a lack of access to education, as demonstrated by their illiteracy rate of 18 percent globally and 31 percent in lowincome nations (World Bank 2002).
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1. EDUCATIONAL CAPACITY A key responsibility of governments in ensuring young peoples right to education lies in the provision of adequate educational capacity. This is undermined by falling GDP per capita in line with population growth, particularly in low-income nations (LearningChannel.org 2002). In nations experiencing debt and shrinking public services, governments often find it difficult to maintain existing schools let alone keep pace with growing populations (FAWE 2002: IYP submission, Kenya). 2. ACCESS TO EDUCATION One of the most positive global impacts on young peoples access to education is the Dakar framework and Education for All goals. Although mainly focused on primary education, this has been effective in improving accessibility to education for young people generally, as well as setting a precedent for continued advocacy for greater access to educational infrastructure. Improvements in communication technology and education delivery have increased the potential for access by many young people previously excluded from the educational system (LearningChannel.org 2002; Dos Santos 2001). On-line learning, school-ofthe-air and other distance education schemes are examples of how young people have been provided schooling where other methods of delivery are not feasible (FAWE 2002: IYP submission, Kenya). However, the persistence of the digital divide continues to exclude many young people from an equitable education, particularly those young people who have experienced discrimination and disadvantage and who are geographically isolated (LearningChannel.org 2002). There are three main barriers that youth face in gaining access to an adequate education: i. Trade liberalisation, the global economic crisis, rising unemployment figures and user-pay fees placed on social services have constructed economic barriers to accessing education (Duang Prateep Foundation 2002: IYP submission, Thailand). ii. The concentration of resources in certain economic and political centres means that young people in developing nations, regional areas or urban slum areas, face geographical barriers to education. Services may be nonexistent, forcing many to travel long distances or even move away from their communities to gain an education (FAWE 2002: IYP submission, Kenya; Centre for Changes in Society 2002: IYP submission, Latvia). iii. The denial of the right to a basic primary education then prevents certain groups of young people from undertaking further secondary, tertiary or vocational training. 3. THE PRIVATISATION, CORPORATISATION AND COMMODIFICATION OF EDUCATION The National Education Association (2002) notes that privatisation can occur in education support services, administration and management, teaching and space, as educational resources become commodified. In the current global climate, economic liberalism and free trade are put forward as the hallmarks of efficient and effective provision of goods and services that benefit all. This ideology has formed the basis for much of the WTO, IMF and World Bank policies, and underpins the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). Despite this, it is hotly debated whether the market can ensure the best outcome for social or common goods such as health care and education.

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Advocates for privatisation claim that such a system ensures the accountability and efficiency of educational institutions, improves the quality of courses and makes such institutions more accessible (Tooley1999; Centre for Changes in Society 2002: IYP submission Latvia). It has also been noted that privatisation can play a useful role in plugging gaps in dwindling public sector budgets and reducing budgetary pressures (Oxfam International 2002). Experience has shown that the potential benefits of globalisation have not necessarily emerged. For example, in Zambia, a nation that had been experiencing improvements in literacy rates, the implementation of a partial-user pays system caused a dramatic drop in enrolments and literacy levels (Rescue Mission Zambia 2002: IYP submission, Zambia). Critics of privatisation claim it conflicts with the right to free and reasonably priced education for all, as well as threatening the integrity and independence of educational curricula. Privatisation also has the potential to further disadvantage those who already face economic barriers to education (Haatso Youth Club 2002: IYP submission, Ghana). The move towards privatisation and the commodification of resources has placed pressure on public education facilities. Public institutions are increasingly forced to accept funding, scholarships and other forms of financial support from local and multinational corporations, which many argue impacts on the independence of the curriculum (Klien 2001). This is evidenced by international organisations such as the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) who see education firstly as a tool for business and only secondly as a basis for personal and social development (Kuehn 1997). 4. ABILITY TO ATTEND EDUCATIONAL COURSES Even when it appears that young people have access to education, many are denied their right to study. With poverty and economic crises, young people may be forced to forego school in order to work and earn a living (Duang Prateep Foundation 2002: IYP submission, Thailand). Violence is another major factor that affects young peoples ability to complete an education (Minani, Etienne 2002: IYP submission, Burundi). Poverty, HIV/AIDS, political upheavals, war, cultural practices and sexual violence can prevent the attendance of girls and young women in particular (FAWE 2002: IYP submission, Kenya). Gay and lesbian youth face similar forms of discrimination and violence (HRW 1999; 2000). The right to non-discrimination in education is an important issue in ensuring all young people have equal access to education. Poor educational facilities and irrelevant curricula are other factors that have resulted in non-attendance among young people. In Japan, the emergence of mass education, which fails to meet the special needs of many students, has seen the development of Free Schools in the hope of reducing truancy and retaining young people in the school system for longer periods (Kakuchi n.d). In Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Armenia and Georgia, infrastructure deterioration since the privatisation of the education system, particularly the lack of heating, has been a major reason for non-attendance (Harper etal 2000). 5. QUALITY OF EDUCATION Globalisation and the internationalisation of education provide the potential for opportunities for student development and higher universal educational standards (Vasyl 2002: IYP submission, Ukraine). Globalisation has improved the quality of education in many universities, as the knowledge and research of other cultures and nations are added to syllabuses and integrated into conventional knowledge (Kurte 2002: IYP submission, Latvia).
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Privatisation has failed to provide the promised improvements in the quality of education (FAWE 2002: IYP submission, Kenya; Centre For Changes in Society 2002: IYP submission, Latvia). Reduced state educational budgets, due either to the lower priority placed on the value of education or less budgetary control as a result of international debt, mean that the quality of the public education system in many nations is undermined by ill-trained teachers and a lack of resources (Oxfam International 2002). This illustrates one of the main quality issues in education for youth - that lowering costs and barriers to education can potentially compromise quality unless the financial shortfall is picked up by the public budget (Watt & Rowden 2002; Rachel Marcus 2002: IYP submission). Once again it is marginalised and minority groups that experience the negative effects of globalisation - inferior education and fewer resources (HRW 1999) - as those with the resources can attend better quality schools, universities and colleges. 6. CURRICULUM The increasing commodification of education has seen the implementation of standardised curricula and mass educational models supplanting traditional educations (Gidley 2000; Wathankpheap 2002: IYP submission, Cambodia). Such models have incorporated global economic, cultural and educational trends. They have often eroded traditional learning practices and promoted values and knowledge at odds with young peoples own communities (Duang Prateep Foundation 2002: IYP submission, Thailand). Simple aspects of curricula, such as the language used, can effectively exclude whole groups of young people from benefiting from education (Centre for Changes in Society 2002: IYP submission, Latvia; HRW 1999). As curricula are being increasingly geared towards global economic needs, students are forced to specialise in the hope of gaining employment (Haatso Youth Club 2002: IYP submission, RSA). This has lead to a focus on solely literacy, narrowing the definition of human intelligence and neglecting other forms of intelligence such as social, oral and emotional knowledge (Gidley 2000). Thus globalisations impact on youth and educational curricula can effectively marginalise certain groups from the educational system, leading to high drop-out rates or poor overall performance in conventional institutions (HRW 1999; 2000: Kakuchi n.d). The globalisation of education has clearly impacted on young peoples identity, development and employability. It is increasingly apparent that an inclusive, nondiscriminatory curriculum and adequate and appropriate resources and facilities are essential for achieving equitable access to education.

KEY RIGHTS AFFECTED

Education is a fundamental human right set out in the UDHR and reinforced in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the World Declaration on Education for All, the Conference on Population and Development and the Copenhagen Social Summit. Education is considered a cornerstone in the achievement of the human rights framework and is intimately linked to the fulfillment of other key rights, such as the right to livelihood and work, self-determination and the right to freedom of thought (UNESCO 2002). However, its provision is often conditional on the fulfillment of other rights, such as the right to basic social services and non-discrimination. In the UDHR Article 26.1, the right to education is clearly stated as a basic human right
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which governments are legally obliged to provide without distinction of any kind: Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. Although levels higher than primary education are not required to be free, it is still recommended that both the financial and economic costs of education be low enough to be accessible to all.
STUDENTS CONDUCT REGULAR WATER MONITORING OF THE TRANG RIVER IN THAILAND > PIC Dean Golja/OxfamCAA.

The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Article 13.2, sets out the requirements for the fulfillment of the right to education: a. Primary education shall be compulsory and available free to all; b. Secondary education in its different forms, including technical and vocational secondary education, shall be made generally available and accessible to all by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education; c. Higher education shall be made equally accessible to all, on the basis of capacity, by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education; d. Fundamental education shall be encouraged or intensified as far as possible for those persons who have not received or completed the whole period of their primary education; e. The development of a system of schools at all levels shall be actively pursued, an adequate fellowship system shall be established, and the material conditions of teaching staff shall be continuously improved. These rights are also related to rights of non-discrimination. Article 2 of the UDHR, states Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, all are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination (Article 7). As global cultures and economies are becoming increasingly integrated, young people who are unable to participate in the mainstream may also experience non-inclusive, discriminatory educational policies. The right to freely participate in society is enabled by education, especially literacy. The International Adult Literacy Survey has found that countries with higher literacy scores show higher levels of inclusive participation, higher levels of womens political participation, and better health statistics. The wider effect of education adds urgency to policy and action changes required by key players to correct the human right denials. In order to enable appropriate cultural participation, education systems must be sensitive to the diversity of students cultural backgrounds. The UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity states that all persons should be entitled to quality education and training that fully respect their cultural identity (Article 5). In particular, Indigenous young people have a right to be educated in the traditions and customs of their peoples. This is articulated in Article 15.4 of the Draft UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples: Indigenous children have the right to all levels of education of the State. All Indigenous peoples also have this right and the right to establish and control their educational systems and institutions providing education in their own languages, in a manner appropriate to their cultural methods of teaching and learning.

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Other ethnic, religious or linguistic minority groups similarly have a right to access their culture and language, as stated in the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (see Article 27). For young people belonging to minority groups, the fulfillment of this right implies the availability of appropriate methods of cultural transmission, of which the formal education system is a major component. This principle is further affirmed in Article 5 of the Universal Declaration of Cultural Rights, all persons should be entitled to quality education and training that fully respect their cultural identity. Finally, the UDHR promotes education as a key component for understanding and respecting human rights within and between nations: Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms (Article 26.2).

WOMENS LITERACY CLASS, BANGLADESH > PIC Bruce Eady/OxfamCAA

POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
The two main policy areas that need to be addressed are the overcoming of barriers to education by certain groups and the funding of education as a public service. UNESCO (1997) suggests that a minimum of two years (500 hours) of continuous training is necessary to enable a person to become literate. IYP believes that this time frame should be taken into account when considering access, resources and funding, to ensure a sufficient, quality learning period. GOVERNMENTS. We urge governments to: 1.1 promote education as a social good, rather than a commodity, through legislative, cultural and budgetary means 1.2 spend a minimum of 7 percent of national GDP on education as recommended by African governments at Network of Ministers of Education of the African Member States (MINEDAF) I-VII and Johannesburg summits (GCE 2002). Watkins (2001) further recommends that in countries where a substantial proportion of the population of primary school age children are out of school and dropout rates are high, 6070 percent of the education budget should be allocated to primary education. 1.3 balance local and global issues relating to education, encouraging young peoples successful participation, contribution and achievement within their own society alongside globally-focused education. 1.4 prioritise high quality public education over privatisation policies, respecting the universal availability of education as a fundamental human right through legislative, policy and budgetary means. 1.5 exercise a degree of control over private schools to maximise their accountability in providing equitable educational opportunities. 1.6 limit subsidies to private schools. 1.7 abolish school fees and implement a roll back system to achieve this. The immediate cessation of fees is not recommended as this may increase the demand for education while sharply reducing revenue, potentially threatening educational quality, or encouraging informal fees/corruption (Watt & Rowden 2002). 1.8 remove government taxes on educational equipment and texts (Duang Prateep Foundation 2002: IYP submission, Thailand).
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1.9 integrate and formally recognise both Indigenous and conventional knowledge and skills in school curricula, including the inclusion of Indigenous languages within the mainstream educational system. 1.10 ensure educational infrastructure and technologies are both accessible and pertinent to people in marginalised communities and areas. A good example of this is Zimbabwes mobile internet classroom, known as Big Blue. Over 60 percent of school children in marginal areas in Zimbabwe have no access to educational resources and modern technology, making them heavily disadvantaged compared to their urban counterparts. Big Blue consists of 11 networked computers in a truck, powered by an on-board diesel generator that attempts to (at least partially) address this problem (Youth Employment Summit Campaign 2002). 1.11 develop national programs that target the access of disadvantaged groups to education including but not be limited to: women, rural poor, slum dwellers, the homeless, ethnic minorities, the handicapped, famine-stricken and migrant labour forces (UNESCO 1997). 1.12 develop infrastructure that facilitates after-hours education programs for workers. 1.13 maximise the support of HIV/AIDS-affected families and provide resources and sponsorship to the youth in these families to enable them to continue schooling. 1.14 structure learning environments, in situations where formal education is not possible, to promote education taught by literate adults or youth. These may include formal literacy classes, sport, night classes or other forms of education (UNESCO 1997). Etienne David Minani (2002: IYP submission, Burundi) also suggests outreach/long-distance programs to reach young people who cannot go to school for fear of political reprisal. The Barefoot College in India provides one example of the innovative ways education can be provided and delivered in adverse circumstances: The skills taught at the Barefoot College are aimed at providing the basic services villagers need: safe drinking water, sanitation, education, and health care. The College is a non-formal training institute where young men and women are taught practical skills by village teachers, many of whom have no formal qualifications. Teaching and learning are based on the day-to-day needs of villagers (Youth Employment Summit Campaign 2002). 1.15 ensure that children in detention are provided with the opportunity to an education of an equal standard to their peers; this includes children detained for criminal or political reasons, and detained non-citizen children such as asylum seekers (World Report 2002). 1.16 encourage the education of girls, through incentives such as bursaries, free school meals, accelerated withdrawal of fees, improved sanitation and security conditions, the elimination of gender bias in curricula and textbook design, and increased commitment to the recruitment of female teachers (Watkins 2001). 1.17 target parents/communities in the promotion of education. 1.18 encourage and expose students to alternative schooling options, and provide the opportunities to play an active role in their own education (Mould, David 2002: IYP submission, Australia). 1.19 balance offshore higher education and training of youth with local and national program and institutions, in an effort to facilitate nation building, ensure the relevance of skills and prevent brain drain.

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1.20 decentralise new educational sites in more marginal areas, to make them more accessible and encourage the development of new infrastructure in these regions. MULTILATERAL INSTITUTIONS. We believe that multilateral institutions should: 1.21 work to mobilise an international commitment for raising US$5 billion per annum in line with the Global Campaign for Education (GCE), or half of the costs of financing universal primary education, as part of the global initiative for education (GCE, private correspondence, 2003). 1.22 work to finalise the financial framework of Education For All (EFA) and make a concerted effort to release the initial pledged funds. 1.23 push to re-evaluate the measurement of EFA goals, which currently focus on total provision of education through statistics relating to factors such as enrolment. Quantity of provision is not a suitable measure of achievement at the expense of quality of education. GCE (private correspondence, 2003) calls for progress of universal primary education and gender equity targets to be measured by the percentage of children completing, rather than entering, primary school. 1.24 respond to any lack of success in funding EFA and co-ordinate donor consortiums to oversee a financing framework, which would fill financing gaps in specific countries (Buston 2002). 1.25 swiftly enact debt relief measures for developing countries to free up funds to be diverted to education. 1.26 specifically for the World Trade Organisation, reform the General Agreement on Trade in Services to protect countries from having to open up public services such as education. CORPORATIONS. It is recommended that corporations involved in the delivery of education: 1.27 review the effectiveness of tied grants to universities. It is important that education be related to future employment but it must not be driven by the employment sector. 1.28 make a commitment to both the ethical provision and accessibility of education and also complete transparency. It is essential that they are fully accountable for their policies and that ethical behaviour is practiced in promoting accessible education for all. NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONS. We recommend NGOs: 1.29 advocate education as a social good rather than a commodity. 1.30 ensure that a minimum of 8 percent of the aid budgets of each donor be directed towards basic education (Watkins 2001). There should be an increased emphasis on capacity building and support for the development of national education sector strategies. 1.31 work with governments to develop programs targeting disadvantaged groups and developing appropriate education systems for these. 1.32 work with governments to educate parents/communities about the importance of education for all young people 1.33 work with communities to identify and minimise the conflict between traditional and formal educational systems (FAWE 2002: IYP submission, Kenya).
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INDIVIDUALS. We believe that individuals: 1.34 have a responsibility to advocate for swifter and more complete debt relief for all developing countries, so that funds can be diverted towards education (Oxfam Community Aid Abroad 2002). 1.35 living in areas where it is difficult to deliver a formal education to youth should endeavour to create and support alternative learning opportunities for young people in those areas and to work with NGOs and governments to further this.

CASE STUDY: CREATION IS WORTHWHILE!

Alternative learning systems, such as those enabled by the Fundacion Crear Vale la Pena (Creation is Worthwhile), work to address various problems in delivering education. The Youth Employment Summit Campaign (2002) noted that up to 45 percent of Argentinas children and youth live in poverty, facing an uphill battle against social exclusion and discrimination. Crear Vale la Pena bases its programatic philosophy on the idea that education can be a powerful transformative tool in the lives of young people living in poverty. The Arts Education project works with artistic out of school, unemployed youth to give them the space and tools to realise their creative potential and ambitions, while the Stimulation and Sustainability in Formal Education project provides daily support for young people at risk of dropping out of to the formal school system. A professional training program trains neighbourhood youth as teachers, volunteers and practitioners for the Arts Education Project and in the production of creative products (actual objects or services such as musical concerts) for micro-enterprises, which in turn function as resources for the programs.

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REFERENCES
Buston, O. (2002) EFA Action Plan Briefing for Development and Finance Ministers, Oxfam, London. Dos Santos, M. P. (2001) Special Education, Inclusion and Globalisation: a few considerations inspired in the Brazilian case, Disability and Society, Carfax Publishing, Vol 16, No. 2. Gidley, J (2000) Education for All or Education for Wisdom?, in Unfolding Learning Societies: Challenges and Opportunities, Manish Jain and Shilpa Jain (ed.), Learning Development Institute. Global Campaign for Education - (2002a) A New MINEDAF for a New Africa. - (2002b) Broken Promises: Why donors must deliver on the EFA Action Plan. Global Campaign for Education Briefing Paper (2003), www.oxfam.org/eng/pdfs/pp020923_broken_promises.pdf, accessed April 2003. Harper, C., Marcus, R., McCord, A. and Wilkinson, J. (2000) Expenditure Cuts and User Charges in Education and Health Services in Transition Countries, Save the Children, UK. Human Rights Watch - (2002) World Report 2002,Human Rights Watch. www.hrw.org/wr2k2/children.html, accessed April 2003. - (1999) Promises Broken: An assessment of childrens rights on the 10th Anniversary of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, Human Rights Watch, www.hrw.org/campaigns/crp/promises/education.html, accessed April 2003. Kakuchi, S (n.d) Alternative Schools Offer Hope for Drop Outs in Japan, InterPress Service, www2.unesco.org/wef/en-news/japan.shtm, accessed April 2003. Klein, N (2001) No Logo, Flamingo, London. Krebs, W. A. (1994) Australian English Dictionary, HarperCollins Publishers, Australia. Kuehn, L. (1997) A Commentary on the Concept Paper for the APEC Human Resources Ministerial Meeting, Corpwatch, www.corpwatch.org/issues/PII.jsp?topicid=115, accessed April 2003. LearningChannel.org (2002) LearningChannel.org Guide to Education, oneworld.net, www.learningchannel.org/guide/front.shtml, accessed 18 November 2002. National Education Association (2002) Privatization, www.nea.org/privatization/, accessed April 2003. NLS Information Resources, Literacy and Democracy: the Key to Participation, www.nald.ca/nls/inpub, accessed 1 February 2003. Oxfam Community Aid Abroad and International Youth Parliament (2002) The Youth Guide to Globalisation, Brett Solomon and Louise Scuderi, (ed), OCAA, Sydney. Oxfam International (2002) Education Now! Report, Oxfam, London. Tooley, J (1999) If The Current Education System Had Not Been Invented, Would We Seek To Invent It? The Virtues Of The Private Sector In Education., in The Source. UNESCO - (1997) 50 Years for Education, UNESCO, France. (2002) Education For All - Is the World on Track?: EFA Global Monitoring Report 2002, UNESCO Publishing. UNICEF (2002) Education for Poverty Eradication: An approach to Human Resource Development, ECOSOC High Level Segment 2002 Ministerial Roundtable Breakfast, www.un.org/esa/coordination/ecosoc/hl2002/UNICEF.pdf, accessed April 2003. Watkins, K. (2001) The Oxfam Education Report, Oxfam, Great Britain. Watt, P & Rowden, R. (2002) User Fees: the Right to Education and Health Denied, Coalition for Health and Education Rights (CHER). World Bank (2002) World Bank Development Indicators, www.worldbank.org/data/onlinedatabases/onlinedatabases.html, accessed April 2003. Youth Employment Summit Campaign (2002) Global Knowledge Resource, Effective Practices, www.youthemploymentsummit.org/gkr/lessons.html, accessed 1 February 2003.

1 Kirsten and Leah would like to thank Anne Jellema (GCE) for her excellent feedback and advice; Brett Solomon and Ben Reid for getting us involved; James Arvanitakis and his editing team.

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2 See: www.campaignforeducation.org.