Power Electronics

Dimmer for brightness control of lighting systems

Lecturer: Student: Martikel No:

Prof. Dr. J. Mller Celalettin Yce 281484

Fh Schmalkalden 2009

Controlling Light Intensity

To control the intensity of light you need to control the flow of electricity that causes the light bulb filament to glow. You can do that in one of two ways: Change the amount of voltage that reaches the lamp or bulb Control the amount of time that electric current flows to the lamp

The first method - controlling voltage - was used by early dimmers. These devices were called rheostats and autotransformers. Both of these converted the unwanted electricity into heat. They were highly inefficient.
Advantages of Lighting Level Control

Controllable lighting brightness permits Relaxed lighting in the evening Bright lighting when its needed for a task Improved safety by allowing low light levels to be used at night; particularly advantageous if small children are about. Better comfort and better visibility. Can often reduce energy use, but doesn't always

Dimmer

Figure 1- Some of Dimmer switches

Below are various definitions for a dimmer:

A remote device which reduces the light output of a stage lighting fixture by reducing the total wattage it receives, commonly grouped in banks, panels or packs. Present technology usually has a dimmer per circuit, as opposed to systems where a limited number of highwattage dimmers are patched to a larger quantity of circuits.

In lighting, the electrical device that regulates the current passing through the bulb filaments and, thereby, the amount of light emitted from the lighting instruments. Electronic controls that allow stage lighting to fade up or down slowly, as opposed to being on or off only. A control that regulates light levels. Device which provides adjustable voltage to a lighting fixture to control light output. Can also be a term to refer to a mechanical device, such as a shutter, that controls output. An instrument used to change the voltage of lights on the set, regulating in this way their intensity. Note: Not recommended for colour cinematography, as the colour temperature of the lights will also change. Controls the brightness of a particular fixture. A dimmer pack is a device used to control a fixture from a remote control panel. Dimming may also be a feature within an intelligent light or a specific control device. A device that controls levels of light by varying the electric current. A device in the electrical circuit used for varying the brightness of lamps in a lighting installation. Dimming controls are ideal for any number of rooms because they allow you to change design the lighting to suit each mood and activity. An electronic device designed to regulate light output of incandescent and halogen lamps; and fluorescent lamps in fixtures equipped with special dimming ballasts. To change the brightness of the display e.g. during night driving

What is Dimmer?
A Dimmer is an electronic control that reduces the power flowing through the lamps it controls, which in turn causes a continuously variable change in brightness to be achieved. The reduction in brightness is not matched in proportion with a reduction in energy consumption; since a good proportion of the energy requirement for a filament lamp is just getting it hot enough to begin to glow. Measurement of a halogen lamp showed 60% rated power consumption at nearly 8% light output. Dimmers don't require any overlap in lighting areas to achieve their effect. Dimmers used to vary the brightness of a light. By decreasing or increasing the RMS (root mean square) voltage and hence the mean power to the lamp it is possible to vary the intensity of the light output. Although variable voltage devices are used for various purposes, the term dimmer is generally reserved for those intended to control lighting.

Figure 2 - Common dual dimmer

Dimmers range in size from small units the size of a normal light switch used for domestic lighting to high power units used in large theatre or architectural lighting installations. Small domestic dimmers are generally directly controlled, although remote control systems (such as X10) are available. Modern professional dimmers are generally controlled by a digital control system like DMX. In the professional lighting industry changes in intensity are called fades and can be fades up or fades down. Dimmers with direct manual control had a limit on the speed they could be varied at but this issue is pretty much gone with modern digital units (although very fast changes in brightness may still be avoided for other reasons like lamp life). Modern dimmers are built from silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCR) instead of potentiometers or variable resistors because they have higher efficiency. A variable resistor would dissipate power by heat (efficiency as low as 0.5). By switching on and off, theoretically a silicon-controlled rectifier dimmer does not heat up (efficiency close to 1.0).

History of the earliest recorded dimmers

Figure 3- The first instant dimmer control, 1966

Light dimming has been possible for many decades by using adjustable power resistors and adjustable transformers. Those methods have been used in movie theatres, stages and other public places. The problem of those light controlling methods have been that they are big, expensive, have poor efficiency and they are hard to control from remote location. The power electronics have proceeded quickly since 1960. Between 1960-1970 thyristors and triacs came to market. Using those components it was quite easy to make small and inexpensive light dimmers which have good efficiency. Electronics controlling also made possible to make them easily controllable from remote location. These types of electronic light dimmers became available after 1970 and are nowadays used in very many locations like homes, restaurants, conference rooms and in stage lighting. One of the earliest recorded dimmers is Granville Woods's "Safety Dimmer", published in 1890; dimmers before that were liable to cause fires. Early dimmers were directly controlled through the manual manipulation of large dimmer panels, but this meant that all power had to come through the lighting control location, which could be inconvenient and potentially dangerous, especially with systems that had a large number of channels, high power lights or both (such as a stage disco or other similar venues). When thyristor dimmers came into use, analog remote control systems (often 0-10V lighting control systems) became feasible. The wire for the control systems was much smaller (with low current and lower danger) than the heavy power cables of previous lighting systems. Each dimmer had its own control wires which meant a huge number of wires leaving the lighting control location and running to each individual dimmer. Modern systems use a digital control protocol such as DMX512 to control a large number of dimmers (and other stage equipment) through a single cable. In 1961 Joel Spira, founder of Lutron Electronics, invented the first solid state dimmer, which switches the current on and off 120 times per second, saving energy and allowing the dimmer to be installed in a standard electrical wallbox.

Dimmer Types
Early examples of a dimmer include salt water dimmer. In salt water dimmer, there were two metal contacts in a glass beaker. One contact was on the bottom, while the other was able to move up and down. The closer the contacts to each other, the higher the level of the light. Using salt-water dimmers was a tedious and precarious task that included filling the beakers with water, checking the concentration of the salt, and raising or lowering the top contact. Salt-water dimmers were not efficient due to the evaporation of water and the corrosion of the many metal pieces. These dimmers were colloquially known as "pis pots", for obvious reasons.

Figure 4 Salt water dimmer

Dimmers were also often based on rheostats. These were inefficient; when set to the middle brightness levels, they could dissipate as heat a significant portion of the power rating of the load (up to 25% for resistive loads, more for temperature dependent loads like lamps) so they were physically large and required plenty of cooling air. Also, because their dimming effect depended a great deal on the total load applied to each rheostat, the load needed to be matched fairly carefully to the power rating of the rheostat. Finally, as they relied on mechanical control they were slow and it was difficult to change many channels at a time. Variable autotransformers (often referred to as variacs) were then introduced. While they were still nearly as large as rheostat dimmers, they were highly efficient devices and their dimming effect was independent of the load applied so it was far easier to design the lighting that would be attached to each autotransformer channel. Remote control of the dimmers was still impractical, although some dimmers (typically, for "house light" use) were equipped with motor drives that could slowly and steadily reduce or increase the brightness of the attached lamps. Whilst variacs have fallen out of use for lighting they are still used in other applications such as under/over voltage testing of equipment due to the fact they deliver a reasonably pure sine wave output and produce no radio frequency noise. A Strand CD80 thyristor dimmer rack Thyristor (and briefly, thyratron) dimmers were introduced to solve some of these problems. Because they use switching techniques instead of potential division there is almost no wasted power, dimming can be almost instantaneous and is easily controlled by remote electronics. Triacs are used instead of SCR (siliconcontrolled rectifier or semiconductor-controlled rectifier) thyristors in lower cost designs, but do not have the surge handling capacity of back-to-back SCR's, and are only suitable for loads less than about 20 Amps. The switches generate some heat during switching, and can cause interference. Large inductors are used as part of the circuitry to suppress this

interference. When the dimmer is at 50% power the switches are switching their highest voltage (>300 V in Europe) and the sudden surge of power causes the coils on the inductor to move, creating buzzing sound associated with some types of dimmer; this same effect can be heard in the filaments of the incandescent lamps as "singing". The suppression circuitry adds a lot of weight to the dimmer, and is often insufficient to prevent buzzing to be heard on audio systems that share the mains supply with the lighting loads. This development also made it possible to make dimmers small enough to be used in place of normal domestic light switches. European dimmers must comply with relevant EMC legislation requirements; this involves suppressing the emissions.

What is a Thyristor, SCR?

Thyristors or silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR) as they are sometimes known may appear to be unusual electronics components in many ways, but they are particularly useful for controlling power circuits. As such these electronics components are often used for applications such as light dimmers, and there may be thyristor circuits used in many power supply applications. Thyristors are simple to use and cheap to buy and often thyristor circuits are easy to build and use. All these reasons make thyristors ideal components to consider for many applications. The idea for the thyristor is not new. The idea for the device was first put forward in 1950 by William Shockley, one of the inventors of the transistor. Although some later investigation of the device was undertaken by others a couple of years later, it was not until the early 1960s when they became available. After the introduction of the thyristor, they soon became popular for power supply circuits. The thyristor may be considered a rather an unusual form of electronics component because it consists of four layers of differently doped silicon rather than the three layers of the conventional bipolar transistors. Whereas conventional transistors may have a p-n-p or n-p-n structure with the electrodes named collector, base and emitter, the thyristor has a p-n-p-n structure with the outer layers with their electrodes referred to as the anode (n-type) and the cathode (p-type). The control terminal of the SCR is named the gate and it is connected to the p-type layer that adjoins the cathode layer.

Figure 5 - Structure of a thyristor or silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)

Thyristors are usually manufactured from silicon, although, in theory other types of semiconductor could be used. The first reason for using silicon for thyistors is that silicon is the ideal choice because of its overall properties. It is able to handle the voltage and currents required for high power applications. Additionally it has good thermal properties. The second major reason is that silicon technology is well established and it is widely used for a variety of semiconductor electronics components. As a result it is very cheap and easy for semiconductor manufacturers to use.
How does a thyristor work?

The way in which a thyristor operates is different to other devices. Normally no current flows across the device. However if a supply is connected across the device, and a small amount of current is injected into the gate, then the device will "fire" and conduct. It will remain in the conducting state until the supply is removed. To see how the thyristor operates, it is worth looking at a thyristor equivalent circuit. For the sake of an explanation, the thyristor circuit can be considered as two back to back transistors. The first transistor with its emitter connected to the cathode of the thyristor is an n-p-n device, whereas a second transistor with its emitter connected to the anode of the thyristor, SCR is a p-n-p variety. The gate is connected to the base of the n-p-n transistor as shown below.

Figure 6- Thyristor equivalent circuit

When a voltage is applied across a thyristor no current flows because neither transistor is conducting. As a result there is no complete path across the device. If a small current is passed through the gate electrode, this will turn "on" the transistor TR2. When this occurs it will cause the collector of TR2 to fall towards the voltage on the emitter, i.e. the cathode of the whole device. When this occurs it will cause current to flow through the base of TR1 and turn this transistor "on". Again this will now try to pull the voltage

on the collector of TR1 towards its emitter voltage. This will cause current to flow in the emitter of TR2, causing its "on" state to be maintained. In this way it only requires a small trigger pulse on the gate to turn the thyristor on. Once switched on, the thyristor can only be turned off by removing the supply voltage. It can be seen that current will only flow in one direction through the thyristor. If a reverse voltage is applied, then no current will flow, even if some gate current is applied. In this way for thyristor circuits used for AC, operation only occurs over one half of the AC waveform. For the other half of the cycle the device remains inoperative and no current can flow.
Thyristor symbol

The thyristor symbol is easy to recognise. Like the circuit symbols for most electronic components, the symbols may vary slightly dependent upon who has generated them, but in general it is as shown below. The thyristor symbol effectively shows a diode rectifier symbol with a control gate.

Figure 7- Thyristor symbol used in circuit diagrams

Thyristor circuit

There are many thyristor circuits that are in common use. They can be sued in many applications from AC control as in the case of motor or light dimmers to other circuits including power supply crowbar circuits. The circuit below shows a power supply crowbar circuit. It can be used to protect circuitry within the main equipment from the effects of the failure of the series regulator in a power supply. If the series regulator fails short circuit, then high voltages can be paled on the power rail inside the equipment and this could result in serious damage to the overall equipment.

Figure 8 - Thyristor over voltage crowbar circuit

The SCR over voltage crowbar or protection circuit is connected between the output of the power supply and ground. The zener diode voltage is chosen to be slightly above that of the output rail. Typically a 5 volt rail may run with a 6.2 volt zener diode. When the zener diode voltage is reached, current will flow through the zener and trigger the silicon controlled rectifier or thyristor. This will then provide a short circuit to ground, thereby protecting the circuitry that is being supplied form any damage. Thyristors are widely used in many areas of analogue electronics. Thyristor circuits can be sued for many power applications as these electronics components are above to switch high currents very easily. In addition to this these electronics components are very cheap and they are widely available. For this reason we can use it in dimming.

Figure 9- Comparison of SCR (Thyristor) and TRIAC symbols

Figure 10 - Comparison of SCR and TRIAC waveforms

What is Triac?
Triacs are widely used in AC power control applications. They are able to switch high voltages and high levels of current, and over both parts of an AC waveform. This makes triac circuits ideal for use in a variety of applications where power switching is needed. One particular use of triac circuits is in light dimmers for domestic lighting, and they are also used in many other power control situations including motor control. The triac is a development of the thyristor. While the thyristor can only control current over one half of the cycle, the triac controls it over two halves of an AC waveform. As such the triac can be considered as a pair of parallel but opposite thyristors with the two gates connected together and the anode of one device connected to the cathode of the other.
Triac symbol

The basic triac symbol used on circuit diagram indicates its bi-directional properties. The triac symbol can be seen to be a couple of thyristor symbols in opposite senses merged together.

Figure 11 - Triac symbol for use in circuit diagrams

Like a thyristor, a triac has three terminals. However the names of these are a little more difficult to assign, because the main current carrying terminals are connected to what is effectively a cathode of one thyristor, and the anode of another within the overall device. There is a gate which acts as a trigger to turn the device on. In addition to this the other terminals are both called Anodes, or Main Terminals These is usually designated Anode 1 and Anode 2 or Main Terminal 1 and Main Terminal 2 (MT1 and MT2). When using triacs it is both MT1 and MT2 have very similar properties.
How does a triac work?

Before looking at how a triac works, it helps to have an understanding of how a thyristor works. In this way the basic concepts can be grasped for the simpler device and then applied to a triac which is more complicated. The operation of the thyristor is covered in the article. For the operation of the triac, it can be imagined from the circuit symbol that the triac consists of two thyristors in parallel but around different ways. The operation of the triac can be looked on in this fashion, although the actual operation at the semiconductor level is rather more complicated.

Figure 12 -Equivalent circuit of a triac

Using triacs

There are a number of points to note when using triacs. Although these devices operate very well, to get the best performance out of them it is necessary to understand a few hints on tips on using triacs. It is found that because of their internal construction and the slight differences between the two halves, triacs do not fire symmetrically. This results in harmonics being generated: the less symmetrical the triac fires, the greater the level of harmonics that are produced. It is not normally desirable to have high levels of harmonics in a power system and as a result triacs are not favoured for high power systems. Instead for these systems two thyristors may be used as it is easier to control their firing.

To help in overcoming the problem non-symmetrical firing ad the resulting harmonics, a device known as a diac (diode AC switch) is often placed in series with the gate of the triac. The inclusion of this device helps make the switching more even for both halves of the cycle. This results from the fact that the diac switching characteristic is far more even than that of the triac. Since the diac prevents any gate current flowing until the trigger voltage has reached a certain voltage in either direction, this makes the firing point of the triac more even in both directions.

How modern light dimmers work?

Figure 13 How a dimmer switch works

A light dimmer works by essentially chopping parts out of the AC voltage. This allows only parts of the waveform to pass to the lamp. The brightness of the lamp is determined by the power transferred to it, so the more the waveform is chopped, the more it dims. Mains power is comprised of an alternating current that flows in one direction and then in the other, along the cable, at the rate of 50 or 60 cycles per second (known as Hertz). The value 50 or 60Hz is dependent on the countries power system. The current alternates back and forth changing direction at the zero point. If we were to look at this waveform it would appear as a stretched S shape on its side ~. Draw a line through the middle and this is what is called the zero crossing point. At this instant in time no current is flowing in either direction. This is the point at which a dimmer is electronically synchronized to turn the power ON or OFF. By chopping the waveform at the zero-crossing point, smooth dimming can be achieved without the lamp flickering. This turning on and off of the power device occurs every time the mains crossing point is reached (half phase), 100 or 120 times per second. Typically light dimmers are manufactured using a Triac or Thyristor as the power control device. These electronic parts are semiconductors not dissimilar to transistors. A Thyristor is a Uni-directional device and hence, because AC power flows in both directions, two are needed. A triac is a bidirectional device and therefore only one is needed. An electronic circuit determines the point in time at which they turn ON (conduct). The ON state continues until the next zero-crossing point, at which point the device turns itself OFF. The electronic circuit then provides a delay, which equates to the dimness of the lamp, before turning the control device back on. The slight capacitance of the load filters the chopped waveform resulting in a smooth light output. Some controllers use a microprocessor control with the above timing function being handled by an analogue circuit. More sophisticated systems, called digital dimmers, operate the switching direct from microprocessor. This has the advantage of greater reliability, quieter operation lower cost and smaller controls. Below is a typical picture of the mains sine wave, and a phase-controlled waveform.

Figure 14 -Mains power sine wave

Figure 15 - Chopped AC waveform

Phase Control in Dimming

Figure 16 Phase control diagram

The fundamentals behind phase control of ac power. The turn on of a triac gets delayed after each ac half power cycle. The longer the delay, the lower the load current. Simple phase control is useful for lamps, heaters, and ac-dc motors. But not for fluorescents or induction Motors. Phase control, also called phase cutting, is a method of pulse width modulation (PWM) for power limiting, applied to AC voltages. It works by modulating a thyristor, SCR, triac, thyratron, or other such gated diodelike devices into and out of conduction at a predetermined phase of the applied waveform.

Figure 17- Pulse width modulation

Phase control (phase fired control) is often used to control the amount of voltage, current or power that a power supply feeds to its load. It does this in much the same way that a pulse width modulated (PWM) supply would pulse on and off to create an average value at its output. If the supply has a DC output, its time base is of no importance in deciding when to pulse the supply on or off, as the value that will be pulsed on and off is continuous. Phase control differs from PWM in that it addresses supplies that output a modulated waveform, such as the sinusoidal AC waveform that the national grid outputs. Here, it becomes important for the supply to pulse on and off at the correct position in the modulation cycle for a known value to be achieved; for example, the controller could turn on at the peak of a waveform or at its base if the cycle's time base were not taken into consideration. Phase fired controllers take their name from that fact that they trigger a pulse of output at a certain phase of the input's modulation cycle. In essence, a PFC is a PWM controller that can synchronise itself with the modulation present at the input.

Most phase fired controllers use thyristors or other solid state switching devices as their control elements. Thyristor based controllers may utilize Gate Turn off (GTO) thyristors, allowing the controller to not only decide when to pulse the output on but also when to turn it off, rather than having to wait for the waveform to pass within the element's Zero Cross Point.

Figure 18 - SCR/triac Connections for various Methods of phase control

The most widely used form of dimming is phase control. Phase control dimming uses a switching device to chop the supply such that only part of each half cycle of the AC mains supply is applied to the load. For the remaining part the switch is open and no power is applied to the load. The amount of power to the load is therefore determined by the phase angle of the AC supply at which the switching occurs and thereby altering the ratio of off to on time from always open, no power, to allows closed, full power. The switching is synchronised to each half cycle to minimise the visual impact of momentarily turning the lamp off. In principle the same average power to the lamp could be achieved by turning off several successive cycles, but this would be easily seen and subjectively annoying. For technical reasons the synchronisation must also be symmetrical with respect to each half cycle, and this is done by using the point at which the AC supply reverses polarity, known as the zero (voltage) crossing point, as the reference to which the switching (or chopping) is synchronised. We know that the TRIAC will only turn AC on, but will not turn off until there is no current flow through the device. Well, as luck would have it, AC current sources have a zero crossing two times every cycle, in which there

is no current flowing. America that's 120 times a second, in Europe it's 100 times a second. So we know that the TRIAC will turn off 120 or 100 times a second, and that we have only the power to turn the TRIAC on. If we want less power to be delivered, then we wait until a few ms after each zero crossing, and turn the triac on. This produces this waveform:

Figure 19

If we want to deliver only half the power, we 'fire' the triac between each zero-crossing:

Figure 20

By firing the TRIAC just before each zero crossing, we can see the following:

Figure 21

Figure 22- Sine Wave Showing Principles of Phase Control

This is usually used for light dimming because lights are resistive loads, and will not flicker even if they only get voltage spikes as in the last waveform. This method does not work well for inductive loads because they usually require a 'nicer' sine wave than what is shown here, and there may be some inductive kickback current which will not allow the triac to turn off.

Reverse phase control

Reverse phase control is a new way to do light dimming. The idea in reverse phase controlling is to turn on then switching component to conduct at every zero crossing point and turn it off at the adjustable position in the middle of the AC current phase. Timing of the turn-off point then controls the power to the load. The waveform is exact reverse of that is used in traditional light dimmers.

Figure 23- Reverse Phase Control

Because the switching component must be turned off at the middle of the AC phase, traditional thyristors and triacs are not suitable components. Possible components for this kind of controlling would be transistors, FETs,

IGBTs and GTO-thyristors. Power MOSFETs are quite suitable components for this and they have been used in some example dimmer circuits.

Figure 23 Power MOSFET

Reverse phase controlling has some advantages over traditional dimmers in many dimmer applications. The manufacturers of inverse phase dimmers advertise their products to be more efficient and less noisy. Using proper controlling electronics it is possible to build a reverse phase dimmer without any magnetic or vibrations caused by them. Because turning on point is always exact at the zero phase there are no huge current spikes and EMI caused by turn on. Using power MOSFETs it is possible to make the turn-off rate relatively slot to achieve quite operations in terms of EMI and acoustical or incandescent lamp filament noise. These systems still suffer from many of the same problems as any phase control dimmer. Reverse phase control dimming applies the voltage to the load at zero volts, and turns it off once the desired target voltage has been reached. This mode of operation is fine for a tungsten (resistive) or electronic low-voltage transformer (capacitive), but is unusable with inductive loads. Neon, ballasted loads, fans and small motors will generate destructive inductive kickback energy when dimmed by a reverse- phase control dimmer. RPC dimmers must not be used with these loads, or must switch to forward-phase control to dim these loads.

Figure 25-

Forward Phase Control Setting: %0

Reverse Phase Control

Figure 26 - Forward Phase Control Setting: %100

Reverse Phase Control

Phase Angle Control

In phase-angle control each SCR of the back-to-back pair is turned on for a variable portion of the half-cycle that it conducts. Power is regulated by advancing or delaying the point at which the SCR is turned ON within each half cycle. Light dimmers are an example of phase-angle control. Phase-angle control provides a very fine resolution of power and is used to control fast responding loads such as tungsten-filament lamps or loads in which the resistance changes as a function of temperature. Phase-angle control is required if the load is transformer-coupled or inductive.

Phase-angle controllers are typically more expensive than zero-cross controllers because the phase-angle circuit requires more sophistication than does a zero-cross circuit. Phase-angle control of three-phase power requires SCR's in all three legs and is appreciably more expensive than zero-cross control which only requires SCR's in two of the three legs.

Figure 27 - AC Supply with SCR 'ON' Time Shown in the Shaded Area

Load Voltage at 50%

SCR "ON" time, shown by the shaded area, is varied to apply the desired load voltage. Power is regulated by advancing or delaying the point at which the SCR's are turned on.

Figure 27 A SRC circuit

A typical SCR based light dimmer which dims the light through phase angle control. This unit is wired in series with the load. Diodes (D2, D3, D4 and D5) form a bridge which generates DC with lots of ripple. R and C form a circuit with a time constant, as the voltage increases from zero (at the start of every half wave) C will charge up, when C is able to make ZD conduct and inject current into the SCR the SCR will fire. When the SCR conducts then D1 will discharge C via the SCR.

The SCR will shut off when the current falls to zero when the supply voltage drops at the end of the half cycle, ready for the circuit to start work on the next halfcycle. Use phase angle control for: Transformer-connected loads such as low-voltage heaters. Variable-resistance heaters such as tungsten, molybdenum, carbon graphite and silicon carbide Phase angle control is a field-selectable control mode. It is available on single-phase and three-phase, three-leg models only. Luminaries for theatrical and architectural applications are provided with power by phase angle dimmers so that the lamps of the luminaires can be dimmed to operate at selected light levels.
Why is phase angle control required?

Phase angle control is required for two types of applications: Variable-resistance: heaters require soft start and current limiting to prevent high inrush current from damaging equipment. Soft start and current limiting are available only in phase angle mode. Transformer-connected loads: have a transformer between the Power Series and the load. Phase angle control ensures that the transformer always receives alternating positive and negative AC voltage pulses. If the transformer were to receive two pulses of the same polarity, it could become saturated, which could cause overheating, high current and blown fuses.
How does phase angle control work?

The phase angle control method provides a limited portion of each AC voltage cycle to the load, based on the percentage of power requested. The output is switched on for a portion of every AC half cycle.

Figure 29 - Phase angle firing at 50 percent Power

In this method of SCR firing, the proportioning action takes place every consecutive half cycle in the AC sine wave. The time base then, is equal to one half AC cycle! This is fast! The firing point is variable within this half cycle time period to achieve a very accurate proportional control of electric current through the SCR. If the SCR gate is fired early in the half cycle, the power output of the heater is high. Why? If most of the current gets through the SCR, the heater will produce lots of power. If the gate is fired late in the half cycle, only a small increment of power passes through the SCR. Then the amount of power (heat energy) produced by the heater will be very little. If we again use the 40% and 90% power requirement examples, you can see the affect of phase angle firing on the current flow through the SCR (Figure 30-31).

Figure 30

Figure 31

The point at which the SCRs gate is fired in the AC sine wave is continuously variable across the half cycle. Where it is fired depends on the power required by the heater. Current flow to the heater is practically continuous. Thus, there is no temperature variation experienced by the resistance element in the heater. As a result, phase angle firing provides us the best resistance element control and the longest life possible. When the SCR is phase angle fired, it is not zero-cross switched! What problem will we have if it is not zero-cross switched? Right! Phase angle fired SCRs generate a lot of electrical noise. The electrical noise appears as voltage spikes on the AC sine wave (Figure 32).

Figure 32 - Spikes on the AC sine wawe

Zero-cross Control
The term zero-cross or synchronous operation of SCR's is derived from the fact that the SCR's are turned on only when the instantaneous value of the sinusoidal waveform is zero. In zero-cross operation power is applied for a number of continuous half-cycles and then removed for a number of half-cycles to achieve the desired load power in the same manner as power would be controlled with a mechanical switching device. The difference is that the SCR controllers always switch power when the instantaneous value of the applied voltage is zero. Also, the frequency of the on-off cycles can be extremely fast because there is no limit to the number of switching operations the SCR can perform. Zero-cross controllers can provide two rather distinctively different types of control. Switching large amounts of current can result in line voltage variations which affect ambient lighting or other equipment. Time proportioning control is sometimes used to reduce this effect. The disadvantage is that power is applied in longer bursts which can in turn cause control problems and shorten heater life.

Figure 33 -

AC Supply

Zero-Cross at %50

Zero-cross time proportioning

Zero-cross time proportion control is accomplished with a fixed or constant time base; therefore the total of power "ON" time and power "OFF" time is always equal to a fixed value. For example, if the time base is ten seconds and the desired power is 50%, then power is applied for 5 seconds and removed for 5 seconds. If the

desired power were 25% then power is applied for 2.5 seconds and removed for the remaining period of 7.5 seconds. The disadvantage of time proportioning particularly as the time base is increased is that the load temperature varies considerably between the on-off cycles. This can shorten the life of heater elements and decrease the ability to obtain precise process control.
Distributive Zero-cross Control

Distributive zero-cross does not use a fixed or constant time base as is used in time proportioning. The technique used by Control Concepts applies load power for 3 electrical cycles and removes load power for 3 electrical cycles at 50% power. At lower power requirements the controller will apply power for 3 electrical cycles and is then off for the appropriate number of electrical cycles. For example, at 25% power the controller is on for 3 electrical cycles and off for 9 electrical cycles, or on for 3 electrical cycles out of 12. At higher power levels the controller is off for three electrical cycles and on for the appropriate number of electrical cycles. For example at 75% power the controller is on for nine electrical cycles and off for 3 electrical cycles. The Control Concepts distributive control technique combines power pulses of short duration to obtain the exact power level proportional to the command or set point signal. For example, 60% power is achieved by combining two power pulses. The first power pulse consists of 4 on cycles and 3 off cycles; the second power pulse consists of 5 on cycles and 3 off cycles, providing a total of 9 on cycles during 15 cycles. Of course, such rapid, short bursts of power would be impossible with mechanical contactors. Zero-cross control is typically less expensive than phase-angle control and generates fewer harmonics. However, zero-cross can only be used to control power to resistive loads that do not change appreciably with temperature or time and which are directly-coupled (no transformer between the SCR controller and the load). Zero-cross control of large power levels can cause supply voltage fluctuations resulting in ambient lighting fluctuations or other problems and can cause overheating of transformers supplying power to the controller and load.

Phase section control

The phase section principle is a solution using semiconductor components. The triac is controlled via a trigger diode which works as an electronic valve. According to the phase sectional angle, the phase voltage is cut in the positive as well as in the negative half wave of the sinusoidal voltage. In this way, the mean value of the voltage is reduced or increased

according to the phase sectional angle. This means that the light is switched on or off by the dimmer for a certain period depending on the adjusted brightness level. This process takes place 120(in USA) times a second and is therefore imperceptible to the human eye. The phase section principle can be used to dim incandescent and 230 V halogen lamps and low voltage halogen lamps with conventional (wire wounded) transformer.

Dimming inductive loads

Normal light dimmers are designed to only dim non-inductive loads like light bulbs and electric heaters. Normal light dimmers are not suitable to dim inductive loads like transformers, fluorescent lamps, neon lamps, electric motors. There are special dimmers available for those applications. If you connect inductive loads to the dimmer the dimmer might not work as expected (for example does not dim that load properly) and can even be damaged by the voltage surges generated by the inductive load when current changed rapidly.

Figure 34 Neon Lamp and fluorescent Lamp

Another problem is the phase shift between the voltage and current cause by the inductance. If you use a normal simple light dimmer which is just in series with the wire going to the load, this will cause that the dimmer circuit will not work properly with highly inductive loads. Special dimmers which have a separate controlling electronics connected to both live and neutral wire and then the triac which controls the current to the load usually work much better with inductive loads. Often when inductive loads cause problems on normal dimmers, you can eliminate said problems by patching an incandescent "ballast" load in parallel with the inductive load. Usually 100W is enough for many inductive loads. Remember that inductive loads can hum quite noticeably when dimmed and the transformers can heat more because of increased harmonics content in the power coming to them.

With a mains voltage incandescent lamp, which has a resistive characteristic, the voltage and current waveforms are almost identical. On the other hand, a wire wound transformer is an inductive load and the current tends to lag behind the voltage. Once triggered a triac or thyristor relies on the current flowing through the device to keep it conducting. Should the current fall below the devices threshold level it will turn off and stop conducting? However with an inductive load the current lags behind the voltage so it is possible that the current through the triac will not reach the triacs threshold level before the trigger pulse ends. This results in unacceptable dimming performance. To avoid this, dimmers designed for use with wire wound transformer fed loads use what is known as a hard firing technique. This ensures that the trigger pulse is maintained for a long enough period of time to ensure that the current reaches the devices threshold level.

Figure 35

Figure 36

Figure 37

Fluorescent Dimming
Dimming fluorescent lamps is not all that easy to do. If you reduce power to the lamp, the filaments will not be as hot, and will not be able to thermionically emit electrons as easily. If the filaments get too cool by dimming the lamp greatly, usually the lamp will just go out. If you force current to continue flowing while the electrodes are at an improper temperature, then severe rapid degradation of the thermionic material on the filaments is likely. Fluorescent dimming requires special planning. Dimming of fluorescent loads has been possible for decades for full-size (tubular) lamps, but only recently for compact fluorescent lamps. The cost of fluorescent dimming has come down considerably in recent years, making it a viable option for many applications. In all cases, you need dimmable ballast in the fixtures and usually a dimmer that is designed to control fluorescent loads.
Basic features for Fluorescent Lamps:

Figure 38 Fluorescent lamp

Comes in a variety of sizes, but most common is the tube and compact fluorescent types. The latter is used domestically in the form of a low energy replacement for a normal lamp. They operate by creating a UV arc that excites a phosphor coating which fluoresces creating the light and hence the name. Interrupting the supply to a choke also known as ballast starts the UV arc. Fluorescent's are much more efficient than incandescent lamps and are available in different colour temperatures. A dimmable fluorescent system consists of electronic dimming ballast, control wiring, power wiring, a wallbox dimmer switch, and dimmable fluorescent fixtures. Ballasts can be bought separately or purchased as a system. Some dimmable ballasts work with a standard low-cost incandescent dimmer. Although many types of ballast affect the stability of the light when dimmed, advanced designs such as electronic high frequency dimming ballasts reputedly do not. They can also be used with photosensors, occupancy sensors and/or time clocks for long-term savings. Dimming linear fluorescent lamps can provide a number of significant benefits to owners of commercial lighting systems: Flexibility, enabling the lighting system to adapt to multiple activities and changing space needs. Cost savings, derived from direct energy savings as well as load reduction during peak demand periods, which can be accelerated by using dimming ballasts in a system that can also include occupancy sensors, daylight sensors and time-clocks. Higher worker comfort, satisfaction and performance, achieved by allowing occupants to choose their own light levels. Increased lamp life for applications where lamps can be dimmed instead of frequently switched.

Figure 39 Fluorescent dimming

Dimmable fluorescent systems combine the long life and energy efficiency of fluorescent lamps with the controllability and full-range dimming capabilities of incandescent system. Modern electronic control gear has made it much simpler to add dimming control to fluorescent lighting. Cathode preheating is built in to the control gear and the sophisticated circuitry allows the lamps to run down to 1% of normal lamp power; previously the lamp arc became unstable at less than 10% of normal input power. To control the mercury vapour pressure within the arc tube ensuring a stable discharge, the free mercury within the lamp must migrate to a special area of the arc tube called the "cool spot". This process normally occurs within the first 100 hours of the lamp's life. This migration process only occurs when the lamp is running at its design output. This is the reason that we always recommend that dimming luminaires be run at full output for 100 hours after installation before being dimmed. Failure to carry out this lamp conditioning before dimming means that the control gear struggles to try and keep the arc discharge going, leading to flickering lamps and short lamp life. The installer must also pass on this information to the user. Whenever new lamps are installed in dimming luminaires, they must be conditioned at full output for 100 hours before dimming.

Figure 40 - Fluorescent Lamp dimming

Dimming ballasts The ballast can be configured that it 1) Receives a signal from a control device and subsequently

2) Changes the current flowing through the lamp, thereby achieving a gradual controlled reduction in lamp output. The characteristics of the control signal affect the duration and extent of the change in current and subsequent lamp output. Most commercially available dimming ballasts for operation of these lamps are electronic rapid-start or programmed-start ballasts, and all linear lamps operated by these ballasts feature bi-pin bases typical of rapid-start lamps. Rapid-start ballasts preheat the cathodes with a small voltage, which reduces the amount of voltage needed to start the lamp. After preheating the cathodes, the ballast provides the high voltage required to initiate the arc. Programmed-start ballasts are rapid-start ballasts that preheat the electrodes more accurately to minimize damage to the electrodes during the start-up process (according to a program) and therefore can optimize lamp life. While supplying the preheat voltage, the ballast minimizes the lamp voltage, thereby reducing glow current during this phase with its associated degrading effect on lamp life. As a result, programmed-start ballasts can provide up to 100,000 starts, ideal for applications where the lamps are frequently switched, such as space with occupancy sensors. The method of dimming of fluorescent lamps is dependant on the type of dimmable ballast being used. Note however that there is a vast array of different fluorescent lamps available. As a general rule, only those with 4 pins are dimmable. Furthermore, they must be supplied with ballasts that are electronically dimmable. Whilst there are still some mains voltage dimmable ballasts available, in general terms these are either themselves prohibitively expensive or do not comply with CE directives on EMC, Safety or the Low Voltage Directive. Use of the latter devices within the EU is illegal. As a rule these fall into three types: The most common units require the mains supply to be switched on or off, and the intensity of the lamp is determined by a control voltage in the range 1->10 volts.

Advantages Simple Easy to install Contractor supplied momentary switches Wiring does not have to be segregated from the mains supply cabling Lamps can be switched off via control signal

Disadvantages

Levels can not be set accurately Can be a limit to the number of ballasts per switch Limited ballast available dependant on system chosen

The second popular ballast is the digital ballast available from Tridonic. These are referred to as DSI ballasts. The primary advantage that these

ballasts have over the 1->10-volt units is that they have an internal electronic switch. By using the digital control pair, the power can be switched on/off as part of a control message. This removes the requirement to separately switch the power supply to the ballasts.

Advantages Full, accurate control of load (0% - 100%) Wiring does not have to be segregated from mains supply cable Lamps switched off via control signals

Disadvantages

Can not be addressed Can be prone to wiring faults by installing contractor

Finally, there are DALI ballasts. These will become commercially available in early 2001. In theory these ballasts offer integral controls and scene setting functions. In practice the concept requires a random addressing of each ballast. This would mean that commissioning or maintaining installed systems would be difficult and expensive. Each network is also limited to a maximum of 64 ballasts. It is understood that most ballast manufacturers will be offering units with both 1->10 volt control as well as DALI.

Advantages Easy to wire and install Very flexible after installation Wiring does not have to be segregated from mains supply cable Lamps switched off via control signals Full, accurate control of load (0% 100%) Fully addressable Signal cable is not polarity sensitive

Disadvantages

Can be expensive compared to other dimming systems Control components can not be mixed between manufacturers

Incandescent Lamp Dimming

Figure 41 Incandescent Lamp

A typical incandescent lamp take power and uses it to heat up a filament until it will start to radiate light. In the process about 10% of the energy is converted to visible light. When the lamp is first turned on, the resistance of the cold filament can be 29 times lower than its warm resistance. This characteristic is good in terms of quick warm-up times, but it means that even 20 times the steady-state current will be drawn for the first few milliseconds of operation. Lamp manufacturers quote a typical figure for cold lamp resistance of 1/17 Th of the operational resistance, although inrush currents are generally only ten times the operational current when such things as cable and supply impedance are taken into account. The semiconductors, wiring, and fusing of the dimmer must be designed with this inrush current in mind. The inrush current characteristic of incandescent (tungsten filament) lamps is somewhat similar to the surge characteristic of the typical thyristors made for power controlling, making them a quite good match. The typical ten times steady state ratings which apply to both from a cold start allow many triacs to switch lamps with current ratings close to their own steady state ratings. Lamp filament has a finite mass, it take some time (depending on lamp size) to reach the operating temperature and give full light output. This delay is perceived as a "lag", and limits how quickly effect lighting can be dimmed up. In theatrical application those problems are reduced using preheat (small current flows through lamp to keep it warm when it is dimmed out).

Incandescent dimming influences maintenance costs. Most of the better dimmers have a "soft start" feature that ramps up power to the lamp over a period of a few milliseconds, instead of closing the circuit to the filament instantly. This feature lengthens lamp life. Some of the more sophisticated systems have fade on and off times that can last from a few seconds to a few minutes. For incandescent loads, this prevents a shock to the filament and prolongs lamp life. Also, dimming an incandescent lamp by 10% will more than double the lamp life. A common misunderstanding is that dimming saves power. While some energy is saved its not as much as you may think. For example, the ideal lamp would produce 50% light output at 50% power input. If you dim an incandescent lamp to 50% you are still using about 75% of the power.

Figure 42 Table of electricity saves

Halogen Lamps Dimming

Dimming a halogen bulb, like dimming any other incandescent lamp, greatly slows down the formation of thin spots in the filament due to uneven filament evaporation. However, "necking" or "notching" of the ends of the filament remains a problem. If you dim halogen lamps, you may need "soft-start" devices in order to achieve a major increase in bulb life. Another problem with dimming of halogen lamps is the fact that the halogen cycle works best with the bulb and filament at or near specific optimum temperatures. If the bulb is dimmed, the halogen may fail to "clean" the inner surface of the bulb. Or, tungsten halide that results may fail to return tungsten to the filament.

Figure 43 Halogen lamps

Halogen bulbs have sometimes been known to do strange and scary things when greatly dimmed. Halogen bulbs should work normally at voltages as low as 90 percent of what they were designed for. If the bulb is in an enclosure that conserves heat and a "soft-start" device is used, it will probably work well at even lower voltages, such as 80 percent or possibly 70 percent of its rated voltage. However, do not expect a major life extension unless soft-starting is used. Even with soft-starting, do not expect to more than double or possibly triple the life of any halogen bulb already rated to last 2,000 hours or more. Even with soft starting, the life of these bulbs will probably not continue to improve much as voltage is reduced to less than about 90 percent of the bulb's voltage rating. Dimmers can be used as soft-start devices to extend the life of any particular halogen bulbs that usually fail from "necking" of the ends of the filament. The bulb can be warmed up over a period of a couple of seconds to avoid overheating of the "necked" parts of the filament due to the current surge that occurs if full voltage is applied to a cold filament. Once the bulb survives starting, it is operated at full power or whatever power level optimizes the halogen cycle (usually near full power). The dimmer may be both "soft-starting" the bulb and operating it at slightly reduced power, a combination that often improves the life of halogen bulbs. Many dimmers cause some reduction in power to the bulb even when they are set to maximum.

Dimming LEDs
The light-emitting diode (LED) is a new light source that differs in important ways from existing light sources. LEDs differ from traditional light sources in the way they produce light. In an incandescent lamp, a tungsten filament is heated by electric current until it glows or emits light. In a fluorescent lamp, an electric arc excites mercury atoms, which emit ultraviolet (UV) radiation. After striking the phosphor coating on the inside of glass tubes, the UV radiation is converted and emitted as visible light.

Figure 44 Basic LED source

An LED, in contrast, is a semiconductor diode. It consists of a chip of semi conducting material treated to create a structure called a p-n (positive-negative) junction. When connected to a power source, current flows from the p-side or anode to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers (electrons and electron holes) flow into the junction from electrodes. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon (light). The specific wavelength or colour emitted by the LED depends on the materials used to make the diode. Red LEDs are based on aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs). Blue LEDs are made from indium gallium nitride (InGaN) and green from aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP). "White" light is created by combining the light from red, green, and blue (RGB) LEDs or by coating a blue LED with yellow phosphor.

Figure 45 Comparison between life time fluorescent and LED

LEDs face a dimming challenge similar to that of CFLs: their electronics are often incompatible with dimmers designed for incandescent. An LED driver connected directly to a line-voltage incandescent dimmer may not receive enough power to operate at lower dimming levels or it may be damaged by current spikes. Some LED products can be used with linevoltage incandescent dimmers, but the dimmer and the LED driver electronics must be carefully matched. Because of variability in installed dimmers, it is not possible to guarantee that a given LED fixture will work with all dimmers. Some LED light fixture manufacturers publish lists of specific dimmer products tested and approved for use with their fixtures. More sophisticated LED dimmers use low-voltage controls (either variable resistors or 0-10 volt DC control) connected separately to the electronic driver. Full AC power is provided to the driver enabling the electronic controls to operate at all times, thus allowing LEDs to be uniformly dimmed (typically down to 5% or lower). However, they may require additional low-voltage wiring for retrofit applications. Most LED drivers use pulse width modulation (PWM) to regulate the amount of power to the LEDs. This technique turns the LEDs on and off at high frequency, varying the total on time to achieve perceived dimming. Driver output frequency should be at least 120 Hertz (Hz) to avoid perceptible flicker under typical circumstances. LED light fixtures may appear to flicker at the lowest settings, but only when the dimmer control is moved. This is due to the finite resolution of the digital electronics. Good-quality electronic drivers feature 12-bit or greater resolution to obtain flicker-free operation throughout their dimming range. Most white LEDs are actually blue LEDs with a phosphor coating that generates warm or cool white light. Their light does not shift to red when dimmed; some may actually appear bluer with dimming. White light can also be made by mixing red, green, and blue (RGB) LEDs, allowing a full range of color mixing and color temperature adjustment. Overall LED luminaire efficacy decreases with dimming due to reduced driver efficiency at low dimming levels.

Transistor Dimmer
A number of dimmer manufacturers produce transistor based dimmers which operate in a different fashion to triac dimmers making it compatible with electronic (capacitive) transformers even if they are not designed for dimming applications. A transistor dimmer switches the supply off and is commonly known as a trailing edge dimmer. By switching the current off the possibility for voltage peaks is eliminated.

Figure 46 Transistor Dimmer

It should be noted that transistor dimmers are suitable for use with electronic (capacitive) transformers and mains voltage incandescent (resistive) lamps, but not with conventional wire wound (inductive) transformers, nor those electronic transformers, which are designed to work with hard firing triac dimmers.

Adaptive Dimmers
In the Adaptive Dimmer, both the voltage and the current are monitored, and this is linked into the CPU which controls the dimmers operating parameters. This control is dynamic and offers several major benefits over conventional dimmers. These adaptive source controllers will work with resistive, capacitive and inductive loads. They will also detect reactive loads. If a reactive load is connected to the dimmer, it will immediately switch to full on, thus avoiding any possible damage to the gear associated with that circuit. Alternatively, the unit can be configured to switch off, if that is the user preference. When the adaptive source controller sees an inductive load, it adopts a leading edge dimming mode. In this case the unit will immediately switch off. However, in the case where the lamp inrush current is the reason for the overload (The in rush current of a cold incandescent lamp at switch on is 17 times greater than the running current, once the lamp has warmed up) the dimmer will attempt to turn on every half cycle. Each time it tries a small amount of energy is transmitted to the lamps. This energy has the effect of warming up the lamp filament. As the temperature rises, so does the resistance of the lamp, thus reducing the current passing through the filament. After several cycles, the filaments will have heated up sufficiently to offer sufficient resistance and so the monitoring circuitry within the source controller will allow full control or illumination of the lamps. Should the adaptive source controller identify a resistive or capacitive load, then it will adopt a trailing edge dimming methodology. This has the added benefit that the unit will be then totally silent in operation because trailing edge dimming techniques result in there being no magnetostriction in the suppression chokes the other major advantage of

this technology over conventional dimmers is that the speed of turn on can be precisely and dynamically controlled. In entertainment lighting, there is a requirement to be able to flash lights on very quickly. However, when theatrical lamps are turned full on instantly, the filaments suffer thermal shock. This shock reduces the life of the lamp. By optimising the turn on time in a dynamic way, the fastest possible turn on times may be achieved whilst minimising the thermal shock to the lamps and thus dramatically extending lamp life.

Advantages of Dimmers
Important Features of Dimmer

Durable Inexpensive Automated Easy Installation Stylish

Benefits of Dimming Operation

Big energy cost savings Lower cost of ownership Better, more comfortable lighting Minimum maintenance Long term assurance of designed light levels Faster, easier, cheaper to install Greener environment Flicker-free at all times to eliminate eyestrain. Optimum visual comfort under all conditions Flexibility for every user Future-proofing Assured compatibility Constant light level with daylight energy saving Automatic adjustment for maintained illuminance Lighting only when occupied Hierarchy of automatic control systems Individual lighting adjustment Preset lighting programmes

Dimmers save money two ways. First, they significantly save energy by using only the amount of electricity needed. When a light is dimmed by 25%, a dimmer saves about 20% of the electricity required. When dimmed by 50%, it saves 40% of the electricity. Second, a dimmer greatly extends bulb life because it reduces strain on the filament. When dimmed by 25%, a lamp lasts four times as long as it would at full power; dimmed by 50%, it will last as much as 20 times longer.

Figure 47 Energy saving in dimming

Convenience & Ambience

Intelligent lighting forms part of home automation where the circuit levels are pre-programmed according to use and according to other factors such as time of day. Light fittings can be controlled individually or grouped together in circuits. Each circuit or fitting can be set to be at a different level of brightness. These levels are then stored as a "scene" which can best be though of as being a complete look of a room. Some systems have 10 or more programmable scenes. Once set up scenes can be easily recalled manually from touch screen, switch panels, infrared or wireless remote controls. They can be recalled automatically by time clock, or according to occupancy. Once a new scene is selected the lighting will fade to the new set of levels at a pre-determined fade rate.
Energy Saving

When dimming a lamp the energy saved is as high as 98% of the proportion of unused energy. Because the human eye perceives light nonlinearly, it is possible to reduce light levels by over 10% before the reduction in brightness is noticed. This would lead to a near 10% saving in energy consumption. A 50% reduction in dimming levels would save around 40% of the energy. Intelligent dimmers ramp or fade a lamp to a preset level. This is particularly important when the lamp is first turned on. Incandescent lamps tend to fail at this point due to thermal shock of the cold lamp filament. By fading the lamp to the set level, also know as "soft start", a lamps life is extended considerably. At 10% dimming, a lamp will last twice as long and at 50% dimming it will last 20 times as long. Voltage stabilisation, available

on more expensive systems, protects lamps against spikes and peaks in mains voltage.
Security

Lighting can play an important part in security, deterring intruders whether the property is occupied or not. Low levels of illumination can be programmed to operate at night in certain rooms or hallways. When the house is vacated lighting levels can be selected that copy normal usage. This can be by time clock or by selecting a vacation mode. Dimmed or selectively switched levels of illumination will save energy and is more effective than leaving lighting on or using simple plug in timers.

Types of Dimmers
Dimmers today come in several different styles and designer colours. Here's a rundown of what's on the market Rotary Dimmer- These are dimmers with a full-range capability. You turn the light on and off and rotate the control until you achieve your desired level of brightness.

Figure 48 - Rotary dimmer

Slide Dimmer- This sort of control is also a full-range dimmer that you slide to achieve a satisfactory level of brightness.

Figure 49 Slide dimmer

Slide dimmers provide full-range dimming using a slide element to adjust the lighting. These models range in complexity. The simplest type has a linear slide to control the lighting. Sliding up increases light output; sliding down decreases light output. Some linear slides are available with "preset" buttons and on/ off switches. With these types, the linear slide is used to adjust the lighting to a desired level, and then the "preset" button is pushed, programming the preset level in memory. The on/ off switch is then used to turn the lamps on to this preset level. Touch Dimmer- Touch dimmers will change the brightness of light with the touch of a button. Some come with readouts to demonstrate the current level of light intensity.

Touch dimmers provide full-range dimming control using touch sensitive solid-state circuitry. A person taps the touch-sensitive panel to turn the lamps on, continuously presses the panel to dim the lamps to the desired level, and taps again to turn off the lamps. Some dimmers are combined with a motion detector to dim lamps to a preset level when no motion is detected in a space. Preset dimmers can control several luminaires. Multiple "scenes" can be programmed, so that several lamps are dimmed to preset levels by touching a single control button. A specific "scene" is switched on for a different atmosphere or set of tasks.

Figure 50 Touch Dimmers

Integrated Dimming System- The most high-tech of dimmer systems, Integrated Dimming Systems can recall specific settings and light levels in a room, and are manipulated via a wall control or remote control. They can be used to create a multi-layered lighting scheme that can fluctuate throughout the day to adjust to daylight and night time situations. Attaining your favourite pre-programmed lighting design is a snap with this sort of dimmer.

How to select an Electronic Light Dimmer

There are three basic rules you must follow when selecting electronic light dimmers: Rule 1 - Do not exceed the maximum dimming load. Each dimmer has a maximum and minimum dimming load. This will be detailed on the unit when making your purchase. Calculating the load for an electronic light dimmer is quite simple. All lamps are specified in Watts. Just total the lamp wattage figures of a circuit and that is the circuit load. For example, if your circuit has 8 down lighters, each one fitted with a 50Watt lamp, then your circuit load is 8 x 50Watts = 400watts. (Note this figure may also be shown as 400VA). This is straight forward for down lighters, adjustable down lighters and wall lights. However it is not so simple for 5Amp table light sockets as you don't know what lamp will be fitted or how many. It is unlikely that all sockets will have table lamps fitted to them. So you need to make a calculation for selecting the correct light dimmer. Therefore the correct rule is to allow 100Watts for each 5Amp socket on a circuit. So if you have 4 table lamp 5Amp sockets, that will equate to 4 X 100Watts = 400Watts. If on the other hand you know you will be fitting some higher wattage halogen up lighters, these can be either 150Watts or 300Watts, and then you need to include this into your calculation now. Rule 2 -Select the right type of electronic light dimmer for the lamp type There are two types of electronic light dimmers on the market; one that will only dim incandescent or main voltage lamps, and one that will dim low voltage halogen lamps, as well as incandescent main voltage lamps. The first type of electronic light dimmer is often called an incandescent dimmer, whilst the second type is often called a universal dimmer. If you only need to dim main voltage lamps, then use the incandescent dimmer. If you intend to dim low voltage halogen lamps you will need the universal dimmer. If in doubt, then choose the universal light dimmer.

Rule 3 - Do not mix lamp types on a single circuit. Do not mix low voltage and incandescent mains volt lamps on the same circuit.

Step 1

Choose the style and colour that best matches or complements the decor of the room.
Step 2

Choose the dimmer designed to control the kind of lights you have in the room.
Types of lighting

Step 3

Calculate the total load. Incandescent light bulbs have wattage ratings marked on the bulb. Add up the wattage of all the bulbs in the fixture and select a dimmer that is rated above or equal to your total wattage.

Incandescent 230/240 V

Mains voltage halogen 230/240 V

Electronic and magnetic low voltage 12 V

Step 4

Decide how many dimmers/switches control the same light fixture and choose from these options. If there is only one switch, use a single-pole dimmer to dim a light from one location. (2-way or multi-location dimmers will work in this application.)

Multi-location dimming to dim a light from more than one location up to ten. Choose one intelligent dimmer and up to nine accessory dimmers. Accessory dimmers work together with the intelligent dimmer, enabling more than one control to dim a light fixture.

Some examples of Dimmers

Single Touch Dimmer Create your desired mood in a room with the slightest touch or slide of your finger. Touch anywhere along the illuminated control bar, and the dimmer's LEDs rush to meet the tip of your finger, setting the lights to your specified level. Its minimalist design enhances any space and allows you to personalize its style by choosing from blue, green, or white LEDs and over 21 architectural-style wallplate colours and finishes. It set out to create a lighting control that was easy to use, on the cutting edge of design, and maintained high standard of quality.

Figure 51 Touch Dimmer

Its distinct, polished look complements both commercial and residential applications. It performs like no other lighting control. The LEDs in the illuminated control bar brighten when touched, filling the bar to show the light level selected.
Precise lightening Control

The illuminated LED bar is longer than on standard dimmers making it easier to set the perfect light level. And you can find and use your dimmer in the dark. The amber On/Off status indicator makes it easy to find the dimmer in the dark; the LED bar softly glows even at off indicating the previous light level used.
Personalize your touch

With programming mode, customize dimmers settings to meet your personal needs. Set the maximum light level to 85% to get 15% automatic energy savings, adjust the brightness of the LED bar, save a favourite light level for one touch recall, set a longer delay-to-off wait time, or even adjust the fade on and off times to meet your personal preferences.

Figure 52 Usages

Turn the Lights On

Touch the Toggle Region of the LED bar to turn the lights on to the previous light level used or a preset favourite light level. The LED bar will brighten at your touch and click softly. The LED bar will then dim to a softer level when at rest indicating the current light level. When the lights are off, turn the lights on to your preferred level with one touch by simply touching anywhere along the Active Region of the LED bar. The lights will automatically come on to the level corresponding to your touch.

Turn the lights off

Touch the Toggle Region of the LED bar to turn the lights off. The LED bar will brighten at your touch and beep softly to let you know its working. As you release your finger, a soft amber glow will appear in the Toggle Region of the LED bar to indicate that the lights are off. This will also allow you to easily find your dimmer in a dark room. The Active Region of the LED bar will glow softly so you can see the previous light level used or the preset favourite light level.
Transition between Rooms

With this dimmer, you can activate a delay-to-off feature, which provides you 30 seconds to cross a room or get into bed before your lights begin to fade gently to off. Simply touch and hold anywhere along the LED bar until

the LEDs begin to blink. For added convenience, you can shorten or extend the delay-to-off wait time with programming mode.

Touch Dimmer (Intelligent Dimmer)

Use the Touch Dimmer with low voltage lamps as well as incandescent main voltage lamps (normal light bulbs) and mains voltage GU10 halogen lamps. Features of Universal Touch Dimmer: 450 V/A dimming load for low voltage lamps 500 Watt dimming load for mains voltage lamps Silent Operation - No Buzzing Modern Design - Touch control Remote Control Option - use IR remote controls handset which also has pre-set light scene possibilities

Figure 53 Touch Dimmer

1000 Watt + Dimming Option - extend the dimming capacity to 1000+ watts with the additional power boosters LED and Fluorescent Dimming Option - control 0-10v dimmable LED and Fluorescent ballasts Hidden Fixing Screws Simple Installation - 2 wire connection (same as a light switch) 2 way Dimming Option - to dim and switches lights from a second location, (up to 9 locations)

The Touch Dimmer is an ideal replacement for a single light switch with low voltage halogen lamps as well as normal mains voltage light bulbs. If you have a single 2 gang switch then you replace with Dual Touch Dimmer. And also we can use IR remote control unit with this touch dimmers. IR remote control dimmer is ideal in principle living rooms as well as bedrooms for bedside light control.

Figure 54 Remote control with dimmer

Benefits: Lights softly fade on and off Ultra-quiet intelligent dimmer LEDs indicate light level Double-tap to full on Dimmer memorises last level you chose One dimmer to control your lights up to 10 locations (when you have accessory dimmers)

In your living room, you can pre-set the lighting controls to suit the way that you live Cinema, Homework, Entertaining, Cleaning. Then with a hand-held remote control (or even your universal TV remote), you can change the ambience of your room without leaving your chair.

Figure 55 Usage touch dimmer and remote control

In-line Lamp Dimmer

Create relaxing light scenes in all rooms of your home with in-line lamp dimmer. Simply set and adjust the light levels for table lamps and floor standing lamps to create softer lighting. Includes 1 pre-set light level. A single tap on softly fades the lamp up to a pre-set light level. A double tap will softly fade the lamp to full on. Set a gentle mood for your living room using table lamps and floor standing lamps.

Figure 56 In Line lamp dimmer

The in-line lamp dimmer is also ideal for bedside lighting. It is great for a child's bedroom night light. Useful when you need to get up in the middle of the night. A single tap on will dim lights up just enough to find your way with out getting light blinding. Used in halls and landings with feature table lamps, and then set low for night lighting and security light when the house is empty. Use in-line lamp dimmers with incandescent main voltage lamps (normal light bulbs) and mains voltage halogen lamps.
Specifications

220 240 VAC, 50/60 Hz Max. Capacity 300 W, min. wattage 40 W For incandescent and mains voltage halogen loads Auto-reset thermal overload protection Short circuit protection Lightning strike surge protection 10-year power-failure memory Voltage regulation

Special features

Conveniently control your table or floor lamp with a stylish dimmer Green LEDs indicate light level Memorises last light level Lights softly fade to on/off Double-tap to full on Plug and play no wiring required Use with incandescent (230/240 V) lamps

Figure 57 Connecting with system

Basic operation Tap once when unit is off Lights brighten smoothly to preset intensity. Tap once when unit is on Lights dim smoothly to off. Double tap Lights brighten rapidly to full intensity. Delayed fade to off Press and hold to activate delayed fade to off.

Slide Dimmers
1. This dimmers use for Incandescent main voltage lamps (normal light bulbs) and mains voltage GU10 halogen lamps.

Figure 58 Slide Dimmer

The Dual Slide Dimmer is an ideal replacement for a single 2gang light switch with normal mains voltage light bulbs (not lamps fitted with low voltage transformers.) If you have a single gang switch then uses the single slide dimmer. The 2 way switching option requires the Pre-set Slide Dimmer. Then dim the lights at the dimmer, plus switch the lights on/off from a second or even third location using normal switches.
Slide Dimmer benefits:

Silent Operation - No Buzzing Modern Design - Slide to adjust light level 250 Watts dimming load for each circuit Simple Installation - 2 wire connection (same as a light switch) 2 way Switching Option - Switch lights on/off from a second location Eco-Energy save electricity when dimming

Figure 59 Operation in Slide dimmer

2. The Preset Incandescent Dimmer is a designer-style, preset slide dimmer, developed for high-wattage use. The unit is equipped with an offstatus LED and provides both three-way and multi-location on/off control when used with Preset Remotes.
Features:

Full range dimming - raise or lower the slider to achieve the desired light output. Soft Start turns lights on gently, preserving lamp life. For most architectural light sources, including fluorescents with electronic ballasts. Multi-Location/3-Way control with Remote controllers.

Figure 60 Slide dimmer type

The Preset Incandescent Dimmer is listed for 120 VAC, 60 Hz, 600W/2000W operations to control incandescent and quartz halogen lighting loads. Device operations include: Manual intensity control Instant on to a preset level Off control

The unit is equipped with a Soft Start feature to preserve lamp life, in addition to a red LED indicator which glows red in the off position for easy location in the dark. Each device has the ability to accept on/off commands from an unlimited number of multi-location remotes. Each remote can control up to 10 dimmers simultaneously. Its air gap switch is used to open the circuit completely. However, the switch is unobtrusive and is not required for normal operations. This device mounts in a single-gang wall box. Each unit includes a thin-profile faceplate. Digital Rotary dimmer
Special functions

Configure switch-on brightness -double click Set/cancel minimum basic brightness push knob until blinking confirmation

Figure 61- Rotary dimmer switches

Product Features

Push on; push off, rotary dimming control switch. Suitable for use with Resistive & Inductive loads. Suitable for control of dimmable electronic transformers, wire wound transformers and tungsten halogen lamps without de-rating.

Integrated over-temperature protection fuse. Short-circuit protection. Module case ultrasonically sealed to reduce dimmer buzzing Smooth dimming operation from 0 - 100% One or two way switching One, two, three & four gang versions available

Figure 62 Operation of rotary

Applications

Rotary dimmer switches are suitable for the following applications: Mains Voltage GLS bulbs - maximum load according to the dimmer label add the bulb wattages together. Mains Voltage halogen bulbs - maximum load according to the dimmer - add the bulb wattages together. Electronic & Wire wound low Voltage lighting transformers - maximum load according to the dimmer label - add the VA ratings of the transformers together. Fans - maximum load according to the dimmer - add the wattages of the fans together. Do not use this dimmer switch for fluorescent or energy saving lamps. These types of loads will eventually damage this dimmer switch beyond repair. Incorrect use will invalidate the guarantee.

The switch has been specifically designed for medical applications .In order to meet the three lighting level requirements necessary for intensive care over bed illumination. These being 'general' lighting appropriate for day to day observation and care without discomfort to patients; 'night' lighting appropriate for observation requirements with minimum disturbance to sleeping patients; and high intensity 'examination' lighting levels for close observation and treatment.
Operation:

To achieve general lighting as described above, turn on switch 'A' (see diagram). To achieve night lighting set to required dimmed level via the rotary controller. To achieve high intensity examination lighting turn on switch 'B' (see diagram). Switch 'B' overrides switch 'A' and the rotary controller to give full light output, regardless of the previous setting of the luminaire.

In order to avoid accidental loss of light during critical situations, once activated, the high intensity examination level will be maintained until both switches 'A' and 'B' are switched off. This will reset the luminaire ready for normal operation.

Some Lightening Control Applications

Remote Control Dimmer Switch plates for dimmer are stylish and robust solid metal plates 2mm thick.

Figure 63 Remote control switch panel

The dimmer puts the luxury of multi-room control in your hands. Your favourite lighting levels in four rooms can be operated from the attractive wall mounted switch panels. You can create the mood or set the scene in each area for every purpose.
Features:

8 channel 2.0kW dimmer 4 channels of 1-10v fluorescent ballast dimming control no minimum load on any channel control up to 8 circuits (channels) with 20 programmable scenes per area multi-zone (can control up to 4 rooms independently) infra-red remote control built-in LED information display and infra-red receiver variable fade rates from 0.5 seconds to 2 hours (to gradually turn lights on/off) temporary circuit adjustment without save master raise and lower exit delay sleep timer security settings permanent memory (in the event of a power blackout you don't lose pre-set scenes or need to re-programme your dimmer) pre-wired wall box for electrician-friendly installation

Scene Dimming

The ability to create scenes is one of the features that distinguish a topclass dimmer. 8 channels can be programmed to any level of brightness from 0 to 100%, with the levels automatically stored as one of 20 scenes per channel, each offering a different 'look' to your entire room or space. Set your desired scenes for entertaining, relaxing, watching TV or reading or for security or energy saving. Once set up, recall your favourite scenes simply by touching a single button on either the switch panel or the supplied remote control unit.
Zones

Unique to the domestic dimmer is the ability to create multiple lighting zones. Normally a zone corresponds to a room, and with this dimmer you can create up to 4 zones meaning you can set 20 scenes in each of the 4 rooms. Outstation Switch Plates are available for dimmer. They can be used as multi-location switches to select the scenes in any, or all of the different rooms or areas.

Outdoor Mains Incandescent Light Dimmers for Residential Garden Establishing the perfect mood and atmosphere in your outdoor area used to be difficult as exterior lighting in the past could not easily be varied or adjusted. Additionally, households are not well equipped to vary and control the amount of electricity consumed by their outdoor lighting, which leads to wasted energy consumption. Imagine yourself outside on a warm evening by the barbeque with your family and friends enjoying a few drinks and actually being able to control the ambience or atmosphere of the lighting around you! Even better still, how about doing that and also lower your electricity bill by using less energy? Few outdoor garden lamps are capable of giving you a full span of intensity levels varying from brilliant bright light at one extreme to a soft orange glow at the other. They usually only allow one light setting which is often too dim or too bright and glaring to be of any practical use. Do you find it difficult to see anything in your garden because your outdoor lights are too dim, or perhaps you are being blinded by harsh, glaring lights that are far too bright and uncomfortable?

Figure 64 - Incandescent Light Dimmer

Create outdoor lighting ambience Adjust and set the lighting mood in your outdoor area to your exacting requirements and achieve fabulous results. Cuts Energy Costs Dimmed lighting means a reduction in electricity consumption which saves your money and the environment! In fact if this dimmer kit was used for 6 hours every day of the year to dim a 300W load to half power (i.e. running at 150W) with the cost of electricity at 15p per KWh it would give electricity savings of around 50 per annum. Environmentally Friendly Dim your outdoor lights and cut back on light trespass and light pollution. Convenient Use a remote control handset to vary the intensity of light outdoors. Safe Fully compliant with current CE marking requirements. Also no need to touch anything electrical outdoors You control at the touch of a remote handset button. Versatile Can be used with a variety of mains incandescent lamps, 12V (Low Voltage) halogen lamps appropriately wired to dimmable electronic low voltage transformers, and also the new dimmer dimmable Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs). Rugged Tough U.V. stabilised polycarbonate construction and weather resistant. Future Proof- Fully compatible with leading brands of new generation dimmer dimmable low energy Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs). Can be used indoors as well as outdoors. Dimmer switch module circuit utilises a microprocessor in its construction making many advanced features possible such as automatic thermal and current overload shutdown protection for peace of mind. Soft-Start feature increases bulb life by up to twice normal life expectancy saving on re-lamping costs. Can be programmed to operate using almost any commercially available Infrared (IR) remote control handset for user convenience and security. Non-volatile memory in module circuitry will remember stored settings even after prolonged power loss so you dont have to!

The action of dimming lamps not only saves energy but also significantly increases bulb life. In fact dimming a lamp by 40% will typically result in the bulb lasting more than 10 years! The benefits are fewer re-lamping operations required resulting in material and time cost savings and less waste generated making a positive environmental impact. The dimmer switch module must first be programmed to accept a signal from an IR remote control handset. This straightforward programming is undertaken using the included programming wand. Any standard IR remote control handset unit (e.g. TV, DVD, or video remote) can be used to communicate control instructions to the outdoor dimmer switch module.

Figure 65 Operation with remote control

By pressing a single user defined button on the remote control handset, a suitably wired lamp can be switched on, off, or the light level can be varied from full brightness or reduced to just a glowing filament in the lamp. Once programmed, is operated by pressing the user selected IR control key or button on the IR remote control handset. And if you want use also programming wand. You can program a special select with this wand.

Figure 66 Operation with wand

Example of Lightning Control Package

Package includes 5 wall dimmers, 1 master control, 1 wireless control and 1 antenna. It integrates with all types of home automation systems. Lighting can be controlled with touch screens, universal remote controls, or even from web-capable devices like a personal computer, PDA or web tablet. Consolidate control to one device, and eliminate the need for numerous remotes.

Wireless control:

Figure 67 Wireless control

Whether you are leaving for the evening, or returning home at night, it gives you remote control of your lights from outside the home. You can put this device in your car. All On - turns all dimmers on to 100% brightness All Off - turns all dimmers off Favourite - turns all dimmers on to their current slider levels

A wireless control is a multi-button device that can: Monitor which lights are on or off Turn a light or a group of lights on or off Adjust a light or a group of lights to predetermined lighting levels Master wireless control buttons are typically programmed to work with a users daily activities. Keeping the button programming simple and consistent will ensure customer satisfaction.
Dimmers

Figure 68 Slide dimmer

Set the right light level for relaxing, watching TV, reading or preparing a meal. Control individual room lights by installing dimmers in 5 key areas of

the home. Tap the large button to turn lights on and off Move the slider to adjust lights to your favourite setting.
Master control unit

Figure 69 Control Unit

Turn any room into a relaxing retreat with soft, subtle lighting. From the comfort of your bed, press one button to control the lights in and around your home no need to walk from room to room to control each light.

Press a button to turn individual room dimmers offor on, to their locally set slider levels.

Turn all dimmers on to 100%

Turn all dimmer off This simple package controls 5 different areas lights. And also you can install very quickly. Simply switches replace with dimmers, then, for remote control of your lights, plug in the tabletop master control and clip the wireless controller to the car visor. The central antenna ensures reliable RF communication between all system components. It can be plugged into a standard wall outlet and placed discreetly in a closet or under a bed.

Figure 70 System schema

Led dimming System application

Figure 71 Led Dimming System

Indoor LED lighting, customer convenience, and energy efficiency can be greatly improved with the LED driver. The LED driver is a high performance universal voltage dimming driver that provides energy efficient LED dimming from 100% to 1%. The driver is ideal for meeting rooms, corridors, restaurants, hotels, and many other areas where dimming performance and energy efficiency are valued.

The LED driver, when used in a luminaire system, also boasts an extended life cycle when compared to incandescent and/or compact fluorescent systems. The driver is what powers the LED light engine, which is similar to how ballast operates with a fluorescent lamp. Features: Smooth and continuous dimming from 100% to 1% of measured light output for dynamic lighting levels Compatible with either 3-wire or digital control systems, allowing for a wide variety of control options Universal voltage (120V or 277V) 50 or 60 Hz for use in many different applications Lifetime rating of 50,000 hours, even at it's maximum temperature rating of 65C, for a long maintenance free lifetime 25W maximum driver rating LEDs eco-friendly benefits go beyond energy efficiency to also provide a product lifetime of 50,000 hours (approximately 10 years of service).

Components of an LED lighting system

LED lighting systems consist of a switching or dimming control for one or more LED luminaires. The luminaire includes LED lamp modules, a driver, and down light housing. Driver provides power to the LED lamp module as well as facilitates LED dimming, similar to ballast used with fluorescent lights.
Control

Controls for driver available in two categories: digital or analog control. Digital control: Provides flexibility of addressing wireless configurations and precision control.

Figure 72 Digital Control Units

Analog control: Provides hard wired preset or manual slide control with several dimmer designs.

Figure 73 Analog Control

Application

LED driver is intended for down lighting, providing both an ambience and space control integration that makes it appropriate for a wide range of applications, including meeting rooms, hotels, restaurants, schools, hospitals, corridors, retail, and more. For example if we want to talk about education application:

Figure 74 Application for led driver

Down light fixtures are used in many locations throughout a school, including auditoriums, classrooms and hallways. Without dimming capabilities these areas have only one lighting option. Lighting designers incorporating the LED driver into these areas will provide custom lighting options depending on the activity. Lights can be lowered for

presentations, raised for lectures, and adjusted perfectly for auditorium events. In addition to adding lighting options, dimming also saves energy, which can be a large expense in schools.

Scene-Capable Lighting Controls

The introduction of Scene-Capable Lighting Controls marks a new era in sophisticated lighting. One that replaces the tired routine of constant attention to the manual adjustment of individual dimmers to change a dcors lighting. With dimmers to accommodate a variety of light sources including fluorescent, incandescent and magnetic low-voltage Scene-Capable Dimmer can instantly turn your fluorescents, chandeliers, wall sconces, recessed lighting and more into a symphony of picture perfect lighting scenes at the touch of a button.

Figure 75 Scene Capable lighting control units

Whatever the application scenario, Scene-Cable Dimmers provide an unparalleled opportunity for lighting design specialists to create innovative lighting schemes. Customized scene lighting systems are easily installed using any number of dimmers in conjunction with one or more Six Scene Controllers. Additional dimmed loads can be added to lighting scenes at any time, as well as additional Scene Controllers where and when needed for virtually limitless accessibility. The system can be further customized with remote controller. Lighting Controls: 1. Press and hold the scene button that you wish to program on a Scene Controller for more than 7 seconds. The LED next to the button will commence to flash. 2. At each local dimmer, move the slide control to set the lights to the desired light level.

3. Return to the Scene Controller. Press the same scene button again and hold until the LED stays on and no longer flashes. This scene button is programmed. 4. Repeat steps 1 - 3 for all other scene buttons on the Scene Controller until all scenes are programmed.
An example of a Six-Scene Controller managing different light sources in a restaurant:

Figure 76 Control unit and dimmer switch

Scene 1 The chandeliers are at 100% and the low-voltage spots are at 50% brightness for breakfast. Ceiling fans are OFF

Figure 77

Scene 2 The chandeliers are at 100% brightness and the low-voltage spots are OFF to suit lighting requirements for lunch. Ceiling fans are at low speed for ventilation.

Figure 78

Scene 3 All the chandeliers and low-voltage spots are at 50% brightness for dinner. Ceiling fans are at low speed.

Figure 79

Scene 4 All the chandeliers are at 25% brightness and the low-voltage spots are at 100% brightness when there is entertainment on stage. Ceiling fans are at medium speed for ventilation.

Figure 80

Scene 5 All lights are at 100% brightness and the fans are at full speed for ventilation and space clean-up.

Figure 81

Scene 6 All lights are at 100% brightness for "ALL-ON" security for use with a occupancy Sensor. Ceiling fans are OFF.

Figure 82

An example of a Six-Scene Controller managing different light sources in a home theatre:

Scene 1 Six recessed down lights, two low-voltage track lights illuminating opposite ends of the room and fluorescent fixtures on all four sides of the room to provide indirect lighting are at 75% brightness. This lighting scene is used for before and after a movie or at any time when the sun has set and natural light is unavailable.

Figure 83

Scene 2 The six recessed down lights and low-voltage track lights are at 20% brightness and all other lights are OFF for the viewing of a movie. Very soft lighting desired for entering and exiting during the movie.

Figure 84

Scene 3 All lights are OFF for maximum viewing conditions of a movie.

Figure 85

Scene 4 The six recessed down lights are at 30% brightness, the low-voltage track lights at 100% brightness and the indirect fluorescent lights at 50% brightness to create a subdued, sophisticated party atmosphere.

Figure 86

Scene 5 The six recessed down lights and the low-voltage track lights are set at 10% brightness, and the indirect fluorescent lights are at 25% brightness to create a mood appropriate for listening to music.

Figure 87

Scene 6 All lights are at 100% brightness for clean-up.

Figure 88

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