CHARISMA AND RHETORIC: COMMUNICATIVE TECHNIQUES OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS LEADERS

Deanne N. Den Hartog* Robert M. Verburg

Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam

Although powerful rhetoric is often associated with charismatic leadership, little explanation is available of why leader rhetoric is related to charisma. One of the first studies to explicitly address this topic focused on speech content (Shamir. Arthur & House. 1994). Other elements contributing to the strong motivational and emotive effects of charismatic rhetoric are construction of the message, style and delivery, CEOs play an important part in creating and dispersing organizational values and visions to organization members and the external environment. Their speeches within and outside the company are important to motivate others and gain support for their vision. The CEOs in this study are from companies seeking different degrees and types of international involvement. Their corporate visions reflect different international business mentalities. This study explores how these charismatic CEOs rhetorically construct message content in their speeches. focusing on how their attitude towards internationalization international business strategy is reflected. First, international strategy and attitudes and towards

internationalization as well as vision, charisma and rhetoric are discussed. Discourse analysis is described and examples of rhetorical devices are given from the analyzed speeches of the CEOs, Finally. part of a more extensive analysis of examples from speeches showing the rhetorical construction of messages reflecting their international strategy and management mentality are presented.

Managing the global enterprise and modern business management are becoming more and more synonymous. The growing importance of world business creates a strong demand for managers who are sophisticated in international management and skilled at working with people from other countries (Adler, 199 1). The increasingly global business

* Direct all correspondence to: Deanne Den Hartog. dept. of work and organizational psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, van der Boechorststraat I. IOXI BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands, e-mail: DN.den.Hartog@psy.vu.nl: Tel: +3 I-20-4448700; Leadership Quarterly, R(4), 35.5-391. Copyright 0 1997 by JAI Press Inc. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved. ISSN: 1048.9843 Fax: +3 I-20-4448702

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world demands an unwavering commitment to change and a clear sense of direction. Visionary leadership is the mechanism for such change, providing the ideals to shape strategy and the energy to make it happen (Whittington, 1993; p. 60). The media increasingly expose the public to the views, oratory and persuasive language of both political and business leaders. Bryman (1992, p. 58) states: In the West there is often a tendency to associate charisma with powerful oratory. Although leaders can be seen as charismatic without being spellbinding orators, the ability to capture an audience through striking oratory plays an important part in the social formation of charisma (Bryman, 1992). Before charisma became a popular topic in writings on organizational leadership, the concept of charisma was found mainly in sociological and political science literature (Shamir, 1995). Exceptional key figures in large social systems, such as kings, presidents and other top-level political leaders as well as leaders of religious and social movements were described as being endowed with charisma (e.g. Weber, 1947; Shils, 1965; Burns, 1978; Willner, 1984). When charisma was introduced in organizational literature, several writers argued that charisma was mainly found in the top-echelon of the organization and irrelevant to lower level leadership (e.g. Etzioni, 1961; Katz & Kahn, 1978). Others (e.g. House, 1977; Bass, 1985: Conger & Kanungo, 1987; Shamir, House & Arthur, 1993) assume that charisma is common at all levels of the organization. Shamir (I 995) holds that the influence of vision and rhetorical skills on the attribution of charisma is particularly strong when the social distance between leader and followers is large. One reason for this is that in a situation of large social distance information about the leaders personal behavior is likely to be scarce and followers are likely to depend more on verbal cues. CEOs play an important part in crafting and dispersing organizational values and visions to both organization members and the external environment. In their visible informational and interpersonal roles, as spokesman and figurehead (Mintzberg, 1989) CEOs shape corporate image and identity. In todays global firms CEOs are faced with the difficult task to present the organizations superordinate goals to a diverse multicultural workforce (Adler, 199 1). In this paper the rhetoric of three visionary international business leaders is explored. First, international business orientations, globalizing strategy and different management mentalities are described. Next, an overview of the relevant theory on rhetoric, vision and charisma and the method of discourse analysis are presented. Examples of rhetorical devices are given from the analyzed speeches of three charismatic CEOs of international corporations. For each CEO. part of a more extensive analysis of their speeches is presented. focusing on the international management mentality that their messages convey as well as how this message content is rhetorically constructed. INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS STRATEGY MANAGEMENT MENTALITY AND

According to Adler ( I99 I ) the two fundamental differences between global and domestic organizations are geographic dispersion and multiculturalism. However, as Yip (1995) notes nowadays the question is not so much whether companies are in a global industry and have global strategies. rather it is a matter of degree; the question of how global the

Table 1 Organizational Characteristics of the Multinational, Global, International, and Transnational Firm, after Bartlett and Ghoshal(1989, p. 58)
GlObUf

Mdrinationnl

nationally Centralized, scaled Implementing parent company strategies in national units Adapting parent company competencies Knowledge is developed and retained at headquarters Knowledge is developed at headquarters and transferred to overseas units globally Sources of core ~ompetencies centralized, others decentralized

Configurations of assets and capabilities

Decentralized, self-sufficient

Roie of national units

Sensing and exploiting local opportunities

Development and diffusion of knowledge

Knowledge is developed and retained within each unit

Dispersed, interdependent, and specialized Differentiated contributions by national units to integrated worldwide operations Knowledge is developed jointly, shared worldwide

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industry Bartlett

is and how global and Ghoshal(l989) approach). Bartlett form

the organizations involvement. specify Table

strategy

should

be. There

are many possible namely 1990 of these

kinds and degrees

of international

four types of firms operating some posture, in which recognize (Harzing, development organizational rather they learning

across borders, characteristics

the multi-nc~tional, glohul, internmtiond for a different types of firms. organizational (p.16) purpose efficiency, and Ghoshal mentality

and trcmsnmtional firm (see Adler & Ghadar, that the transnational it is a mode should flexibility

I presents
emphasize (p.17) strategic

is not so much an of management organizational to global

or specific

or management national

and shared

play a key role. Transnationals responsiveness must be very flexible the necessary elements Finally. across

pay attention

and worldwide

at the same time. In order to do strategy. strategic through The first advantage. and international through of this & stages

this their strategy step involves customers. expansion integrating strategy Wells, strategy, strategies whether Bartlett of a clear organizational processes strategy.

1995, ~38). of a total global

Yip (I 995) describes developing This core strategy

the corr .stnrtr,qy, the basis of sustainable such as types of products/services, step is irltPrrrLItiOll(lli~ill,~ the core strategy

includes

investments, occurs

The second of activities. the strategy process,

~y/ohali~in~~ the international

Organizations has received Many factors often such (see below). much

strategy

countriex.

can be in different attention the (e.g.

as are the firms in the sample strategy and and structure 1987). of & Doz. degree firms,

The fit between 1972; structure for each strategy

Stopford between

Pralahad operating

complicate different and

relation

international or products indeed 1985).

involvement pursue (Yip, a

of organizations. types

Large

internationally

for example, is

of worldwide process

of their

businesses

1995). Also,

one can question sequential

development

rational implies

(Whittington,

199.3: Mintzberg fit between

& Waters. and

and Ghoshals flexibility

( 1989) work on the transnational

strategy needed problem structure in favor to face complex

a rejection

of the notion and Management comes with

of seeking

the strategic

and dynamic

environments. which

and attitudes The greatest

are seen as the key to successful is the large potential

implementation

of such a flexible

for fragmentation

such flexibility and a strong force of unification is needed in such a context. According to Bartlett and Ghoshal the most successful firm\ had developed understanding and acceptance the level carefully direction The role corporate corporate and provide attitudes importance international crafted of a clear and consistent of the vision manager corporate vision and the resultin, 0 increased can act as global corporate stability CEOs identification glue. (Bartlett

a common at a

( 1989. p. 176). The understanding

and commitment effective. of strategic 1989, p. 176). a beacon At its most & Ghoshal,

of the individual and (, .) an anchor of top management vision level is essential. increasingly across strategic

and well-articulated

vision could become

of organizational and especially As Fombrun calls

( 1992)

in crafting and disseminating this leadership at the puts it effective skilled basic where Ghoshal in the fine mentality business emphasize art of values and in an the articulate organizational doing

for personable (p. 177). CEOs are such basic Bartlett

executives

communicating towards

boundaries direction

in their vision

(Robert, and

1993). Management

internalization

values

environment of a clear vision

is concerned. reflecting

( 1989)

a transnational

management

mentality.

Charisma and Rhetoric

359

This emphasis on management mentality starts with Perlmutters (1969) classic work on varying attitudes of top management towards international involvement. Perlmutter distinguished ethnocentric (home country oriented), polycentric (host country oriented) and geocentric (world oriented) attitudes. The strategic assumption following from the ethnocentric perspective is a one best way to manage and do things. A polycentric perspective implies there are many good ways, leading to local responsiveness dependent on the nation involved. A geocentric attitude combines local responsiveness with global integration and fits the transnational described above. Many authors have combined organizational structures and development phases of multinational firms with these management attitudes (e.g. Adler, 1991; Harzing & Van Ruysseveldt, 1995; Mabey & Salaman, 1995). The predominance of such attitudes is likely to differ at different stages of the process of global strategy formation and for organizations seeking different degrees or kinds of international involvement. The three organizations in this study (see appendix 2) show different kinds and levels of international involvement. The first, the Body Shop, is known to replicate its domestic business approach abroad. The second, the Bank of Montreal, used to be a primarily domestic business, although they have developed into an international firm (45% of their income in the first quarter of 1997 was earned outside Canada) and are rapidly expanding their working territory and activities. The third organization, Philips, is a genuinely transnational and globally scaled company, that has faced many problems in cross-border operations. These companies are at different stages of the global strategy formation process, which is expected to be reflected in the speeches of the CEOs. Following from their strategy of replication of domestic businesses, speeches by Anita Roddick, CEO of the Body Shop, are expected to reflect a one best way mentality, emphasizing core strategy elements rather than cultural differences. The speeches by the Bank of Montreals CEO Matthew Barrett should reflect the stage of internationalizing the core strategy and consequently a more polycentric many best ways attitude. Speeches by the Philips CEO Jan Timmer should reflect a transnational or geocentric management mentality and global strategy. CHARISMA AND RHETORIC: THE CONTENT OF THE VISION As was shown above, corporate visions and articulate visionary leaders are often thought to play a key role in the (international) strategy literature (e.g. Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1989; Robert, 1993; Whittington, 1993). Many approaches to charismatic leadership have also emphasized the importance of articulating an attractive vision and providing an idealized image of the future for followers (Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Sashkin, 1988). Although communication of vision and leader rhetoric are deemed important, only little explanation is available about why leader rhetoric is related to charisma or what makes a speech charismatic in the sense of producing strong emotional and motivational effects on followers (Shamir et al. 1994). In their study, which was one of the first to explicitly address this topic, Shamir et al. (1994) focused on speech content. Shamir et al. developed several content categories based on Shamir et al.s (1993) motivational theory of charismatic leadership. According to this theory charismatic leaders recruit and engage the self-concept of followers by two principal methods: role modeling and frame alignment. The focus here is on the latter.

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Frame alignment (Snow, Rochford, Worden & Benford, 1986) refers to the linkage of individual and leader interpretative orientations, in such a way that some set of followers interests, values and beliefs and the leaders activities goals and ideology become congruent and complementary (House & Podsakoff, 1994). Frames are symbolic structures people use to make sense of personal and social experiences and to guide action (Conger, 1989). Frames or schemata of interpretation enable individuals to locate, perceive, and label occurrences within their life and the world at large. By rendering events or occurrences meaningful, frames function to organize experience and guide action, whether individual or collective (Goffman, 1974; Fairhurst & Sarr, 1996). Framing has mainly been explored in its relation to decision-making and since Kahneman and Tverskys (1979) seminal work, an extensive body of research has shown that framing equivalent information in different ways can systematically affect the actions taken by decisionmakers (Dunegan, 1993). Through communicating a vision a charismatic leader engages in framing; i.e. placing the vision in a certain context, interpreting reality for listeners and giving meaning to events. Fiol, Harris and House (1992), for instance, found that charismatic US presidents engage in systematic frame alignment communications more often than less charismatic presidents. Fairhurst and Sarr ( 1996) emphasize the daily occurrence of framing behavior and illustrate how leaders gain support for their vision and inspire action through framing events, ideas and goals at every opportunity. One of the major ways for CEOs to engage in frame alignment is through their speeches (Shamir et al., 1994). Table 2 presents propositions about the contents of charismatic leaders speeches as worded by Shamir et al. ( 1994). The content themes in speeches are related to the nature and content of the vision, as leaders use their speeches to disseminate (parts of ) this vision. Sashkin (1988) defines three key content dimensions underlying effective visions of organizational leaders: rkccrliqqw,ith chrq~r, idtwl ,yotrls. and pople evrkincg togctlwr. According to Sashkin, such visions help the organization to deal with change. Change could involve responding to a crisis, adjusting to meet rapid developments in technology and markets or adapting to increased international involvement. Stressing the never-ending search for innovative ideas and new products is an example of this theme. Table 2 About the Content of Charismatic Speeches Shamir et al. (1994)
of non-ch;tri~matic leaders, the qwecheh

Propositions

Leaders

In comparison

with the speeche\

ofchurimx~t~

leader\

will contain:

Charisma

and Rhetoric

361

In this study the focus is on the international strategy and accompanying management mentality as reflected in the vision. Effective visions incorporate goals, in terms of ideal conditions or processes rather than explicitly defined final ends or production standards. An effective vision also contains focus on the people that make the vision a reality, both within and outside the organization (e.g., employees and customers). Coordinating and integrating activities of the collective is essential to gain commitment and execute the vision (Sashkin, 1988). FOUR ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC: CONTENT, STYLE AND DELIVERY. COMPOSITION,

The bases of international strategy and management mentality are expected to be reflected in the content of the speeches of the CEOs in this study. The content of the vision and of speeches designed to communicate the vision to followers is extremely important in gaining follower acceptance of and commitment to the mission. However, exploring charismatic rhetoric shows that there are other important elements besides speech content that seem to contribute substantially to the strong motivational and emotional effects that such speeches have. Westley and Mintzberg (1991, p.43-44) state: How the vision is communicated thus becomes as important as what is communicated. (. . .) Language has the ability to stimulate, not only through appeals to logic but also through appeals to emotion (Burke, 1950; Pfeffer, 1981; Edelman, 1964). Rhetoricians since Aristotle have observed the potential of linguistic devices such as alliteration, irony, imagery and metaphor to provoke identification and commitment among listeners. Indeed, several rhetorical devices were shown to be effective in eliciting response from the audience (Atkinson, 1984; Heritage & Greatbatch, 1986). This shared rhetorical tradition suggests that some rhetorical devices may be effective across a broad range of (Western) cultures. Table 3 presents several (related) aspects of the rhetoric of charismatic leaders and examples of writings focusing on those aspects. A distinction is made between the message

Table 3 Several (Related) Aspects of the Rhetoric of Charismatic Leaders and Examples of Writings Focusing on those Aspects

+ what the speech is about

+ how the message is framed through the use of metaphors. or other rhetorical devices (p.e. allit-

+ the way in which one communicates. p.e friendly, dominant Norton, 1983 Luthans & Larsen, 1986 Holladay & Coombs, 1993; I994

+ the actual delivery of the speech including nonverbal aspects, such as facial expressions. eyecontact, gestures, tone of voice Friedman et al. ( 1980) Holladay & Coombs, 1992; 1994

Sashkin, 198X Conger, 1989 Shamir et al., 1994

e&ion. lists)

rhytm. contrasts,

Atkinson, 19X4 Conger, I989 Willner. I94 Fairhurst & Sarr. 1996

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that is presented and the person who is presenting it. Regarding the message, the focus can be more on message content (as explained above) or primarily on the form or construction of the message (e.g. use of rhetorical devices to present the content). Fairhurst and Sarr (1996) refer to this last category as tools for framing. Rhetorical construction or composition of speeches and the role of linguistic devices are described in more detail later. This article focuses primarily on the message side of rhetoric. The expressiveness and behavior of the person delivering the message are addressed briefly. Regarding the person delivering the message the focus can be on style or delivery (Holladay & Coombs, 1994). Communicator style refers to the way in which one communicates (e.g. considerate; dominant) and is defined as the way one verbally, nonverbally, and paraverbally interacts to signal how literal meaning should be taken, interpreted, filtered or understood (Norton, 1983. p.58). Delivery is less broad and refers the actual presentation of the message, including nonverbal aspects and expressive behavior (e.g. speaking rate, fluency, facial expressions). Friedman, Prince, Riggio and Di Matte0 (1980) suggest that charisma manifests itself in nonverbal emotional expressiveness. Nonverbal cues can be used to move. inspire or captivate others (p.333).
Content Versus Delivery

Holladay and Coombs (1993, 1994) use experiments to examine leader charisma in relation to message delivery and content. Their results indicate that although both content and delivery play a role in the development of perceptions of charisma, the effect of delivery is stronger. Holladay and Coombs (1994, p.181) state: poor delivery distracts listeners from message content, thus reducing the clarity of message content (McCroskey, 1968). Thus, powerful delivery might be necessary for the content to have its full effect on followers. A potential problem in this type of experiment comparing the relative effects of delivery and content is that it seems easier to realistically manipulate the effects of delivery than the effects of content in an experimental session. Consequences following from the content of real life leaders speeches often have a potentially profound effect on followers lives. This is not the case where the content of a videotaped speech of an unknown leader in an experimental setting is concerned. In an experimental setting listeners are not affected (as they are in a real context) by the vision, they are not familiar with the focal leaders ideas and values underlying the presented vision beforehand, and probably dont have prior expectations (which listeners in real life situations often will have). These elements could bias the relative effects of delivery and content in inducing attributions of charisma. Possibly. content and delivery differ in invoking either short or long term reactions of the audience. Following Shamir et al. (1994) the fierce long term commitment to the charismatic leader and his or her mission could retlect followers embracement of the ideas communicated in the speech, the speech content. However, the short term enthusiasm and inspiration, the cheers and the tears speakers bring about, could be more related to the way leaders compose and deliver their spellbinding speech. From this perspective, content as well as composition and delivery of the speech contribute to perceived eloquence, which in turn contributes to followers attribution of charisma to leaders. Assuming that the short term effects are mostly influenced by the composition and actual delivery of the speech

Charisma and Rhetoric that the crowd can be emotionally moved delivered without necessarily changing their belief speech. In order for the vision communicated charismatic effects and convert followers, the certain attractive interpretations of reality resulting means

363

and affected by the speech while it is system to incorporate the ideas from the in the speech to have longer lasting content needs to provide followers with in shared meaning.
Style

Communicator

Perceptions of charisma can be related to different aspects of communicator style. Norton (1983) distinguishes eleven style variables contributing to a persons communicator style (e.g. animated, contentious, dominant, dramatic, friendly, relaxed, precise). The friendly, attentive, dominant and reflective dimensions of communicator style were found to act as behavioral indicators of charisma (Holladay & Coombs, 1994). Friendly and attentive styles reflect social attractiveness (Norton, 1983) and social sensitivity (i.e. signaling attentiveness, encouragement, and involvement with others) which Riggio (1987) describes as a essential component of charisma. Also, charismatic leaders are often described as determined and confident (e.g. House, 1977; Bass, 1988). The dominant and relaxed styles act as indicators of self-confidence and control which corresponds to such descriptions of charismatic leaders (Holladay & Coombs, 1994). Again, a limited universality in such styles seems possible. Some style elements may act as universal behavioral indicators of charisma, whereas others are likely to be culture specific. Kanungo and Mendonca (1996) emphasize the importance of charismatic leadership in developing countries and describe both leader behaviors similar to and different from those found in Western countries. Also, Jung, Bass and Sosik (199.5) suggest charisma is more easily transmitted in collectivistic cultures. COMPOSING THE MESSAGE: THE USE OF LINGUISTIC DEVICES

Willner (1984) addresses three elements in the style of verbal communication that she feels are typical to charismatic leaders eloquence. First, the ability to adapt the level of language to the audience. Second, rhetorical devices related to sound such as repetition, rhythm and alliteration. Third, charismatic leaders powerful use of figurative language and imagery, such as metaphors. The use of humor and identifying a common enemy can also be effective in this respect. An important part of effective oratory is the gearing of the used language to different audiences. The level of the spoken language, e.g. elevated, literal or colloquial is important as different levels may have different associations and emotive power. Willner (1984) provides examples of Franklin D. Roosevelt who very effectively tailored public talks to the man in the street. Conger (1989) suggests that charismatic leaders may be more adept at tailoring their level of language to different audiences than other leaders. His explanation for the strong effect that adapting language to the audience has, is that a high-status person such as a CEO is expected to use an elevated style of language. When unexpectedly the every day language of the factory worker is used, this may create a special positive response. A sense of equality with someone so elevated may at times produce a sense of affection and admiration. This element of ordinary in someone so elevated makes the latter seem even

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greater (Conger, 1989; Willner; 1984). Interestingly Shamir et al. (1994) refer to the effectiveness of this sense of equality as well. They regard the leaders references to identification with followers as a content category of speeches. Such gearing of language to emphasize equality may be more difficult in an international setting. Another component of rhetoric is related to sound: repetition, rhythm, balance, and alliteration. Each of these may have particular implications in the oral traditions of particular cultures (Willner, 1984, p 152-1.53). Repetition can be effective to get a message across as it facilitates recall. Words that are spoken are more difficult to comprehend and recall than words that are written down. Unlike words in written messages, words in speeches disappear once they are spoken, unless they are remembered. Repetition and rhyme focus the audience on the key ideas presented, making words stick to the mind (see also Conger, 1989). Metaphors and analogies show the likeness of two things, often things that are very unlike each other. They are used for vividness, clarification, or to express certain emotions. Metaphors can serve to interpret or illustrate reality, Fairhurst and Sarr (1996) refer to metaphors as a tool for framing. Metaphors appeal to various senses of the listener, they engage emotion, intellect, imagination and values. This variety of stimulation ensures a more vivid experience for the listener (Conger, 1989). This vividness makes the vision and ideas a leader communicates come to life. Bryman (1992 p 61) states: the deployment of metaphor seems to be a striking feature of the oratory of many charismatic leaders, and this almost certainly contributes to their effectiveness as speakers, since there is clear evidence that metaphors contribute greatly to the capacity of the leader to persuade others (see, for instance, Bosman, 1987). Willner (1984) shows that Franklin D. Roosevelt frequently used religious and martial imagery to get his message across. The first excerpt is an example of FDRs use of a biblical metaphor. It is from his first inaugural address (March, 1933).
1 The money-changers have fled from their high seats in the temple of our civilization We may now restore that temple to its ancient truths.

The second example is from FDRs acceptance It shows his use of martial imagery.
2

of Democratic

nomination

speech in 1932.

This is more than a political campaign. it is a call to arms. Give me your help. not to win votes alone but to win in this crusade to restore America to its own people.

These metaphors create a vivid image for the audience. They should be able to visualize and feel the idea he puts into words. Fairhurst and Sarr (I 996) also describe stories, spin and jargon. Stories frame a subject by providing an example. A spin can be used to put a subject in a positive or negative light, revealing its strengths or weaknesses. Jargon or catch phrases frame a subject in familiar terms which can enhance meaning. The linguistic dimensions of rhetoric mentioned above are the ones most frequently used to provide some insight in the composition of speeches by charismatic leaders, although overall the attention for the role of rhetoric in charismatic leadership has been scarce. Hardly any work has focused on the role of CEO rhetoric in international business. Through the use of discourse analysis we will now show the use of several other highly effective rhetorical devices that have not received much attention in relation to the communication acts of charismatic CEOs.

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365

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS AS A METHOD THE RHETORICAL CONSTRUCTION

TO UNRAVEL OF SPEECHES

Speeches of three CEOs of international corporations, Anita Roddick (The Body Shop), Jan Timmer (former CEO of Philips) and Matthew Barrett (Bank of Montreal) who have been described by subordinates and the media as charismatic were analyzed through discourse analysis (Potter & Wetherell, 1987; 1994; Edwards & Potter, 1992) with two goals. The first, to show the rhetorical devices used to construct the message and the second is to reveal the management mentality and attitude towards internationalization of these CEOs, Appendix 1 presents the data base of speeches used for the analyses. Appendix 2 presents short descriptions of the companies. Below, the method of discourse analysis is described and examples of how the three CEOs use effective rhetorical devices in their speeches are given. This is followed by, for each CEO, presenting part of the more extensive analysis of their speeches. These analyses focus on how international strategy and attitude are reflected in the vision and show how such message content is rhetorically constructed.
Introducing Discourse Analysis

Discourse analysis focuses on all forms of talk and texts as social practices - whether they are naturally occurring conversations, interviews, speeches or written texts - and on the resources that are drawn on to enable those practices (Potter, 1996). Potter and Wetherell (1987, 1994) identify three features of discourse analysis. First, regarding talk and text as social practices implies rejecting the idea that language is a neutral means of describing the world (Gill, 1996). Even a simple phenomenon can be described in many ways, depending on the orientation of the speaker (Potter, 1996). Second, discourse is concerned with action, construction and variability of language. People perform actions of different kinds through their talk and their writing, and they accomplish the nature of these actions partly through constructing their discourse out of a range of styles, linguistic resources and rhetorical devices (Potter & Wetherell, 1994, p. 48). Different actions (e.g. blaming, justifying, persuading) can be performed through language, which makes variation in the description of phenomena significant. Discourse analysis focuses on the constructive process of language, which implies attention to the content as well as the organization of talk and texts. Third, discourse analysis is concerned with the rhetorical (argumentative) organization of talk and thought. Answers to social or sociological questions rather than linguistic ones are sought. Discourse analysis emphasizes the value of studying unstructured and symbolic media as do other qualitative approaches such as content analysis (cf. Krippendorf, 1980). However, discourse analysis goes beyond identifying pre-coded intervals in texts, as the main interest lies in how those intervals are then constructed to serve as discursive actions (Edwards & Potter, 1993). Analysis of discourse implies reading for detail, which is necessary to unravel the (rhetorical) construction of messages. Exactly how you analyze discourse depends on the question you are asking (see Gill, 1996). The procedure followed in this study was based on Gill (1996). After data collection and (where necessary) transcription of the material, the material was coded. The coding categories are described later. The excerpts in the different categories were then analyzed. The two main questions guiding this analysis were: a) how the charismatic content was

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Table 4 Examples of the Effective Rhetorical Devices as Given by Atkinson Heritage and Greatbatch (1986) Contrast:
One of the most famous Kennedy as US president Kennedy: examples in 1961. of the use

(1984) and

of contrast (A.B)

is probably

found

in the inaugural

adress of John F.

A. Ask not what your country can do for you. B. Ask what you can do for your country. List (especially
A famous Lincoln: I Government 2 by the people. 3 for the people of the people, three-part lists): is found in Abraham Lincolns Gettysburg Adress in

example

of a list (1.2.3)

I X63

A combination
The example combination

of these:
the wartime within speeches for the British House of Commons by Winston Churchill in 1940. A a contrast (A.B).

here is from

of a list (I .2,3)

Churchill: Never in the field of human conflict has

A B Puzzle-solution:
The following insulting campaign

1 so much been owed by 2 SO many to 3 so few

example

of a contrast

framed

as a puzzle-solution in Washington

(or headline-punchline: DC is from

H.P)

in which Wallace

the somewhat (from his 1982

punchline

is directed

at the government of Alabama).

a speech by George

for the governorship Wallace: H. Being paralysed with

in the legs is nothing.

P. The trouble

our country
are paralysed

in this last ten or twenty in the head instead

or thirty

years has been that weve

had too many

people

in Washington

of being

in the leg.

Position taking: The following complex

(A.B) in a list (1.2.3) Thatcher: For the unspoken I

example before

used to show position

position during

taking. a Prime

Margaret Ministers

Thatcher

uses a combination (1981):

of three contl

taking

(PT)

Address

assumption

behind

policies

of withdrawal

and unilateral

disarmament

A is that others will

continue

to bear their burdens

B and pick up ours as well 2 A that others B even though 3 A that others B and provide PT+ What would continue to accept our products

we refuse would

to accept theirs the defense which of Europe shelter

ensure

a shield

behind policy

we could

a contemptible

for Britain.

Pursuit: The example combination given here is from (H) the British punchline liberal party. pursuit 19X1. when Lord Mayhew the point speaks out on defense he just made. using the

of a headline

(P) with

to reemphasize

Mayhew: And H P how will the Americans one thing will react if a British that will government says we reject these missiles unconditionally.

I know
They

be said in Washington. arent gomg to have these weapons talks. anyway they must stop

say. well

if the British

badgering Pursuit+

us about these multilateral going

disarmament

That?, whats

to be said in Washington

Charisma and Rhetoric

367

rhetorically constructed through the use of different rhetorical devices; and b) attitude towards inte~ationalization and phase of globalization of the international is reflected in the CEOs vision. Before showing parts of the fuil analyses aimed research questions, examples of the use of such devices by the three international leaders are given to illustrate how a message can be rhetorically constructed.
Using Rhetorical Devices: Examples

how the strategy at these business

Discourse analysis integrates some ideas from conversation analysis (Potter, 1996; see Atkinson & Heritage, 1984 for an overview of conversation analysis). Using conversation analysis, Atkinson (1984) and Heritage and Greatbatch (1986) have shown that audience responses to political speeches, such as clapping and cheering, are strongly influenced by the rhetorical construction of political messages, independent of political party, status or popularity of the message. Atkinson (1984) suggests that a restricted class of rhetorical devices is consistently effective in evoking positive reactions from the audience, that mastery of the use of these devices is a characteristic skill of charismatic speakers, and that such devices are prevalent in passages from speeches selected for quotation or presentation in the news media. The devices described by Atkinson (1984) and Heritage and Greatbatch (1986) are: contrast, list (especially three-part lists), puzzle-solution/headline-punchline. position taking, pursuit, repetition, and alliteration. Table 4 presents quotes illustrating such rhetorical devices. Below, the devices are described in more detail and examples from the speeches of the three international business leaders in this study are given.

Contrast
The most widely used resource of orators is probably the contrast. Contrasts describe a subject in terms of its opposite (Fairhurst & Sarr, 1994). Atkinson (1984) states that it is the most effective rhetorical device in eliciting applause, a$ the completion point of the contrast can be anticipated by the audience. All three leaders in the sample regularly use contrasts to make a point. The following excerpts provide examples. The first excerpt is from Anita Roddicks speech at the 31st Congress of the International Chamber of Commerce in Mexico: 3 Remember, corporations are invented. They are human institutions, not species found
in nature.

The contrast between human institutions and not species found in nature is clear. The following excerpt is from the 1992 Philips customer day where Jan Timmer answered questions of employees from all over the world concerning one of the targets of Philips well-known global change operation Centurion. 4 Thats encouraging because thats the only way to learn and because we are being so proud of ourselves and Philips, we are very often bad listeners; we want to preach and tell people rather than learn from what they have to tell us. So with the outcome of this survey in front of me here I think we are going to see some very exciting improvement.

Timmer strengthens the impact of the statement that a lot employees dont listen to customers, by adding the contrast between preach and tell versus learn from what they have to tell us.

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In the following excerpt from his The future of banking speech Barrett plays a word game contrasting just being game ready with being ready for any kind of game. 5 In todays banking, the rules of the game change every day. Our goal is to be not only
game ready. It is to he ready for any kind of game.

list

Another rhetorical device, which is almost as effective and popular as the contrast is the three-part list. One of the main attra~tiorls of three-part lists is that they have an air of unity or completeness about them (Atkinson, 1984, p 57). According to Atkinson the most plausible explanation for this is that three is the minimum number of elements required to show that there is indeed a list of similar items, two consecutive items would show the possibility of a link to a more general class of phenomena which is confirmed by the third item. Once this common thread is established less and less is gained by adding more items (they become redurldant). This means that three is both the minimal number to unambiguously establish a connection and the maximally economic number for doing so without becoming excessive. Many examples of three part lists were found in the analyzed speeches. The following excerpt is from the 1992 customer day at Philips. 6
~7 That together we are stron,. together we can make progress and that our destiny reafly is in our own hands. That we no longer say they ought to do sonlethin~ but that we continue to say after today we are going to do something. That will restore the Philipsimage. That will make Philips again a very nice place to work in. That will make Philips 3

conlpany we can all be proud of.

In this closing statement Timmer uses two three part lists. the first is a list in one sentence: 1. together we are strong. 2. together we can make progress 3. our destiny really is in our own hands The second three part liht in the excerpt consists of three separate but related sentences starting with -That will.. . . The next excerpt is from The future of banking speech by Matthew Barrett.
7 Ranking is of course an old business. around since the Remans and probably longer. There are days when 1 feel like I have been working in it for 2000 years myself. old definitely dynamic industries today. Where\jer

But

doe5 not mean static. On the contrary, banking is one of the most

I look I see expanding horizons, boundaries is followed by a three part list:

disappeari~i~, ~ppt~rtllllities growing.

The contrast between static and dynamic 1. expanding horizons 2. boundaries disappearing 3. opportLitlities growing.

He also uses humor stating there are days I feel like I have been working in it for 2000 years.

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The following conference. 8

excerpt is from Anita Roddicks

speech at the Spirit and the world

The people I work with are mostly under thirty, mostly female whose ethics are care and all are in search of present day heroes or heroines. For them their work is about search for a daily meaning as well as their daily bread, for recognition as well as cash, for astonishment rather than torpor.

Every part of this complicated 1. a) 2. a) 3. a)

three part list is constructed b) b) b)

as a contrast. their daily bread cash torpor

search for a daily meaning as well as for recognition as well as for astonishment rather than

Puzzle-SolutionlHeadline-Punchline

A puzzle-solution or headline-punchline is usually a special type of contrast. The speaker creates a possibility to present a punchline or a solution by first giving a headline or creating some kind of puzzle in the minds of the audience. As such, the punchline or solution is perceived to be more powerful than it would have been when stated without the headline or puzzle. The solution or punchline is the statement which forms the core of the message the speaker wishes to get across. According to Heritage and Greatbatch (1986) its effectiveness is obvious, since the audience is normally able to anticipate the point which is made. Like metaphors, this type of device appeals to the intellectual ability of listeners, creating a more vivid image in the minds of people in the audience than simply stating the point would. As the following excerpt shows, puzzle-solutions or headline-punchlines are often combined with lists.
9 I came from an Italian immigrant family. At ten years of age, when my father died, my mother and us four kids worked in a large cafe. There were no family holidays, there were no family diversions, except for the weekly cinema, it was work! It was a livelihood. It was an extension of our home, our kitchen. Courtships flourished in that cafe, marriage formed, friendships connected, the eye was delighted, the music from the jukebox spoke personally to everyone and your heart was in the workplace. It taught me a huge lesson, you can bring your heart to work with you. It taught me business was not financial science, it is about trading, buying and selling. It is about creating a product or service so good that people will pay a higher price for that.

In this excerpt Anita Roddick (at the Dartington conference) graphically depicts a story (see Fairhurst & Sarr, 1996) about her youth. She uses this story to emphasize the point she wants to make. She constructs her point as the solutions for the puzzle presented in this story. P. S. It taught me a huge lesson, you can bring your heart to work with you. It taught me business was not financial science, it is about truding, buying and selling. It is about creating a product or service so good that people will pay a higher price for that.

Note that trading, buying and selling is one of the three part lists in this excerpt.

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Position taking

Heritage and Greatbatch (1986) describe another effective, relatively straightforward rhetorical device, namely position taking. The speaker starts by giving a more or less neutral description of a certain state of affairs. After this exposC the speaker strongly agrees or disagrees with this state of affairs. The following excerpt from the 1996 annual meeting of the bank of Montreal (the speech Architects of our Future) shows the use of position taking by Matthew Barrett.
10

As the weeks since October 30 have passed one by one, my optimism has slowly
waned. What I hear are seductive voices calling us back to jobs and the economy. Even the incoming premier of Quebec is saying as much. And the polls suggest the public agrees. I don t agree.

PT-+ I don t agree. Anita Roddick also makes ample use of position taking. This is inherent in her strong moral views on environmental protection, fair trade with the third world and her overall exceptional position in international business. Excerpt 11, taken from her presentation at the London Business School, shows an example of her position taking. 11 Ah yes many would say - hut free trade brings growth and jobs. That is the nub. I do
not believe that unfettered free trade inevitably brings growth in anything but shortterm profits and long-term environmental destruction.

PT-+l c10riot believe.

The following excerpt from Timmers 1994 speech at the customer champions session shows his use of position taking. Whereas he could have also stated that one single concern language was preferable, his position is that the diversity is great. II! I was also surprised this afternoon to hear in how many different ways (including my own) the concern language can be spoken. I thought that was great.
alliteration

Pursuit, repetition,

The use of pursuit, repetition and alliteration has also proved effective in eliciting response from an audience (Atkinson, 1984; Willner, 1984). The term pursuit refers to the speaker actively pursuing audience reactions or applause by repeating or otherwise stressing the point just made. This serves to reemphasize that point. Pursuit can, for instance, be found after remarks such as I repeat. .._ For an example see table 4 or the fully analyzed excerpt of Timmer (nr 18a) presented later. As stated earlier the use of repetition facilitates recall. Repeating a key element in a phrase or a single word several times directs attention to the point the speaker is trying to make. In the excerpts used so far several examples of these devices can be found. In excerpt 6 Timmer uses repetition in his three part List: 1. Tl?lrt wi/I restore the Philips-image. 2. Tht rrifl make Philips again a very nice place to work in. 3. Thut mill make Philips a company we can all be proud of.

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4.

Anita Roddick also uses this device in a similar fashion. An example can be found in an excerpt from her speech at the International Chamber of Commerce in Mexico.
13

The point is not perfection. The point is not even the rightness or wrongness of Levi
Strausss conscious stance. The point is that they took a conscious moral decision and should be congratulated for recognizing the moral content of their practical decisions. All of us-in business and out of it-need to do more of that.

Here Anita Roddick

emphasizes

she is about to make a point by restating

the point is not

twice before making the point. The alliteration of the words together, better in the following example from Timmers 1992 speech produces a tendency to see the two as related, creating an almost natural connection between the words together and better. As the example shows, alliteration can facilitate recall through providing an easily memorized rhythm.
14 It doesnt matter whose fault it is because we all suffer. So this forces us to work together, better and one of the old evils in our company was exactly this..

Combinations

Above we illustrated the use of several rhetorical devices in different speeches. The most effective way of eliciting response is combining the rhetorical devices. Here is an example of such a combination from Barretts Future of banking speech: 15 A typical bank - including
my bank - was once monolithic, homogenous, selfcontained and self-absorbed. For many years, conventional wisdom held that a banks commitment ended where the sidewalk began. But now weve changed. We are in the streets. We are out there, active, engaged and involved. building bridges to the many communities that make up society today, chipping away at the old, stereotypical view of banks.

In the first part of this excerpt Barrett uses rhythm in drawing a graphically historical picture of banks. This historical picture is contrasted by a combination part lists: 1. A typical bank - including my bank - was once monolithic, contained and self-absorbed. 2. But nmt weve changed We are in the streets We are out there, a. active b. engaged and c. involved

worded of three

homogenous,

self-

This is followed by two contrasting metaphors building bridges versus chipping away re-emphasizing his point that the old image no longer holds. As this example shows, Barrett skillfully combines different rhetorical devices in a complex manner, strengthening the impact of his message. Note that when he is speaking about the less positive selfabsorbed past he takes responsibility in stating my bank whereas when he speaks about the positive changes he refers to the collective, using we.

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Propositions

Table 5 About the Content of Visionary Speeches Following Sashkin (1988)

will contain:

Compared to non-visionary speeches, visionary speeches of business lea.& I 2 3

More references to issues dealing with change and focus on improvement More references to goals in terms of ideal conditions and processes More reference\ to the people who can make the vision a reality

CHARISMATIC CONTENT AND INTERNATIONAL

LEADERSHIP

In this section part of one of the speeches by each of the CEOs in the sample will be more extensively analyzed to show how management attitudes towards internationalization and the international strategies of their firms are reflected in the vision. Three categories were used to identify charismatic parts of the speeches. These categories were defined on basis of the three key content dimensions of visions as described by Sashkin (1988). The first category was defined as dealing with change and a focus on improvement. The second category dealt with the reference to goals in terms of ideal conditions or processes. Central to the third category was the focus on people. both within and outside the company, as the ones through which the vision must become a reality (see table 5). International strategy could be regarded as part of the first category (e.g. dealing with increasingly global markets and competitors), however, as one of the central questions regards international strategy and the accompanying management mentality, we chose to add it as a separate category. Potter and Wetherell (1994, p.52) state: unlike the sorts of coding that take place in tr~~ditional content analysis, the coding is not the analysis itself but a preliminary to make the task of analysis manageabfe. Excerpts referring to one (or more) of the first three categories were coded as charismatic in content. This process resulted in a great number of charismatic excerpts. These excerpts were then again coded as to whether or not they reflected the aforementioned management mentality or international strategy. Next, the rhetorical construction of the coded excerpts was unraveled. A fully analyzed excerpt of each CEO (coded as ch~~risln~~tic and reflecting lnanagelnent mentality) is presented below.
Anita Roddick (The Body Shop)

Out of disappointment with the regular cosmetic market where according to Anita Roddick products were ur~necessar~fy tested on animals, excessively packaged and priced as welf as characterized by false claims, she started a small cosmetics shop in England in 1976. The Body Shop is now a leading cosmetics company with over 1300 shops in 44 countries in which Roddick serves as CEO. From the start the Body Shop was known for its strong emphasis on social and environmental issues. In line with the ideological mission of the Body Shop (see appendix 2), Roddicks speeches include a strong reference to the categories in table 5. A strong emphasis on improvement and dealing with change is voiced in highly idealized terms. In her vision improvement and change are highly related to the second category of ideal goals. More emphasis on business ethics and corporate responsibility, decreasing poverty and putting a

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halt to environmental destruction are primary ideal goals. She also places a strong emphasis on the people who she feels can make the vision a reality. The fourth category refers to international strategy and management mentality. The Body Shop is based on a universalistic ideology. They promote one best global way. In terms of Bartlett and Ghoshals typology The Body Shop International can be seen as a global firm as it is globally scaled, highly centralized and based on the parent company strategy. The domestic business philosophy was originally established not so much to appeal to the domestic mainstream cosmetics consumer, but to reflect globally relevant principles. Roddick believes that her company does things the right way and others should follow their example. In excerpt 16 taken from her speech on Women in business (see appendix I), Roddick talks about advertising. This excerpt provides an example of her vision on the position of her company in the world. Excerpt 16: 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 What we do well at The Body Shop is communicate with passion because passion persuades. We also know that in this decade, to educate and communicate you have to be daring, enlivening and different. We go into the highway with our messages, our lorries are like moving billboards. I believe in promoting our products through global culture and linking them to political and social messages. These anecdotes have a dramatic effect because people feel they are part of the planet. I believe that boldness will be The Body Shops pre-eminent advantage in this slowgrowth decade, which as yet has no style or character. When the herd-instinct of our competitors is merely to tinker while waiting for demand to pick up, smart companies like us, are engaged in organizational revolution, altering radically how work is done and how we communicate that with our stakeholders. We see any empty space as an opportunity to create an atmosphere, deliver a message, make a point. Allow me to leave you with a favorite ethos printed on a T-shirt, given to members of staff: head in the clouds, feet on the ground, heart in the business.

In this excerpt Anita Roddick takes a position in lines l-2 using a rhythmic alliteration strengthening the message. What is done well at her company is to persuade with passion because ptrssion persuudes. The category three focus on the people who make things happen is reflected in her emphasis on the collective effort of herself and the people in her company in stressing what we do well (line 1) we also know (line 2) and we go into the highway (line 3). This is followed by a rhythmic introduction of a three part list that explains what she feels a company needs in this decade: We also know that in this decade. to educcrw and communicarr 1. daring 2. enlivening 3. different Reference to ideal goals is again found in lines 4-6 where Roddick takes position strongly by stating I believe. What she believes is constructed in a three part list naming:
you have to be

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1. global culture and linking them to 2. political and 3. social messages Her position is an example of her view on doing business. Promoting products should be done through a sense of universalism, one global rather than many local cultures. The ideological one best Body Shop way also involves promoting products through linking them to (universal) political and social messages such as, for instance poverty, environmental pollution, or in this speech, the participation of women in business. Instead of speaking about the world as a collection of countries or states, Roddick prefers to view the world as a planet all people belong to (line 7). Position taking occurs again in line 7. Rhythm serves to strengthen the point: PI--1 I believe that boldness will be The Body Shops prr-eminent .slouyyowth decade. which as yet has no style or character.
advantage

in this

Roddicks emphasis on ideal goals as well as change and improvement are found in lines 8- 13. By contrasting her smart company with the herd-instinct of competitors in line 9 the distinctiveness of her company is well constructed. This vivid metaphorical contrast between non-intelligent companies chasing one another as a herd of animals and her smart company strengthens the impact of her message. The indirect and graphical nature of this construction has more impact than directly expressing that the Body Shop is a unique company, the content of the message. Emphasizing this uniqueness underlines the one best way view and universal ideology of the Body Shop. Reference to the Body Shops people who make this vision a reality, is found again in the collective expression companies like us instead of, for instance. companies like the Body Shop or companies like mine. The distinctive features of companies like us are expressed in a three part list: smart companies like us, are engaged in: 1. organizational revolution, 2. altering radically how work is done and 3. how we communicate that with our stakeholders In lines 12-13 Roddick contrasts empty space with an opportunity to create. Rather than focusing on business opportunities on particular continents or in certain countries, Roddicks centralized global strategy involves using any empty space to promote their messages. To explain what kind of opportunity an empty space offers she uses the following three part list: 1. to create an atmosphere 2. deliver a message 3. make a point. These lines are also in contrast with the earlier mentioned .slrnvgrowth decade, which as yet has no style or character. The effect of this contrast is strong and the message is:

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although this decade has no style or character, The Body Shop is there to create an atmosphere and deliver a message. Roddick ends her speech with a strong rhythmic three part list: 1. head in the clouds 2. feet on the ground 3. heart in the business This excerpt on Roddicks views on advertising, illustrates her idea that passion and conviction are needed to persuade and that every opportunity should be used to make a point and show such passion. In Anita Roddicks vision people need to start feeling part of the planet. Such a view is universalistic rather than polycentric regarding the category of views of internationalization. The emphasis on linking advertising to political and social messages reflects her strong views on enviromental protection and human rights. They refer to the idealized goals and conditions category. Her reference to an organizational revolution, altering how work is done, refers to the improvement and dealing with change category. Her way to deal with change involves a radical strategy, in her terms an organizational revolution. The importance of the people making this vision a reality is seen in her emphasis on the Body Shop as a collective by using the terms we and us and referring to a collection of dedicated people.
Matthew Barrett (Bank of Montreal)

The Bank of Montreal (see also appendix 2) is one of Canadas pre-eminent financial institutions with a significant presence in world markets. The bank used to be a primarily domestic business, although they have now developed into an international firm in terms of Bartlett and Ghoshal (1989). Matthew Barrett joined the Bank of Montreal in 1962, came up through the ranks and was elected Chairman of the Board in 1990. Barrett is described by employees both as a powerful speaker and as inspiring and charismatic. He initiated a dramatic change in the corporate culture placing a heavy emphasis on learning. The following excerpt from his 1996 speech The future of banking (see appendix 1) Barrett explains his vision, emphasizing the importance of learning in his own words: Excerpt 17: 01 02 03 04 05 Our strategy is to embed into the organization a set of capacities, capabilities and competencies that will position and enable the organization to respond to whatever it may confront in an uncertain, turbulent world. We are preparing in two very important and substantial ways. First, in recognition that human capital is the lifeblood of a service organization, we are building a permanent Culture of Learning. Second, in recognition of

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06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14

rising

expectations

and

contemporary communities

social

trends,

we

are

reinventing

the

relationships we have with the various another way, we are building and to of our relationships as our most distinctive with all stakeholders. At the Bank, we people two and infrastructures. an ethical A cerebral one, a dynamic union of software, learning scaffolding see our culture advantage. It differentiates and open, our vital intelligence network that allows us to identify trends and absorb and incorporate them into our culture. strategy (our strategy) of the Bank of Montreal and the alliteration strategy is set out through (2) competencies rhythm. needs to respond learning (category the use and (3) Change and and to an us strongly today and over time it will do so even more. It is alive of learning trait and also our key competitive or moral infrastructure. a philosophical we serve. Putting essentially the same thing

guide the transformation

The collective of a three capabilities improvement uncertain, improvement

part list. The elements are important turbulent world. a reality points

in the list, (1) capacities, of reference as the organization

are more or less synonymous

enhances

The aforementioned (category

aims for increased

and helps the organization

deal with the uncertainty 3) are referred

1). The people such as that

who make the vision

to in collective

statements

we are preparing (. .) and we are building(. .) in lines 4 and 6-8. Barrett uses the metaphor of a living organism for the organization human capital is the lijkehlooci of the service three part list Barrett relationships. Barrett organization, stresses 3. Through a single a rhythmic the importance

in stating

which again refers to category of changing the way as (line to the Bank of Montreal of people communities which retlects who polycentric differential about Asian world 1989). Core

his bank deals with external unit or identity, 6/7) in stating nf serve. Barrett emphasizes views view. cultures. the world This

Rather than referring

again refers to the company the relationships communities (the planet), speeches as well

as a collection

cue are reinventing the various

ue have with the various in the world, diversified to the

the Bank serves Barrett where holds

the stage of internationalizing as one entity seen trade is also

the core strategy in other zones

(cf. Yip, 1995). Unlike a more he often refers

Anita Roddick

consequences competencies wide diffusion Barrett metaphor cerebral list:

of free

as the importance firm (cf. Bartlett

of learning bi Ghoshal,

This attitude

fits with the international are clearly is sought. metaphor

and knowledge and adaptation his organism

still centralized (cerebral), S-IO

at headquarters, combining it with

however,

pursues (building

a construction expression a three part

infrastructures) which

in lines

where

his

metaphorical through

infrastructure.

can be seen as a puzzle

is explained

Charisma and Rhetoric

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P. S.

we are building two infrastructures. a dynamic union of 1. software 2. learning 3. people

A cerebral one,

The last element (people) again stresses their importance (category 2). The second infrastructure is also explained through combined organism -construction metaphors when he refers to an ethical or moral infrastructure, a philosophical scaffolding. Barrett contrasts cerebral with ethical and moral, stating that both are needed and built at the Bank of Montreal. This reference to a dynamic union of software, learning and people as well as philosophical, ethical, and moral clearly reflects Barretts reference to ideal conditions and goals. In order to underline the uniqueness and competitive advantage of the Bank of Montreal, Barrett refers to the Bank saying that their culture of learning differentiates us strongly today and over time it will do so even more. This followed by extending the organism metaphor further in line (12-13) alive and open, our vital intelligence network. The nature of this vital intelligence network is explained through a three part list emphasizing an improvement orientation (category 1) along with the importance of the people which will make those goals a reality (category 3): our vital intelligence network that allows us to 1. identify trends and 2. absorb and 3. incorporate them into our culture. The content of Barretts message, focusing on learning, refers mostly to improvement and competitive advantage. This is done in ideal terms, by also stressing the moral and ethical side. The impact of Barretts message that learning is vitally important to the corporation is greatly enhanced through the form in which the message is presented, i.e. the rhetorical devices used to construct the message content. From a strategic point of view, Barretts plea to incorporate trends into the companys culture is an example of the banks outward focus on opportunities in the environment. Such a focus on the environment fits with the phase of internationalization. The reflection of this phase in his speeches is even clearer in his 1997 speech to the Union Bank of Switzerland. There he talked about strategy stating: First, and most distinctive is our North American strategy. He goes on to explain was this strategy entails and what the effects of NAFTA have been. Then he explains part of the international strategy in saying: Outside this continent we want to be positioned in the markets with strategic importance for our customers. We want to be familiar with the culture and the market before they arrive. Rather than replicating the domestic business, the parent company adapts to local needs. An example of their continuing strive for internationalization is that the Bank of Montreal was the first Canadian and eighth foreign bank to open an office in Beijing, China.
Jan Timmer (Philips)

Philips electronics is the 9th largest global industrial corporation in the electrical engineering and electronics sector (not including computers). Philips employs over

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265,000 people in I SO countries and is a genuinely transnational company (cf. Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1989). In 1990 Philips undertook the most ambitious program for restructuring and renewal in its history. This turn-aroutld was called operation Centurion. Timmer started out on the Philips shopfloor at the age of 19. As CEO he lead Philips through Centurion. In the media Timmer was called a miracle worker ,the man that personally was saved Philips who banks on his enormous charisma and even top-management mesmerized when Timmer explained the necessity of change (see appendix 2). Timmer retired as CEO in 1996. The following two excerpts are answers given by Timmer in a question and answer session at the I992 Philips customer day. Jan Timmer answered questions of employees from all over the world (using satellite connections, phones and faxes) regarding the Centurion change operation (see Appendix 2). Excerpt 18x An Irish manager asks (ironically) whether it is necessary for Philips employees to become like Japanese workaholics in light of the fierce competition in the electronics business. Timmer:
01

02 03 04 OS 06 07 08 09 IO II 12 13 14

Well, as far as I am concerned workaholics is enough. You dont havIe to become Japanese but, this is really such an important question on which a lot of time could be spent. Let me just say; if you are in a competitive situation like we are, you have to study how your competitors work. Why they/ are as successful as they are and meet them in every respect. So in a way there is a conflict between western European attitudes, where quality of live is meant to be very important, and the tremendous dedication and effort and sense of affection that is needed to be a winner. So I think we have to study them, learn from them and beat them at their own game. And then you can be as Irish as you are, as French as you are (. .).

The first category in table 5, dealing with change and improvement, is the topic of this whole question and answer session. Timmer starts expressing his vision in the first humorous part of his answer where he reassures the Irishman that he doesnt have to become Japanese in order to survive in the electronics business. Becoming a workaholic is enough. This conveys that hard work is necessary, and much work is to be done. He then completes his point by emphasizing the importance of his answer by a contrast followed by a three part list in which his message regarding what must be done is clearly expressed: 1. This is really such an important question on which a lot of time could be spent. 2. Let me just say: -+ if you are in a competitive situation like we are you have to study how your competitors work.

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Why they are as successful as they are and meet them in every respect. Timmer refers to the people who can make his vision a reality (category 3) by the identifying like we are. He goes on in the next lines to contrast western European attitudes with what is needed to be winner stressing the fact that there is severe competition from the East. What is needed to be a winner is also constructed as a three effort and affection. Instead of becoming Japanese part list, i.e. dedication, Timmer proposes to learn from and beat the Japanese. This proposal which is again construed as a three part list which is a pursuit of his earlier list: 1. you have to study how your competitors
pursuit-+

work.

to study them,

2. Why they are as successful as they are and. learn from them and 3. meet them in every respect. beat them at their own game He concludes with the message that as long as you have the dedication to be a winner it doesnt matter which country you are from. This conclusion gets back to the nationality/ identity reference in the question he was asked and underlines Philips transnational management mentality. Excerpt 18b: In this excerpt (taken from the same customer day) Timmer answers a question Norway concerning the matter of unity in their large global firm. Timmer: 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 On the one hand, if you want to be successful you need focus and dedication. Thats why we have product divisions, thats why we have business units. But at the same time (and that is not a contradiction) you have to have people who put the various Philips forces together. In a country that is very largely the responsibility of the CEO in that particular country. So its really having the best of two worlds. On the one hand, focus and dedication and on the other hand, combining all the Philips forces. And I cant say t clearer than this, because again it is a state of mind. It is what people feel and what people believe and what people want to do something about. Not a simple matter of an organizational chart. from

According to Timmer in order to be successful you need focus and dedication (line 1). That is why there are product divisions as well as business units (focus). Both help to

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constitute what he calls the Philips forces in line 5 which need to be put together by people in the company (dedication). This again shows a focus on the collective, those who can make the vision a reality. The transnational strategy and geocentric attitude needed to run Philips is expressed in line 5-7 where Timmer states that CEOs in a particular country have the (local) responsibility in combining the (global) Philips forces. The expression Philips forces stands for something that is shared worldwide. Bartlett and Ghoshal (1989) emphasize similar principals: in the transnational view, the national subsidiaries become strategic partners whose knowledge and capabilities are vital to the corporations ability to maintian a long-term global competitive advantage.(p. 102) After repeating the value of focus, dedication and combining the Philips forces Timmer stresses and explains that what people (managers) think is more important in setting out the company goals than organizational structure through a contrast (it is a state of mind, not a simple matter of an organizational chart). This is again in line with Bartlett and Ghoshals (1989) ideas on the transnational, of which the essence is a management mentality rather than a specific strategic posture of a particular organizational form (p. 17). The first part of the contrast is explained in a three part list. The use of repetition emphasizes that only people can make this transnational state of mind a reality (category 3): A. And I cant say it clearer than this, because again it is a state of mind. (I) It is what pro\& feel (2) what people believe and (3) what prtjple want to do something about. B. Not a simple matter of an organizational chart. DISCUSSION This paper focuses on the rhetoric of international business leaders. The first goal was to study the rhetorical construction of message content in CEO speeches. As discourse analysts point out constructing content is a deliberate act, which reflects the orientation of the speaker. Billig (1996, p. 3) states: the distinction between form and content is more easily drawn in theory than in practice. No actual utterance, whether written or spoken, can have only content, for it must appear in one form or another. Quotes like: It does not take a rocket scientist to know a basic truth. that business alienates humanity in every way. Businesses are tough places to nurture tender feelings. (Anita Roddick, Spirituality in Service speech) show the use of colorful language by CEOs to get across their point. This paper provided many examples of how the literal meaning of a message can be strengthened by presenting it in a specific form. Often a point can be made more memorable by presenting it indirectly rather than directly. Paraphrasing a famous Martin Luther King quote illustrates this. The literal meaning of I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character can be paraphrased as: I hope the racial discrimination in the USA will be abolished within a generation. It is doubtful that this second formulation would have achieved the same lasting impact (Atkinson, 1984). The second goal of this study was to link the type or degree of international involvement sought by the corporations in our sample to the international strategy and management

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mentality as put forward by the CEOs in their visions. The results as well as topics for possible future research are discussed below.
Content, Form, Style or Delivery?

As Willner (1984, p. 152) notes: the major messages to charismatic political leaders have generally been propounded by others (...) it is not uncommon for two speakers to present the same points of view or the same subject to the same audience and received different responses to their presentation. Therefore rhetorical spellbinding and the charismatic affect it can induce are produced less by logic and ideas than by emotional stimuli, by words as symbols of more than their literal meaning, in short, by the style of verbal communication. However, the same rhetorical devices can also be used by different people or to construct different messages and receive different responses. A balanced study of charismatic rhetoric requires attention for both content and form as well as style and delivery elements. In this article the focus was on the complex mixture of form and content. CEOs present content elements such as dealing with change, ideal goals, people working together and management mentality regarding internationalization in a specific form. Using metaphors, contrasts, three-part lists, puzzles and using alliteration increases the impact of their message. Discourse analysis offers new possibilities to study leaders communicative acts. As Pondy (1989) puts it: Leadership is a language game.
Visionary Leadership and International Business Orientations

As stated, the second goal of this study was to show that similar rhetorical devices can be used to reflect different orientations of the speaker towards internationalization and doing business across borders. The analyses showed that the three leaders have different attitudes towards doing business abroad that seem to reflect the state of internationalization that their respective companies are in. Roddick clearly has a one-best-way-of-doing-business view. She feels that her Body Shop (and smart companies like us) are doing the right think for the place. Her highly ideological one-best-way-of-doing-business view fits well with the strategy of replicating the domestic business approach in many different countries. The only distinction she makes is between rich and poor countries, stating that the rich have the responsibility to help redistribute wealth. As stated, not paying attention to cultural or political differences between countries fits with the universalistic ideology in her vision. In terms of global strategy formation, Roddick focuses on her core strategy which is one (global) best way in itself. Although the strategy is not purely ethnocentric in that its focus is on the planet rather than the home country, it is clearly a one best way view having similar consequences regarding the kind of international involvement sought (i.e. the replication of the domestic business approach). Barrett (Bank of Montreal) pays much more attention to political and economical differences between countries or regions. Both Canadian politics and international issues such as the consequences following from free trade zones are important topics in his speeches. The bank is in a phase of internationalizing their strategy. As stated, Barrett describes their North-American strategy aimed at the NAFTA countries as well as their strategy for outside the continent. According to Barrett, in new growth markets the Bank should be familiar with the culture and market before the customers arrive. The more

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polycentric attitude held by Barrett reflects the politically sensitive financial industry as well as the phase of int~rIl~ltion~~iiz~ition the Bank of Montreal is in. According to Yip ( 1995) corporations need to have mastered international business before being able to attempt a global strategy. Philips has taken this step towards global strategy and can be seen as a transnational company. Timmer simultaneously refers to diversity and differences between countries and subsidiaries as well as the strong sense of Philips identity. This is reflected in his referring to the many ways in which the concern language is spoken or the idea that as long as you beat the colnpetitors at their own game in the Philips way you can be any nationality. The transnational notion that a mind set or managerial mentality is crucial to combine the Philips forces is also clearly present in his vision (e.g. excerpt I Sb). Another example of his focus on the managerial mind set from the 1992 customer day is the following: This [customer responsiveness1 is typically something that requires team work, where everybody has to join in across functions, across disciplines and across hierarchical barriers. Referring to *hierarchical barriers rather than more neutrally to levels, reflects his awareness of the fact that several of the problems are caused by the insufficiently flexible attitude of management. In his 1994 Centurion speech he also goes into the required managerial attitude. He first emphasizes that there are a tremendous number of talented people in the firm and that managelnellts role should be to facilitate. He states (several times throughout that speech): management: you are facilitators. you are there to make things happen, dont get in the way.

FUTURE

RESEARCH

In this articIe speeches of eloquent inter~~~ltional business leaders were analyzed showing in which rhetorical form these leaders constructed their messages and how their visions deal with international business orientations. Both these questions need further research. For the three CEOs a clear link was seen between the international involvement of their firm and the attitude these CEOs have on doing business abroad (one best way, polycentric or global). Refining these categories and predictions and testing them using a larger sample of CEOs seems necessary. Regarding rhetorical devices, possible gender differences in the use of certain stylistic elements and in the effect of the use of rhetoric constructions on male, female and mixed audiences are an interesting topic for further studies. Multimethod approaches, studying actual speeches as well as using experimental manipulations could provide further insight. Also the difference between the rhetoric of business and political leaders could be further explored.
CEO Speeches: Searching for Cross-cultural Similarities and Differences

The growing international activity of many enterprises increases the need for international business leaders to understand how their oratory can motivate employees and persuade audiences from different countries all over the world. Here the focus was on one towards issue regarding international business. namely how the CEOs orientation internationalization and their basic international strategy was reflected in their speeches. Perhaps the most interesting and important topic in need of further exploration is whether

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charismatic rhetoric as described in this paper is likely to be effective in only a few or in many cultures. The present paper focused on speeches of CEOs of international corporations speaking to diverse audiences from all over the world and can serve as a first step in this exploration. The method of discourse analysis may offer possibilities to systematically and meaningfully study how leaders in an international or cross-cultural setting construct the content of their messages in different ways. An interesting issue is whether the rhetoric of the studied leaders has different effects in different national divisions. The CEOs in this study may be seen as charismatic in their home countries but not in others. Identifying whether charisma has the same meaning in different cultures or whether there are culture-based differences in what is seen as charismatic is needed (e.g., Kanungo & Mendonca, 1996). Bryman (1992, p.58) speaks of the tendency to associate charisma and powerful oratory in the West. Does this mean that eloquence is not important for attributions of charisma in the East? The development of a cultural model of charismatic leadership explaining culture-based differences and similarities in charisma could address and help clarify such issues. Talking about The West suggests a restricted sense of universality in rhetoric, at least across Western cultures. The shared tradition of the West starting with the ancient Greek emphasis on the use of rhetoric contributes to this. However, interestingly there are subtle differences in preferred use of language even between different Anglo-Saxon countries. Pondy (1989) provides the example that in Britain plural verbs are used in certain places were Americans would use the singular which, according to Pondy inevitably reveals something about the speakers perception of the relation of group to individual (p.229). Specifically, Pondy shows that in Britain one says The government are.. and Leeds United have defeated.. . whereas Americans would prefer is and has. These preferences could, in their revealing an attitude towards the unified action of collectivities, be related to culture and to differential effectiveness of speech acts in different cultures. Willner (1984; p 152-153) proposes that the use of elements like repetition, rhythm, balance and alliteration may have particular implications in the oral traditions of particular cultures. Trompenaars (1993) describes several cross-cultural differences in patterns of verbal communication. In discussion, for example, in an Anglo-Saxon culture person B starts speaking as soon as person A stops. Interrupting each other is considered impolite, whereas in Latin cultures interrupting one another is a way of showing how interested one is in what the other person is saying. In Oriental cultures the pauses between speakers are much longer, which often makes people from Western cultures nervous. Rhythm and pace of speech as well as the use of humor also differ across cultures. Other cultural differences are found in the appropriate tone of voice, the use of intonation. A strong voice with many ups and downs in tones is a Latin way of showing enthusiasm, whereas a monotonous tone is used in the orient as a way to display respect and self-control. Frequently the higher the position a person holds, the lower and flatter the voice (Trompenaars, 1993). These and other cultural differences may result in variations in both the use and effectiveness of devices such as contrasts and three part lists, as well as types of metaphors. Also, the effect of gearing the use of language to the audience at hand could be culturally determined. In a society with a high power-distance (Hofstede. 1991), the effect of a high status leader using the mundane language of a factory worker could have a different effect

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than in a country where the power distance is perceived to be smaller. Also, Adler (199 1) describes differences in national styles of persuasion, where North Americans appeal to logic, people from other cultures may prefer to appeal to emotion or ideals. This could easily lead to confusion in cross-cultural encounters. Examples of such cross-cultural misinterpretation are often given in textbooks on international management. CEOs may provide speeches that fit their cultural orientation and are acceptable in Western-oriented overseas divisions, but which could be taken as insensitive or ineffectual in other parts of the world. Cultural differences in the use and effectiveness of rhetorical devices, content categories, communicator style and delivery elements provide interesting lines of future research. CONCLUSION International business leaders nowadays speak to an increasingly global audience, where the meaning of communicative acts no longer follows from shared meaning through culture. At the same time these CEOs need to provide this diverse group with a unifying perspective and identity and explain business strategy in a way which appeals to both employees and customers all over the world. In this context, attention for understanding CEO rhetoric, its links with strategy and its effects on both employees and the public seems increasingly important. This understanding has yet to develop through a balanced and thorough analysis of charismatic rhetoric especially one taking the described cross-cultural angle. This article illustrated different management attitudes towards doing business overseas following from different degrees of international involvement of firms and showed how rhetorical devices are used to construct the content of speeches. This article also constitutes a plea for a greater attention to communication issues in leadership research. For, as Lincoln puts it:
With public sentiment, nothing can fail; without it nothing can succeed. Consequently he who molds public sentiment goes deeper than he who enacts statutes or pronounces decisions. (Remarks by Lincoln

in the first Lincoln - Douglas debate, August,

1858)

The authors gratefully acknowledge the supportive comments and suggestions received from both the editors and the reviewers, as well as the help from Arnold and Yvonne Hulst at the Bank of Montreal, dr.ir.H.J.R. Stein at Philips and Sara Tye and Jo-Ana Thomas at the Body Shop.
Acknowledgments:

APPENDIX
Database of Collected

Speeches of the Three CEOs in the Sample

Matthew Barrett
l l

Union Bank of Switzerland Global Banking Conference, New York, May-1997 International Advisory Council Dinner, Apsley House, London, England-June 1996

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World Financial

Services in 2010: A North American

View, Joint Meeting of the

l l

Irish and North American Board, Dublin, Ireland-April 1996 The Future of Banking, York UniversityMarch 1996 Address to the Annual Meeting-January 1996 Upon receiving The C.E.O. of the Year Award-November 1995 Changing Fortunes: NAFTA-Calgary, September 1995 Address to the Annual Meeting-January 1995 A Bank Worth Watching-October 1994

Anita Roddick
l

Finding the Spitit in the World through Service, Dartington Conference, EnglandApril 1994 Corporate Responsibility: Good Works not Good Words, 31st Congress of the International Chamber of Commerce, MexiceOctober 1993 Womens Challenge for Succeeding in Todays Business Environment, University of Chicago-September 1994 Resolving international conflict: what role for business?, London Business School May 1996.

Jan Timmer
l

Philips customer day, question and answer session, Eindhoven, The Netherlands January 1992 Philips customer champions session, Eindhoven, The Netherlands -January 1994

APPENDIX

A: The Body Shop International

The Body Shop is a cosmetics company comprised of over 1300 shops in 44 countries, which is known to have a strong emphasis on social and environmental issues. The company started as a small shop in Brighton, England in 1976 and was founded by Anita Roddick out of disappointment with the regular cosmetic market where products used to be tested on animals, excessively packaged as well as characterized by false claims. Roddick now leads a company with an estimated market value of 500 million pounds and is described by many as a charismatic leader (Gaines, 1993; People magazine, May 1993). Gaines (1993, p. 349) reports interviewing staff at the Body Shop Headquarters who describe Roddick as: creative, energetic, passionate, determined, driven, dynamic, inspirational, and charismatic. Her strong vision is expressed via the companys numerous campaigns such as Against Animal Testing, Reuse, Refill & Recycle, Trade not Aid and The Body Shop in the Community. The strong ideological character of Anita Roddicks Body Shop is clearly reflected in its 1994 mission statement:

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to dedicate our business to the pursuit of social and environmental change: to creatively balance the financial and human needs of our stakeholders: employees, customers, franchises, suppliers and shareholders. to courageously ensure that our business is ecologically sustainable. meeting the needs of the present without compromising the future. to meaningfully contribute to local, national and international communities in which we trade. by adopting a code of conduct which ensures care, honesty, fairness and respect. to passionately campaign for the protection of the environment and human and civil rights, and against animal testing within the cosmetics and toiletries industry. to tirelessly work to narrow the gap between principle and practice. while making fun, passion and care part of our daily lives. every five years the so-called 10 c.or7lrizifr~zrtlt.s are

In addition to this mission statement. set out for a new five year period.

B: Bank of Montreal

Bank of Montreal, Canadas first chartered bank, opened for business on November 3. 1817. It provided Canadas first sound and plentiful currency and has played a major and ~olltil~uing role in the devel~~pi~~~nt of the country, taking part in the fiilan~ing of the first transcontinental railway in the 1880s. The Bank took part in the creation of Canadian Confederation in 1867, and served as Canadas central bank until 1935. The first Canadian bank to open branches abroad, it has long been active in markets in Europe, Latin America, and East Asia as well as in the United States. Today it continues as one of Canadas preel~irlellt financial institutions and a significant presence in United States and world markets. Irish born Canadian Matthew Barrett joined the Bank of Montreal in 1962 at age 18. He started out as a trainee clerk. came up through the ranks and was elected Chairman of the Board in 1990 when he was 45. At the time he was among the youngest heads of a major bank in the world. Barrett is active in community affairs, working on behalf of hospitals. universities, business groups, ancf other ~~rg~~ni~~~ti~~lls. Barrett takes a strong interest in business education and national and international affairs. Among other things he is a member ofthe Asia-Pacific foundation. He has received many awards and honorary degrees. Barrett is described by employees both as a powerful speaker and as inspiring and charismatic. The Toronto Star (20 Nov. 1995) states: Poetic visions may discomfort some CEOs but not Barrett. Barrett initiated a dramatic change in the corporate culture placing a heavy emphasis on learning. The following excerpt from his 1997 presentation at the Union Bank of Switzerland Global Banking Conference Barrett introduces his company:
We are North Americas ninth largest bank. And we are this continent\ only bank with a significant presence in all three NAFTA countries. In Canada we have been in buainehs

for 180 years and are the third largest hank. In the United States, our subsidiary operations. on a stand-alone bnsi\. would rank 3rd two leading financial institutions. Crupo Financeiro

Bank combined with our other operations make II\ a U.S. $44 billion bank. Our

Harris U.S.
we

amon,G U.S. bunks. In Mexico.

have a 16% equity interest and a developing strategic alliance with one of the countrys Buncomer. Outside this continent customers. our strong and expanding beachhead in Enst Asia serves our North American

Charisma and Rhetoric with operations in Beijing, Guangzhou, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore and Tokyo. We cover the European Comnlunity from our offices in London. Our geographic

387

diversj~cation means that 45% of QI 1997 income was earned outside Canada. We are also diversified on a line of business basis. We offer traditional retail, commercial and corporate bank services, plus investment banking, trust services and more. Thats who
we are. C: Philips Electronics

Philips electronics is the 9th largest global industrial corporation in the electrical engineering and electronics sector (not including computers). Philips employs more than 265,000 people in 150 countries. In 1990 Philips undertook the most ambitious program for restructuring and renewal in its history. This successful turn-around which was led by new CEO Jan Timmer (1933) was called operation Centurion. The process of change still continues. First step in the process was identifying what the company stood for. The Philips way defines five values and beliefs that capture the spirit of the new company and are supposed to bring Philips people together: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Delight customers Value people as our greatest resource Deliver quality and excellence in all actions Achieve premium return on equity Encourage entrepreneurial behavior at all levels

Part of the change operation involved the so-called customer days, where the renewed focus on customers was explained to employees all over the world and emphasized at sessions where Timmer held speeches or answered questions. The new spirit following from Centurion was captured in the new creed Lets muke things better which Philips feels captures their new focus. Not only making better things, but also making things better which shows the emphasis on continuous improvement. Timmer expresses how important the new creed is by stating: Its a pledge to ourselves, to each other and to the world at large. This company campaign is saying that after years of restructuring, Philips has set itself on a new course. Timmer started out at Philips at the age of 19 as an administrative assistant He came up through the hierarchy to become CEO and lead Philips through Centurion. In the Dutch media Timmer is seen as a miracle worker . the man that personally saved Philips who banks on his enormous charisma and even top-lnanagement was mesmerized when Timmer explained the necessity of change(Elsevier, December 9th, 1995). Another description states that his motivational power is tremendous his imposing stature and vigor demand respect (Parool, December 5th, 1995). Timmer retired as CEO on October 1st 1996 and was succeeded by Cor Boonstra.

REFERENCES/QUOTES
A: Gaines, J. (1993) You dont necessarily
Roddick and reflections on charismatic

(TRANSLATED)

FROM:

have to be charismatic...: an interview with Anita processes in the Body Shop International. Leu&r.rkip

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People, May lOth, 1993. Anita Roddick. By P. Brock B: The Toronto Star. November 20, 1995. A company of learners. Banking on corporate change. By: Judy Steed. C: Elsevier, December 9th, 1995. Toverdrank uitgewerkt. By: Hans Crooijmans and Marcus Polman. Parool. December 5th. 1995. Timmer liet een orkaan waaien door Philips. By: Peter Junge.

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