AN OVERVIEW OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

Our body is constantly under attack by disease-causing microorganisms (called pathogens), smoke, dust and other environmental pollutants, ultraviolet (UV) light and many toxic chemicals.

Our body has an inherent capacity to ward off or resist diseases and carry out repair and regeneration of the tissues damaged by such offending agents.

This section outlines the specific defenses present in our body.

RESISTANCE AND IMMUNITY

The ability of our body to ward off diseases through the various defensive mechanisms is called resistance. The lack of resistance or vulnerability is called susceptibility. The resistance to a disease may be classified into: 1. Nonspecific resistance: These include all those mechanisms that provide a general protection to a variety of invading/offending agents such as: The mechanical barriers offered by the intact skin and the The acidity of the stomach, that kills many pathogens Antimicrobial substances produced in the body e.g. various mucous membranes. ingested in the food. lysozyme in tear, immunoglobulins in nasal secretion and saliva, interferon produced by a type of white blood cells (called Tlymphocytes) etc. which can inactivate/kill bacteria or viruses. Inflammatory reaction and fever Phagocytosis (ingestion of the offending agent by the

neutrophil and macrophages)

These mechanisms operate right from the birth and are referred to as innate immunity 2. Resistance to a specific pathogen on foreign substance: Also known as acquired immunity, it develops only when the body is first attacked by a specific pathogen or agent. The immunological response is specifically directed at the offending agent and is produced by a particular type of whole blood cells called lymphocytes. To understand the immune responses, we shall learn about the white blood cells, which are closely concerned with the defense of the body and the lymphatic system, which is responsible for the generation and differentiation of lymphocytes.

THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM The lymphatic system consists of (fig. 16) Lymph : It is a fluid that flows within the lymph vessels; its composition is Lymph vessels (lymphatics) : They begin as closed-ended vessels identical to the interstitial fluid. called lymph capillaries in spaces between the cells (fig. 17); these capillaries converge to form larger tubes called lymph vessels. Lymph nodes: At intervals along the lymphatic vessels, the lymph flows The lymphatic tissue: It is a specialized form of reticular connective o The primary lymphatic tissue is the red bone marrow (in flat bones and epiphyses of long bones) and the thymus gland (fig. 16). o The secondary lymphatic tissue is the spleen and the lymph nodes (fig. 16). Lymphatic nodules are clusters of lymphocytes that stand guard in all mucous membranes from where foreign substances may invade (e.g. respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, urinary tract, reproductive tract etc.) The lymph ultimately drains into the veins (subclavian veins) (fig.16) through lymphatic tissue structures called lymph node (fig.16). tissue containing a large number of lymphocytes.

Functions of the Lymphatic System Draining excess interstitial fluid from the tissue spaces. Transporting dietary lipids and the fat-soluble vitamins (Vitamins A, D, E and K) absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract into the blood. Protecting the body against invasion by foreign substances and microorganisms i.e. immune responses. The lymphatic system and immune responses The ability of the body to defend itself against specific invading agents such as bacteria, toxins, viruses and foreign tissues is called immunity or acquired immunity.

Substances that are recognized as foreign by the immune system and provoke immune responses are called antigens. Immunity differs from non-specific defenses in terms of two factors : o Specificity for a particular foreign invader (antigen). o Memory for a previously encountered antigen, so that a second attack by the same antigen results in a more vigorous and rapid immune response.

The lymphocytes, which are located in the lymphoid tissue and lymph nodes are responsible for the immune responses. The lymphocytes are mainly produced in the red bone marrow from haemopoietic stem cells, as shown below :Haemopoietic stem cells (Red Bone Marrow) Pre-T-Cells Processing in the Thymus Gland Acquire antigen receptors Undergo maturation Mature T-lymphocytes Migrate to lymphoid B-Lymphocytes Processing in the Bone Marrow Acquire antigen receptors Undergo maturation Mature B-lymphocytes tissue Migrate to lymphoid tissue

throughout the body ready for use Types of Acquired Immunity There are two types of acquired immunity:

throughout the body, ready to use

Humeral or -cell immunity i.e. through production of antibodies to the specific antigen by -lymphocytes. Cell-mediated immunity activation of T-lymphocytes to directly attack the invading agent.

Antibodies The antibodies are specific proteins gamma globulins called immunoglobulins that circulate in the blood and are secreted by the Blymphocytes. When the B-lymphocytes recognize the antigens, they are activated to plasma cells in the lymphoid tissue and secrete specific antibodies into the blood. These antibodies bind to the specific antigen and inactivate it. The antibody-mediated responses are mainly directed against the extracellular pathogens e.g. bacteria. The antibodies or immunoglobulins (Ig) are of five types as shown below :Type of Characteristics Functions Immunoglobin IgG against Comprises >75% of all Protect bacteria and viruses antibodies in the blood and in other body fluids Can pass from the mother to the foetus IgA localized Comprise 15% of all Provide protection on antibodies in the blood mucous membranes Found mainly in tears, against bacteria and sweat, saliva, mucus, milk viruses and gastrointestinal secretions Levels decrease during stress, reducing the resistance IgM Comprise about 5-10% of Protection against all antibodies in the blood microbes Contribute to ABO incompatibilities during blood transfusion IgD Comprise <1% of all Activation of B-cells antibodies in the blood IgE Comprise <0.1% of all Involved in allergic

antibodies in the blood. Located on mast cells and basophils

and hypersensitivity reactions Provides protection against parasitic worms

T-Cells Types

When an antigen binds to the T-lymphocytes in the lymphoid tissue, many activated T-cells are released into the lymph, which then circulate throughout the body.

The T-cells proliferate and differentiate into many types of T-cells as shown below:T-cell Helper T-cells (CD4 cells or T4 cells) Characteristics Comprise >75% of Tcells Functions

Cytotoxic or killer T-cells (CD8 or T8 cells)

Kill the substance itself destroyed

foreign without getting

Suppressor T-cells (T5cells)

Helps regulate immune responses

Helps in function of immune system by secreting cytokines (lymphokines) Also, activate Blymphocyes to secrete antibodies Direct attack on invading agent or even bodys own cells. Destroy cancer cells, transplant tissue, viruses etc. Prevents attack against bodys own tissue

THE IMMUNE RESPONSE The antigen-antibody reaction results in:

Neutralization of the antigens Immobilization of the bacteria Clumping and precipitation of the antigen Enhanced phagocytosis of the antigen

Activation of T-lymphocytes lead to:

Formation of helper T-cells that secrete lymphokines, resulting in damage to cell membranes and cell rupture. Secretion of interferons from helper T-cells, which protect the cells from virus infections. Activation of B-lymphocytes by helper T-cells, which increases antibody production. Differentiation of T-cells to killer T-cells that directly attack the invading agent. Thus, ultimately the body succeeds in getting rid of the invading agent.

FAULTY IMMUNE RESPONSES

When this immune response is misdirected i.e. when the immune response is against bodys own cells (e.g. type 1 diabetes), it leads to destruction of tissues. This is known as auto-immunity (immunity against own or self cells).

An important undesirable feature of immunity is development of allergy or hypersensitivity reactions. In these reactions, a person, who is excessively sensitive to certain foreign substances (e.g. dust, pollen grains, which may not cause harm in other people, reacts to the antigen severely, resulting in tissue damage.