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HES1610 Concepts of Biology The unifying themes of biology: What defines living organisms?

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BIOLOGY

What is biology? Biology is the study of living things

Biology is a huge subject, encompassing many different fields of science, examples of these are:
Physiology Pathology Zoology Botany Biochemistry

Microbiology / Immunology
Molecular biology Ecology

Genetics
Evolution

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CHARACTERISTICS THAT DEFINE LIFE

Certain characteristics are common to all living organisms (there are always exceptions in biology)
All of these are exhibited by all living organisms:
1. 2. 3.

Growth and development Organization Homeostasis: regulation of metabolism and energy production

4.
5. 6. 7.

Adaptation and evolution

Response to stimulus Reproduction Movement

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1. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

All organisms exhibit growth during their lifetime, they increase in:
Size Structure Functional complexity

This can involve:

Increase in cell size Increase in cell number

Both

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1. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Some organisms:
Grow only over a specific period, after which only

repair occurs, not active growth. e.g. most animals. Others grow throughout their life. e.g. trees.

Most organisms also exhibit development simultaneous with growth: a change in form and function, e.g., from fertilized egg to embryo to young to adult forms.

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2. ORGANISATION

Living things are organised in such a way that all interactions and activities function However, if the complex organisation of these system changes the interactions no longer occur
e.g. The human brain: If a car accident shakes the human brain

up and disrupts the organisation it no longer functions normally despite the fact that all of the original parts are present
e.g. If you take all of the components from a chloroplast and mix

them together in a test tube, photosynthesis will not occur

In both cases, there needs to be specific organisation of the components in order for the appropriate interactions to take place
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2. ORGANISATION

The organisation of these components is a SYSTEM In most cases these interaction initially take place at a cellular level Cells are organised into structures and structure correlates to function

Often analysing a biological structure can give insight into how it works and what it does

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2. ORGANISATION

The cell theory: Based on the work of Schwann and Schleiden (1838-39):
All organisms are composed of cells All cells come from pre-existing cells

Cell is the smallest organizational unit of life

Some organisms are composed of single cells Others are composed of many of cells Cells divide and produce other cells:

No cells are created spontaneously from non-living matter.

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2.1 BASIC PROPERTIES OF CELLS

All cells are enclosed by an outer membrane:

Plasma membrane; this separates the inner fluid

(cytoplasm) from the cells environment.

All cells have the genetic material: DNA

All cells are capable of self-reproduction All cells have specific internal structures that carry out specific reactions and functions

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2.1 BASIC PROPERTIES OF CELLS

There are two basic types of cells:

PROKARYOTIC: those without

membrane bound nucleus and organelles

e.g. Bacteria (simple cells)

EUKARYOTIC: those with membrane

bound organelles
e.g. Plants, animals, protists, fungi (complex cells)

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2.2 A PROKARYOTIC CELL: A BACTERIUM

Prokaryotes contain the essentials of cells: DNA, ribosomes, plasma membrane

It may have: cilia, flagella, cell wall, capsule

They do not contain: a nucleus, chloroplast, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus
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2.3 A EUKARYOTIC CELL: A PLANT CELL

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2.4 A EUKARYOTIC CELL: AN ANIMAL CELL

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2.5 SINGLE CELL ORGANISMS

The first living organisms we know of on Earth were single celled organisms:
They formed Stromatolites, where certain prokaryotes bind thin films of

sediment together
There are still some Stromatolites living of the coast of W.A (Shark Bay)

and in Deer Cave, Gunung Mulu N.P

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2.5 SINGLE CELL ORGANISMS

Many organisms exist as a single cell:

Bacteria
Algae Some fungi Plankton Amoeba

They are simple organisms, but can exists within complex structures and have complex functions

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2.6 FURTHER ORGANIZATION IN MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS

Organisms can also exists as complexes of many cells, i.e. multicellular organisms For example:
Us Plants Monkeys Fish Etc..etc..

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2.6. FURTHER ORGANIZATION IN MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS

Cells with similar functions and structures are organized into a TISSUE

e.g. Muscle, epidermis.

Various tissues, each with different structure/ functions: organized together form an ORGAN which has a specific function
e.g. Epithelial tissue, muscle tissues together form the

heart,
e.g. Epidermal cells, mesophyll cells and vascular

tissue form the leaf

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2.6 FURTHER ORGANIZATION IN MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS

In many animals, many organs + tissues together form a coordinated SYSTEM, with a major function
e.g. Cardiovascular, digestive systems

Many systems interact to form an ORGANISM: e.g.

Humans: cardiovascular, respiratory, nervous,

digestive reproductive, immune systems

Plants: circulatory, reproductive

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2.7 ANIMAL TISSUES AND SYSTEMS

Epithelial tissue: makes up human skin and lining of other body organs
Circulatory system: circulates blood around the body
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2.8 PLANT TISSUES AND SYSTEMS

Chloroplast

Leaf cells

Tree: an organism Leaf: organ

Mesophyll tissue
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2.9 FURTHER HEIRCHY IN THE BIOLOGICAL WORLD

All organisms that can reproduce between themselves, but are reproductively isolated from others, form a SPECIES All organisms of a certain species, living within a certain geographic area, form a POPULATION The various populations within a certain geographic area together form a COMMUNITY

The communities, (living organism) and their non-living environment (water, temperature, light, food, minerals), together form an ECOSYSTEM
The components of an ecosystem are interdependent for energy

exchanges: form food chains / food webs

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2.9 FURTHER HEIRCHY IN THE BIOLOGICAL WORLD

Species in your household:

Yourself and your family members, dogs, lawn grass, ferns, the caterpillar on the plants, the snails in the garden, trees

Populations on your street:

Humans (200); dogs (5); grass plants (5 million) etc.

Your street community:

The human population + the cat population + the dogs + the grass plants + the ferns of the one type + the caterpillars + the snails

Your street ecosystem:

The community + the cars + soil + air + fallen leaves + dog poo + caterpillars + snails

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2.10 A GRASSLANDS/SAVANNA ECOSYSTEM

Grasslands with scattered trees, herbivores and carnivores + abiotic (environmental) factors: fire, wind, rain
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2.11 A RAINFOREST ECOSYSTEM

Tall trees + climbing vines + shorter plants + animals living on the fruits and leaves of these + the abiotic (environmental) factors: rainfall, sunlight, organic matter
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2.12 AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

Marine, freshwater (river, lakes), aquarium, mangrove, etc

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3. HOMEOSTASIS

All organisms carry out a number of chemical reactions, to obtain the energy required for nutrition, growth and development, and repair. Reactions that break up larger molecules into smaller ones and release their stored energy: CATABOLISM

e.g. Glucose CO2 + H2O ( + energy)

Reactions that synthesize large molecules from smaller ones and store energy into these: ANABOLISM

e.g. Glucose molecules (+ energy) starch or glycogen

Sum of anabolic and catabolic reactions: METABOLISM.

WE WILL STUDY SOME KEY METABOLIC REACTIONS LATER

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3.1 HOMEOSTASIS: REGULATION OF METABOLISM

All metabolic reactions must be regulated tightly, to maintain a constant internal environment in cells
WHY IS HOMEOSTASIS ESSENTIAL?
So the cells can obtain the required nutrients, carry out

various biochemical reactions at appropriate rates, not get overheated and not build up any waste products

HOW IS SUCH REGULATION ACHIEVED?

Through the action of ENZYMES: Through self-regulation of some reactions by FEEDBACK

MECHANISMS:

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3.2 ENZYMES

Specialized proteins Biological catalysts: regulate the rates of biochemical reactions

Carry out specific reactions, efficiently, in specific cells, under certain conditions, generally in a stepwise manner, each step being regulated

We will visit these later.

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3.3 FEEDBACK REGULATION

The product of the reaction itself regulates the rate of its own synthesis, by various mechanisms.
Negative feedback: Most common

The product inhibits (some part of) the reaction

(or the reaction chain)

i.e. When this product exceeds a certain

threshold the reaction shuts down

e.g. When you are hot, your hypothalamus tells

your glands to produce sweat to cool down, once your body reaches the correct temperature you stop sweating
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3.3 FEEDBACK REGULATION

Positive feedback: Less common The product activates (some part of) the reaction

(or the reaction chain)

i.e. This leads to more production of itself
e.g. When you have a cut and start bleeding,

your platelet will accumulate at the site of the tear and a clot will form, thus stopping the bleeding

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3.3 FEEDBACK REGULATION MECHANISMS

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3.3 EXAMPLES OF HOMEOSTASIS

Regulation of blood glucose: Glucose obtained through food, then delivered by blood to all cells.

Too much glucose circulating, it gets stored in liver Too little glucose circulating the stored materials converted/broken down to glucose, or sugar replenished by eating

Regulation of body temperature. Control centre: hypothalamus in the brain.

Increase in body temp: blood vessels dilated, sweating increased: sweat evaporates, skin cooled. Drop in temp: sweat glands shut, blood vessels narrowed. Blood sent to deeper parts of body: reduced heat loss.

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3.3 HOMEOSTASIS

The amount of blood circulated to the ears is adjusted according to the external temp and thus the heat loss from the animal.

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4. ADAPTATION AND EVOLUTION

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4. ADAPTATION AND EVOLUTION

Adaptation: Inherited traits that help survival and reproduction of an organism in a particular environment
Evolution: Change in the genetic composition of a population over generations
Passing on the traits and mutations that were utilized

for adaptation, as well as mutations that occurred randomly and survived

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4. ADAPTATION AND EVOLUTION

In nature, every advantage increases an animal's chances of survival, and therefore its chances of reproducing This simple fact has caused animal species to evolve a number of special adaptations that help them survive in their particular environments Many adaptations revolve around food, as this is essential for survival:
Finding food
Eating food Preventing them from becoming food - camouflage

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4. ADAPTATION AND EVOLUTION

Adaptations can be:

Physical, physiological, behavioural,
For feeding, or withstanding adverse conditions, or

self-protection etc
e.g. Fur of polar bears, streamlined bodies of fish/birds,

light bones of birds, legs of kangaroos, camouflage of some animals, changes in human anatomy

The ability of a population to adapt and evolve is essential for its survival over generations
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4. ADAPTATION AND EVOLUTION

Wings create airfoils:

Changes in air current that produce lift

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ADAPTATION AND EVOLUTION

The upright human body: supported by backbone + rib cage+ skull The joints allow flexibility and precise manipulations

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ADAPTATION AND EVOLUTION

Why humans walk on 2 legs?

http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2006/07/bipedal-body/video-interactive
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ADAPTATION AND EVOLUTION

Over 6 million years: brain size increased, jaws shortened and flattened, skeletal modifications, changes in food, upright walking, development of language, learning, social systems
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ADAPTATION AND EVOLUTION

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EVOLUTION OF THE GALAPAGOS FINCHES ACCORDING TO FOOD SOURCE

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CAMOUFLAGE
A praying mantis

A gecko/lizard resembles dry leaves

A green vine snake

Batesian mimicry: When in danger, the larva of hawkmoth (an insect) resembles a snake!
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CAN YOU RECOGNIZE THIS??

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5. RESPONSE TO STIMULUS AND ENVIRONMENT

All organisms respond to stimuli Stimulus: physical or chemical change, in the internal or external environment of an individual. e.g.

Changes in intensity or direction of light Sound Smell Pressure Gravity Touch Changes in amount/ composition of soil, water, air

The nature of response may vary

e.g. Simple cells may move towards / away from light, plant shoots grow towards light, roots grow towards gravity, some plants (touch-menot, Venus flytrap) respond to touch, animals respond to sounds, smell.

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5.1 PHOTOTROPISM: RESPONSE TO LIGHT

Shoots grow towards light, roots grow away from it

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5.2 GRAVITROPISM: RESPONSE TO GRAVITY

Roots grow towards gravity, shoots grow away from it

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5.3 THIGMOTROPISM: RESPONSE TO TOUCH

Touch-me-not: Touching causes rapid loss or water from the base of leaves: they close (loss of K+, followed by loss of water).
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5.4 PHOTOPERIODISM
Response

to season

A physiological response to the relative

lengths of night and day

Some

plants flower during summer, others during spring or autumn, some trees shed there leaves in autumn so they have no leaves in winter

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5.5 ANIMALS RESPOND TO STIMULI TOO

What

do bears do in winter? Why?

What

happens to our pupils (eye) when the light is bright?

do dogs do when they get hot?

What

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6. REPRODUCTION AND HEREDITY

The ability of a species to reproduce, i.e., to produce offspring like itself, is key to its survival Genetic information in cells is contained in the form of DNA, which has the ability to make identical copies of itself DNA is thus passed on from parent cells to daughter cells, and from parents to offspring DNA stores the genetic information in the form of instructions on how to make proteins, proteins carry out various biochemical reactions in the body and are also structural components of cells.

MORE LATER: IN GENETICS

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DOES THIS MEAN THE GENETIC MATERIAL IS STATIC?

Genetic variability between individuals is created by different mechanisms:

Collectively called MUTATIONS

Mutations lead to a change in the sequence of DNA, this causes changes in the instructions for making proteins and thus cells functions
The changes are inherited by the next generations of cells and thus organisms

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7. MOVEMENT

All living organisms move, or are capable of movement. Movement by:

Flagella, cilia, pseudopodia, legs, wings,

fins, etc.

Movement may or may not be obvious.

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7. MOVEMENT

Sometimes movement is restricted to early developmental stages

e.g. Larvae, adults are fixed to a support (e.g. corals,

sponges), but still may have cilia/ flagella that beat in the water and gather food

Plants do not appear to move, however,

Their leaves move towards light Some plants also turn their flowers towards the sun; Others show obvious movement in response to certain

stimuli (e.g. certain insectivorous plants).

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MOVEMENT: VENUS FLY-TRAP

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IN SUMMARY

The living world, no matter how diverse, still has some unifying characteristics which are shared by all:

GOHARRM

Growth, organisation, homeostasis, adaptation, response to stimulus, reproduction, movement

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IN SUMMARY

Now apply this information to the following situations to work out if these are living organisms or not
Are viruses living or nonliving? Are seeds living or non-living?

Are salt or sugar crystals growing in a saturated solution

living or nonliving?
Are we living?

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