2012

National thermal power corporation, Faridabad

SUBMITTED BY:VIKASH KUMAR DELHI COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT,PALWAL MAHARSHI DAYANAND UNIVERSITY,ROHTAK

[SUMMER TRAINING REPORT]

A Project Report Based on The Deep Study of introduction and function methods of NTPC Faridabad during Summer Training from 16-06-2012 to 30-07-2012.

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A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by

VIKASH KUMAR
In partial fulfil-ment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
From

DELHI COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT

(under Maharshi dayanand University, Rohtak)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would firstly wish to thank Mrs. yogita for allowing me to undergo summer training at NTPC Faridabad, all of the HR team of the Institute for their continued guidance. I would also wish to convey my warm regards to Mr. R.K Niranjan and for providing me with all the knowledge data base that I needed for this report. I would also like to thank Mr. Rajeev Ahawat, for providing me this wonderful opportunity to work with the NTPC family.

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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. VIKASH KUMAR, student of Bachelor of Technology, MECHANICAL ENGINERING, 2ND YEAR, MAHARSHI DAYANAND UNIVERSITY, ROHTAK HARYANA has successfully completed her Industrial Training at ballabhgarh Thermal Power Corporation, New Delhi from 16thJune to 31th july 2010. He has completed the whole training as per the training report submitted.

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CONTENT
1. Introduction to the Company
a. About the Company b. Vision c. Strategiesd d. Evolution

2. Introduction to thermal power plant

A .Introduction b. Classification c. Functioning 1. Project Report
a.

Operation

i. Introduction ii. Steam Boiler iii. Steam Turbine iv. Turbine Generator b.EMD I i. Gas Handling Plant ii. Motors

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iii. Switchgear iv. High Tension Switchgear

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v. Direct On Line Starter c.

EMD II
i. ii. iii.

Generator
ii. Protection iii. Transformer

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INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPANY

ABOUT THE COMPANY

. VISION

. STRATEGIES

. EVOLUTION

National Thermal Power Corporation Limited Faridabad Thermal Power Station Faridabad, New Delhi.

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ABOUT THE COMPANY

Type: State-owned enterprise Public (BSE: 532555) Industry: Electricity generation Founded: 1975 Headquarters: Delhi, India Key people: R S Sharma, Chairman & Managing Director Products: Electricity Revenue: Net income: INR Rs 1, 05,224crore (21.6 billion USD) INR Rs 8,201crore (1.7 billion USD)

Employees: 23867 (2006) Website: www.ntpc.co.in

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NTPC, the largest power Company in India, was setup in 1975 to accelerate power development in the country. It is among the worlds largest and most efficient power generation companies. In Forbes list of Worlds 2000 Largest Companies for the year 2007, NTPC occupies 411th place.

A View of Badarpur Thermal Power Station, New Delhi

NTPC has installed capacity of 29,394 MW. It has 15 coal based power stations (23,395 MW), 7 gas based power stations (3,955 MW) and 4 power stations in Joint Ventures (1,794 MW).The company has power generating facilities in all major regions of the country. It plans to be a 75,000 MW company by 2017. NTPC has gone beyond the thermal power generation. It has diversified into hydro power, coal mining, power equipment manufacturing, oil & gas exploration, power trading &distribution. NTPC is now in the entire power value chain and is poised to become an Integrated Power Major. NTPC's share on 31 Mar 2008 in the total installed capacity of the country was 19.1% and it contributed 28.50% of the total power

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generation of the country during 2007-08. NTPC has set new benchmarks for the power industry both in the area of power plant construction and operations. In November 2004, NTPC came out with its Initial Public Offering (IPO) consisting of 5.25% as fresh issue and 5.25% as offer for sale by Government of India.

Every fourth home in India is lit by NTPC. 170.88BU of electricity was produced by its stations in the financial year 2005-2006. The Net Profit after Tax on March 31, 2006 was INR 58,202 million. Net Profit after Tax for the quarter ended June 30, 2006 was INR 15528 million, which is 18.65% more than for the same quarter in the previous financial year. 2005). NTPC thus became a listed company with Government holding 89.5% of the equity share capital and rest held by Institutional Investors and Public. The issue was a resounding success. NTPC is among the largest five companies in India in terms of market capitalization.

Recognizing its excellent performance and vast potential, Government of the India has identified NTPC as one of the jewels of Public Sector ' Navratnas'- a potenti all global giant. Inspired by its glorious past and vibrant present, NTPC is well on its way to realize its vision of being "A world class integrated power major, powering India's growth, with increasing global presence"

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** Gas Turbine Combined Cycle.

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VISION
A world class integrated power major, powering India's growth with increasing global presence.

MISSION
Develop and provide reliable power related products and services at competitive prices, integrating multiple energy resources with innovative & Eco-friendly technologies and contribution to the society.

* View of a well flourished power plant

Core Values -BCOMIT

Y Business ethics Y Customer Focus Y Organizational & Professional Pride Y Mutual Respect & Trust Y Innovation & Speed Y Total Quality for Excellence
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STRATEGIES
Y. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Y. MAINTAIN SECTOR LEADERSHIP POSITIONTHROUGH EXPANSION Y . FURTHER ENHANCE FUEL SECURITY Y . EXPLOIT NEW BUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES Y . TECHNOLOGY INITIATIVES Y . NURTURING HUMAN RESOURCE

Technological Initiatives
Y . Introduction of steam generators (boilers) of the size of 800 MW Y . Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) Technology Y . Launch of Energy Technology Center -A new initiative for development of technologies with focus on fundamental R&D Y . The company sets aside up to 0.5% of the profits for R&D

Y . Roadmap developed for adopting Clean Development Y . Mechanism to help get / earn Certified Emission Reduction

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Corporate Social Responsibility

Y:- As a responsible corporate citizen NTPC has taken up number of CSR initiatives y :-NTPC Foundation formed to address Social issues at national level y :-NTPC has framed Corporate Social Responsibility Guide lines committing up to 0.5% of net profit annually for Community Welfare Measures on perennial basis y:- The welfare of project affected persons and the local population around NTPC projects are taken care of through well drawn Rehabilitation and Resettlement policies y :-The company has also taken up distributed generation for remoterural areas

Environment Management
Y:-All stations of NTPC are ISO 14001 certified Y:-Various groups to care of environmental issues Y:-The Environment Management Group Y:- Utilization Division Y:-Afforestation Group Y:-Centre for Power Efficiency & Environment Protection

Y:-Group on Clean Development Mechanism NTPC is the second largest owner of trees in the country after the Forest department.

Partnering government in various initiatives

*:-Consultant role to modernize and improvise several plants across the country *:-Disseminate technologies to other players in the sector *:-Consultant role Partnership in Excellence Programme for improvement of PLF of 15 Power Stations of SEBs.

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EVOLUTION
1975 NTPC was set up in 1975 with 100% ownership by the
Government of India. In the last 30 years, NTPC has grown into the largest power utility in India.

1997In 1997, Government of India granted NTPC status of

Navratna be in gone of the nine jewels of India, enhancing the powers to the Board of Directors.

2004 NTPC became a listed company with majority Government

ownership of 89.5%. NTPC becomes third largest by Market Capitalization of listed Companies.

2005 he company rechristened as NTPC Limited in line with its

T

changing business portfolio and transforms itself from a thermal power utility to an integrated power utility.

2008 National Thermal Power Corporation is the largest power

generation company in India. Forbes Global 2000 for 2008 ranked it 411th in the world.

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NTPC is the largest power utility in India, accounting for about 20% of Indias installed capacity.

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INTRODUCTION TO THERMAL POWER PLANT

*Introduction

*Classification

*Functioning

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INTRODUCTION
Power Station (also referred to as generating station or power plant) is an industry a facility for the generation of electric power. Power plant is also used to refer to then gine in ships, aircraft and other large vehicles. Some prefer to use the term energy center because it more accurately describes what the plants do, which is the conversion of other forms of energy, like chemical energy, gravitational potential energy or heat energy into electrical energy. However, power plant is the most common term in the U.S., while elsewhere power station and power plant are both widely used, power station prevailing in many Commonwealth countries and especially in the United Kingdom.

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A Gas-fired Thermal Power Plant.

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At the center of nearly all power stations is a generator, a rotating machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by creating relative motion between a magnetic field and a conductor. The energy source harnessed to turn the generator varies widely. It depends chiefly on what fuels are easily available and the types of technology that the power company has access to

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In thermal power stations, mechanical power is produced by a heat engine, which transforms thermal energy, often from combustion of a fuel, into rotational energy. Most thermal power stations produce steam, and these are sometimes called steam power stations. About 80% of all electric power is generated by use of steam turbines. Not all thermal energy can be transformed to mechanical power, according to the second law of thermodynamics. Therefore, there is always heat lost to the environment. If this loss is employed as useful heat, for industrial processes or district heating, the power plant is referred to as a cogeneration power plant or CHP (combined heatand-power) plant. In countries where district heat in g is common, there are dedicated heat plants called heat-only boiler stations. An important class of power stations in the Middle East uses by product heat for desalination of water.

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CLASSIFICATION
By fuel

Nuclear power plants use a nuclear reactor's heat to operate a steam turbine generator.

Fossil fuelled power plants may also use a steam turbine generator or in the case of natural gas fired plants may use a combustion turbine. Geothermal power plants use steam extracted from hot underground rocks.

Renewable energy plants may be fuelled by waste from sugar cane, municipal solid waste, landfill methane, or other forms of biomass. In integrated steel mills, blast furnace exhaust gas is a low-cost, although low-energy density, fuel. Waste heat from industrial processes is occasionally concentrated enough to use for power generation, usually in a steam boiler and turbine.

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By prime mover

Steam turbine plants use the dynamic pressure generated by expanding steam to turn the blades of a turbine. Almost all large non-hydro plants use this system

Gas turbine plants use the dynamic pressure from flowing gases to directly operate the turbine. Natural-gas fuelled turbine plants can start rapidly and so are used to supply "peak" energy during periods of high demand, thought higher cost than base-loaded plants. These may be comparatively small units, and sometimes completely unmanned, being remotely operated. This type was pioneered by the UK, Prince town being the world's first, commissioned in 1959. Combined cycle plants have both a gas turbine fired by natural gas, and as team boiler and steam turbine which use the exhaust gas from the gas turbine to produce electricity. This greatly increases the overall efficiency of the plant, and many new base load power plants are combined cycle plants fired by natural gas. Internal combustion Reciprocating engines are used to provide power for isolated communities and are frequently used for small cogeneration plants. Hospitals, office buildings, industrial plants, and other critical facilities also use them to provide backup power in case of a power outage. These are usually fuelled by diesel oil, heavy oil, natural gas and landfill gas.

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Micro turbines, Sterling engine and internal combustion reciprocating engines are low cost solutions for using opportunity fuels, such as landfill gas, digester gas from water treatment plants and waste gas from oil production.

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FUNCTIONING
Functioning of thermal power plant:

In a thermal power plant, one of coal, oil or natural gas is used to heat the boiler to convert the water into steam. The steam is used to turn a turbine, which is connected to a generator. When the turbine turns, electricity is generated and given as output by the generator, which is then supplied to the consumers through high-voltage power lines.
Detailed process of power generation in a thermal power plant:
1) Water intake

: Firstly, water is taken into the boiler through a water source. If water is available in a plenty in the region, then the source is an open pond or river. If water is scarce, then it is recycled and the same water is used over and over again.
2) Boiler heating

: The boiler is heated with the help of oil, coal or natural gas. A furnace is used to heat the fuel and supply the heat produced to the boiler. The increase in temperature helps in the transformation of water into steam.
3) Steam Turbine

: The steam generated in the boiler is sent through a steam turbine. The turbine has blades that rotate when high velocity steam flows across them. This rotation of turbine blades is used to generate electricity.
4) Generator:

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A generator is connected to the steam turbine. When the turbine rotates, the generator produces electricity which is then passed on to the power distribution systems.
5) Special mountings

: There is some other equipment like the economizer and air preheater. An economizer uses the heat from the exhaust gases to heat the feed water. An air pre-heater heats the air sent into the combustion chamber to improve the efficiency of the combustion process.
6) Ash collection system

: There is a separate residue and ash collection system in place to collect all the waste materials from the combustion process and to prevent them from escaping into the atmosphere. Apart from this, there are various other monitoring systems and instruments in place to keep track of the functioning of all the devices. This prevents any hazards from taking place in the plant.

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Process of a Thermal Power Plant

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PROJECTREPORT
OPERATION

EMD I

EMD I1

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Module I
OPERATION **Introduction

**Steam Generator or Boiler

**Steam Turbine

Electric Generator

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INTRODUCTION
The operating performance of NTPC has been considerably above the national average. The availability factor for coal stations has increased from 85.03 % in1997-98 to 90.09 % in 2006- 07, which compares favorably with international standards. The PLF has increased from 75.2% in 1997-98 to 89.4% during the year 2006-07 which is the highest since the inception of NTPC. Operation Room of Power Plant In a Badarpur Thermal Power Station, steam is produced and used to spin a turbine that operates a generator. Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator. After it passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser; this is known as a Rankine cycle. Shown here is a diagram of a conventional thermal power plant, which uses coal, oil, or natura lgas as fuel to boil water to produce the steam. The electricity generated at the plants sent to consumers through high-voltage power lines. The Badarpur Thermal Power Plant has Steam TurbineDriven Generators which has a collective capacity of 705MW. The fuel being used is Coal which is sup plied from the Jharia Coal Field in Jharkhand.

*Operation Room of Power Plant

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Table: Capacity of Faridabad Thermal Power Station, New Delhi

Sr. no
1. 2.

Capacity
210MW 95MW

No. of Generators Total Capacity

2 3 420MW 285MW

There are basically three main units of a thermal power plant:1. Steam Generator or Boiler 2. Steam Turbine3. Electric Generator we have discussed about the processes of electrical generation further. A completed tailed description of the three units is given further.

Typical Diagram of gas based Thermal Power Plant

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1. Cooling tower 2. Cooling water pump 3. Transmission line (3-phase) 4. Unit transformer (3-phase) 5. Electric generator (3-phase) 6. Low pressure turbine 7. Condensate extraction pump 8. Condenser 9. Intermediate pressure turbine 10. Steam governor valve 11. High pressure turbine 12. Deaerator 13. Feed heater 14. Coal conveyor 15. Coal hopper 16. Pulverized fuel mill) 17. Boiler drum 18. Ash hopper 19. Super heater

20. Forced draught 21. Re-heater 22. Air intake 23. Economizer 24. Air pre-heater 25. Precipitator 26. Induced fan draught fan 27. Chimney Stack Coal is conveyed (14)from an external stack and ground to a very fine powder by large metal spheres in the pulverized fuel mill(16).There it is mixed with preheated air (24)driven by the forced draught fan(20).The hot air-fuel mixture is forced at high pressure into the boiler where it rapidly ignites. Water of a high purity flows vertically up the tube-lined walls of the boiler, where it turns into steam, and is passed to the boiler drum, where steam is separated from any remaining water. The steam passes through a manifold in the roof of the drum into the pendant super heater (19) where its temperature and pressure increase rapidly to around 200 bars and 540C, sufficient to make the tube walls glow a dull red. The steam is piped to the high pressure turbine (11), the first of a three-stage turbine process. A steam governor valve (10) allows for both manual control of the turbine and automatic set-point following. The steam is exhausted from the high pressure turbine, and reduced in both pressure and temperature, is returned to the boiler re-heater (21).The reheated steam is then passed to the intermediate pressure turbine (9), and from there passed directly to the low pressure turbine set(6).The exiting steam, now a little above its boiling point,

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is brought into thermal contact with cold water (pumped in from the cooling tower) in the con-de-ns-or (8),where it condenses rapidly back into water, creating near vacuum-like conditions inside the Condensor chest.

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The condensed water is then passed by a feed pump(7)through a deaerator (12),and pre-warmed, first in a feed heater (13)powered by steam drawn from the high pressure set, and then in the economiser (23),before being returned to the boiler drum. The cooling water from the condensor is sprayed inside a cooling tower (1),creating a highly visible plume of water vapour, before being pumped back to the condenser (8)in cooling water cycle. The three turbine sets are sometimes coupled on the same shaft as the threephase electrical generator (5) which generates an intermediate level voltage (typically 20-25 kV). This is stepped up by the unit transformer (4)to a voltage more suitable for transmission (typically 250-500 kV) and is sent out onto the three-phase transmission system(3).Exhaust gas from the boiler is drawn by the induced draft fan(26)through an electrostatic precipitator (25)and is then vented through the chimney stack (27).

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Steam Generator or Boiler

The boiler is a rectangular furnace about 50 ft (15 m) on a side and 130 ft (40 m) tall. Its walls are made of a web of high pressure steel tubes about 2.3 inches (60mm) in diameter. Pulverized coal is airblown into the furnace from fuel nozzles at the four corners and it rapidly burns, forming a large fireball at the center. It is separated from the water inside a drum at the top of the furnace. The saturated steam is introduced into superheat pendant tubes that hang in the hottest part of the combustion gases as they exit the furnace. The generator includes the economizer, the steam drum, the chemical dosing equipment, and the furnace with its steam generating tubes and the super heater coils. The air and flue gas path equipment include: forced draft (FD) fan, air pre heater (APH), boiler furnace, induced draft (ID) fan, fly ash collectors (electrostatic precipitator or bag house) and the flue gas stack.

Schematic diagram of a coal-fired power plant steam generator

For units over about 210 MW capacity redundancy of key components is provided by installing duplicates of the FD fan, APH, fly ash collectors and ID fan with isolating dampers. On some units of about 60 MW, two boilers per unit may instead be provided.

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Boiler Furnace and Steam Drum

Once water inside the boiler or steam generator,the process of adding the latent heat of vaporization or enthalpy is underway. The boiler transfers energy to the water by the chemical reaction of burning some type of fuel. The water enters the boiler through a section in the convection pass called the economizer. From the economizer it passes to the steam drum. Once the water enters the steam drum it goes down the down comers to the lower inlet water wall headers. From the inlet headers the water rises through the water walls and is eventually turned into steam due to the heat being generated by the burners located on the front and rear water walls (typically). As the water is turned in to steam/vapour in the water walls, the steam/vapour once again enters the steam drum.

External View of an Industrial Boiler at Faridabad Thermal Power Station, New Delhi

The steam/vapour is passed through a series of steam and water separators and then dryers inside the steam drum. The steam separators and dryers remove the water droplets from the steam and the cycle through the water walls is repeated. This process is known as natural circulation. The steam drum (as well as the super heater coils and headers) have air vents and drains needed for initial start up. The steam drum has an internal device that removes moisture from the wet steam entering the drum from the steam generating tubes. The dry steam then flows into the super heater coils.

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Fuel Preparation System

In coal-fired power stations, the raw feed coal from the coal storage area is first crushed into small pieces and then conveyed to the coal feed hoppers at the boilers. The coal is next pulverized into a very fine powder. The oil must kept warm (above its pour point) in the fuel oil storage tanks to prevent the oil from congealing and becoming un pump able. The oil is usually heated to about 100C before being pumped through the furnace fuel oil spray nozzles.

Boiler Side of the Faridabad Thermal Power Station, Haryana

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Boilers in some power stations use processed natural gas as their main fuel. Other power stations may use processed natural gas as auxiliary fuel in the event that their main fuel supply (coal or oil) is interrupted. In such cases, separate gas burners are provided on the boiler furnaces.

Fuel Firing System and Igniter System

From the pulverized coal bin, coal is blown by hot air through the furnace coal burners at an angle which imparts a swirling motion to the powdered coal to enhance mixing of the coal powder with the incoming preheated combustion air and thus to enhance the combustion. To provide sufficient combustion temperature in the furnace before igniting the powdered coal, the furnace temperature is raised by first burning some light fuel oil or processed natural gas (by using auxiliary burners and igniters provide for that purpose).

Air Path
External fans are provided to give sufficient air for combustion. The forced draft fan takes air from the atmosphere and, first warming it in the air pre heater for better combustion, injects it via the air nozzles on the furnace wall. The induced draft fan assists the FD fan by drawing out combustible gases from the furnace, maintaining a slightly negative pressure in the furnace to avoid backfiring through any opening. At the furnace outlet and before the furnace gas esare handled by the ID fan.

Auxiliary Systems

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Fly Ash Collection

Fly ash is captured and removed from the flue gas by electrostatic precipitators or fabric bag filters (or sometimes both) located at the outlet of the furnace and before the induced draft fan. The fly ash is periodically removed from the collection hoppers below the precipitators or bag filters. Generally, the fly ash is pneumatically transported to storage silos for subsequent transport by trucks or railroad cars.

Bottom Ash Collection and Disposal

At the bottom of every boiler, a hopper has been provided for collection of the bottom ash from the bottom of the furnace. This hopper is always filled with water to quench the ash and clinkers falling down from the furnace. Some arrangement is included to crush the clinkers and for conveying the crushed clinkers and bottom ash to a storage site. Boiler Make-up Water Treatment Plant and Storage The impurities in the raw water input to the plant generally consist of calcium and magnesium salts which impart hardness to the water. Hardness in the make-up water to the boiler will form deposits on the tube water surfaces which will lead to overheating and failure of

the tubes. Thus, the salts have to be removed from the water and that is done by a water demineralising treatment plant

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(DM).However, some storage is essential as the DM plant may be down for maintenance. For this purpose, a storage tank is installed from which DM water is continuously withdrawn for boiler make-up. The storage tank for DM water is made from materials not affected by corrosive water, such as PVC.

Ash Handling System at Faridabad Thermal Power Station, Haryana

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Steam Turbine
Steam turbines are used in all of our major coal fired power stations to drive the generators or alternators, which produce electricity. The turbines themselves are driven by steam generated in 'Boilers' or 'Steam Generators' as they are sometimes called. Energy in the steam after it leaves the boiler is converted into rotational energy as it passes through the turbine. The turbine normally consists of several stages with each stage consisting of a stationary blade (or nozzle) and a rotating blade. Stationary blades convert the potential energy of the steam (temperature and pressure) into kinetic energy (velocity) and direct the flow onto the rotating blades. The rotating blades convert the kinetic energy into forces, caused by pressure drop, which results in the rotation of the turbine shaft.

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In a typical larger power stations, the steam turbines are split into three separate stages, the first being the High Pressure (HP), the second the Intermediate Pressure(IP) and the third the Low Pressure (LP) stage, where high, intermediate and lowed scribe the pressure of the steam. After the steam has passed through the HP stage, it is returned to the boiler to be re-heated to its original temperature although the pressure remains greatly reduced. The reheated steam then passes through the IP stage and finally to the LP stage of the turbine.

Steam turbines can be configured in many different ways. Several IP or LP stages can be incorporated into the one steam turbine. A single shaft or several shafts coupled together may be used. Either way, the principles are the same for all steam turbines.

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Nozzles and Blades

Steam enthalpy is converted into rotational energy as it passes through a turbine stage. A turbine stage consists of a stationary blade (or nozzle) and a rotating blade (or bucket). Stationary blades convert the potential energy of the steam temperature and pressure) into kinetic energy (velocity) and direct the flow onto

the rotating blades. The rotating blades convert the kinetic energy into impulse and reaction forces caused by pressure drop, which results in the rotation of the turbine shaft or rotor. Steam turbines are machines which must be designed, manufactured and maintained to high tolerances so that the design power output and availability is obtained. They are subject to a number of damage mechanisms, with two of the most important being:

Erosion due to Moisture:

The presence of water droplets in the last stages of a turbine causes erosion to the blades. This has led to the imposition of anallowable limit of about 12% wetness in the exhaust steam.

Solid Particle Erosion:

The entrainment of erosive materials from the boiler in the steam causes wear to the turbine blades.

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Cogeneration Cycles

In cogeneration cycles, steam is typically generated at a higher temperature and pressure than required for a particular industrial process. The steam is expanded through a turbine to produce electricity and the resulting extractions at the discharge are at the temperature and pressure required by the process. Traditionally, pressures were 6.21 M Pa and below with temperatures441degree C or lower, although the trend towards higher levels of each continues.

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Bearings and Lubrication

Two types of bearings are used to support and locate the rotors of steam turbines: **Journal bearings are used to support the weight of the turbine rotors. A journal bearing consists of two half-cylinders that enclose the shaft and are internally lined with Babbitt, a metal alloy usually consisting of tin, copper and antimony **Thrust bearings axially locate the turbine rotors. A thrust bearing is made up of a series of Babbitt lined pads that run against a locating disk attached to the turbine rotor. High-pressure oil is injected into the bearings to provide lubrication. The oil is carefully filtered to remove solid particles. Specially designed centrifuges remove any water from the oil.

Shaft Seals
The shaft seal on a turbine rotor consist of a series of ridges and groves around the rotor and its housing which present a long, tortuous path for any steam leaking through the seal. The seal therefore does not prevent the steam from leaking, merely reduces the leakage to a minimum. The leaking steam is collected and returned to a low-pressure part of the steam circuit.

Turning Gear
Large steam turbines are equipped with "turning gear" to slowly rotate the turbine safter they have been shut down and while they

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are cooling. This evens out the temperature distribution around the turbines and prevents bowing of the rotors.

Vibration
The balancing of the large rotating steam turbines is a critical component in ensuring the reliable operation of the plant. Most large steam turbines have sensors in stalled to measure the movement of the shafts in their bearings. This condition monitoring can identify many potential problems and allows the repair of the turbine to be planned before the problems become serious.

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Electric Generator
The steam turbine-driven generators have auxiliary systems enabling them to work satisfactorily and safely. The steam turbine generator being rotating equipment generally has a heavy, large diameter shaft. The shaft therefore requires not only supports but also has to be kept in position while running. To minimize the frictional resistance to the rotation, the shaft has a number of bearings. The bearing shells, in which the shaft rotates, are lined with a low friction material like Babbitt metal. Oil lubrication is provided to further reduce the friction between shaft and bearing surface and to limit the heat generated.

A 95 MW Generator at Faridabad Thermal Power Station, Haryana

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Barring Gear (or Turning Gear)

Barring gear is the term used for the mechanism provided for rotation of the turbine generator shaft at a very low speed (about one revolution per minute) after unit stoppages for any reason. Once the unit is "tripped" (i.e., the turbine steam inlet valve is closed), the turbine starts slowing or "coasting down". When it stops completely, there is a tendency for the turbine shaft to deflect or bend if allowed to remain in one position too long. But this small amount of shaft deflection would be enough to cause vibrations and damage the entire steam turbine generator unit when it is restarted. Therefore, the shaft is not permitted to come to a complete stop by a mechanism known as "turning gear" or "barring gear" that automatically takes over to rotate the unit at a preset low speed. Condenser The surface condenser is a shell and tube heat exchanger in which cooling water is circulated through the tubes. The exhaust steam from the low pressure turbine enters the shell where it is cooled and converted to condensate (water) by flowing over the tubes as shown in the adjacent diagram. For best efficiency, the temperature in the condenser must be kept as low as practical in order to achieve the lowest possible pressure in the condensing steam. Since the condenser temperature can almost always be kept significantly below100 degree C where the vapour-pressure of water is much less than atmospheric pressure, the condenser generally works under vacuum.

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A Typical water Cooled Condenser

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Feed water Heater

A Rankine cycle with a two-stage steam turbine and a single feed water heater. In the case of a conventional steam-electric power plant utilizing a drum boiler, the surface condenser removes the latent heat of vaporization from the steam as it changes states from vapor to liquid. The heat content (btu) in the steam is referred to as Enthalpy. The condensate pump then pumps the condensate water through a feed water heater. Preheating the feed water reduces the irreversibility involved in steam generation and therefore improves the thermodynamic efficiency of the system. This reduces plant operating costs and also helps to avoid thermal shock to the boiler metal when the feed water is introduced back into the steam cycle.

Supe-rheater
As the steam is conditioned by the drying equipment inside the drum, it is piped from the upper drum area into an elaborate set up of tubing in different areas of the boiler. Theare as known as super heater and re-heater. The steam vapor picks up energy and its temperature is now superheated above the saturation temperature. The superheated steam is then piped through the main stream lines to the valves of the high pressure turbine.

Deaerator
A steam generating boiler requires that the boiler feed water should be devoid of air and other dissolved gases, particularly corrosive ones, in order to avoid corrosion of the metal. Generally, power stations use a deaerator to provide for the removal of air and other

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dissolved gases from the boiler feed water. A deaerator typically includes a vertical, domed deaeration section mounted on top of a horizontal cylindrical vessel which serves as the deaerated boiler feed-water storage tank. There are many different designs for a deaerator and the designs will vary from one manufacturer to another. The adjacent diagram depicts a typical convention altrayed deaerator. If operated properly, most deaerator manufacturers will guarantee that oxygen in the deaerated water will not exceed 7 ppb by weight (0.005 cm3/L).

Boiler Feeb water Deaerator

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Auxiliary Systems
Oil System
An auxiliary oil system pump is used to supply oil at the start-up of the steam turbine generator. It supplies the hydraulic oil system required for steam turbine's main inlet steam stop valve, the governing control valves, the bearing and seal oil systems, the relevant hydraulic relays and other mechanisms. At a preset speed of the turbine during start-ups, a pump driven by the turbine main shaft takes over the functions of the auxiliary system.

Generator Heat Dissipation

The electricity generator requires cooling to dissipate the heat that it generates. While small units may be cooled by air drawn through filters at the inlet, larger units generally require special cooling arrangements. Hydrogen gas cooling, in an oil-sealed casing, is used because it has the highest known heat transfer co-efficientof any gas and for its low viscosity which reduces windage losses. The generator also uses water cooling. Since the generator coils are at a potential of about 15.75kV and water is conductive, an insulating barrier such as

Generator High Voltage System

The generator voltage ranges from 10.5 kV in smaller units to 15.75 kV in larger units. The generator high voltage leads are normally large aluminum channels because of their high current as compared to the cables used in smaller machines. They are enclosed in wellgrounded aluminum bus ducts and are supported on suitable insulators. The generator high voltage channels are connected to step-up transformers for connecting to a high voltage electrical

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substation (of the order of 220 kV) for further transmission by the local power grid. The necessary protection and metering devices are included for the high voltage leads. Thus, the steam turbine generator and the transformer form one unit. In smaller units, generating at 10.5 kV, a breaker is provided to connect it to a common 10.5 kV bus system.

Other Systems
Monitoring and Alarm system
Most of the power plants operational controls are automatic. However, at times, manual intervention may be required. Thus, the plant is provided with monitors and alarm systems that alert the plant operators when certain operating parameters are seriously deviating from their normal range.

An Engineer monitoring the various parameters at NTPC, Faridabad

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Battery Supplied Emergency Lighting & Communication

A central battery system consisting of lead acid cell units is provided to supply emergency electric power, when needed, to essential items such as the power plant's control systems, communication systems, turbine lube oil pumps, and emergency lighting. This is essential for a safe, damage-free shutdown of the unitsin an emergency situation.

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Module II

EMD I
(ELECTRICAL MANAGEMENT DEPARTMENT -1) I was assigned this department from 21th June to 06th July 2010

***Direct On Line Starter

***Motors ***Switchgear ***High Tension Switchgear

***Gas Handling Plant

Page64

ELECTRIC MOTORS
An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy.The reverse process that of using mechanical energy to produce electrical energy is accomplished by a generator or dynamo. Traction motors used on locomotives and some electric and hybrid automobiles often performs both tasks if the vehicle is equipped with dynamic brakes.

A High Power Electric Motor

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Categorization of Electric Motors

The classic division of electric motors has been that of Direct Current (DC) types vs Alternating Current (AC) types. The ongoing trend toward electronic control further muddles the distinction, as modern drivers have moved the commutator out of the motor shell. For this new breed of motor, driver circuits are relied upon to generate sinusoidal AC drive currents. The two best examples are: the brushless DC motor and the stepping motor, both being poly phase AC motors requiring external electronic control. There is a clearer distinction between a synchronous motor and asynchronous types. In the synchronous types, the rotor rotates in synchrony with the oscillating field or current (e.g. permanent magnet motors).

AC Motor

Internal View of AC Motors

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An AC motor is an electric motor that is driven by an alternating current. It consists of two basic parts, an outside stationary stator having coils supplied with AC current to produce a rotating magnetic field, and an inside rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a torque by the rotating field. There are two types of AC motors, depending on the type of rotor used. The first is the synchronous motor, which rotates exactly at the supply frequency or as u b multiple of the supply frequency. The magnetic field on the rotor is either generated by current delivered through slip rings or a by a permanent magnet. The second type is the induction motor, which turns slightly slower than the supply frequency. The magnetic field on the rotor of this motor is created by an in du c e d current.

SWITCHGEAR
The term switchgear, used in association with the electric power system, or grid, refers to the combination of electrical disconnects, fuses and/or circuit breakers used to isolate electrical equipment. Switchgear is used both to de-energize equipment to allow work to be done and to clear faults downstream. The very earliest central power stations used simple open knife switches and voltage srapidly escalated, making open manually-operated switches too dangerous to use for anything other than isolation of a deen erg iz ed circuit. Oil-filled equipment allowed arc energy to be contained and safely controlled. By the early 20thcentury, a switchgear line-up would be a metal-enclosed structure with Electrically-operated switching elements, using oil circuit breakers. Today, oil filled equipment has largely been replaced by air-blast, vacuum, or SF6 equipment, allowing large currents and power levels to be safely controlled by

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automatic equipment incorporating digital controls, protection, metering and communications.

A view of Switchgear at a Power Plant

HIGH TENSION SWITCHGEAR

High voltage switchgear is any switchgear and switchgear assembly of rated voltage higher than 1000 volts. High voltage switchgear is any switchgear used to connect or to disconnect a part of a high voltage power system. These switchgears are essential elements for the protection and for a safety operating mode without interruption of a high voltage power system. This type of equipment is really important because it is directly linked to the quality of the electricity supply. The high voltage is a voltage above 1000 V for alternating current and above1500 V for direct current.

High Tension Switchgear of a Thermal Power Plant

The high voltage switchgear was invented at the end of the 19th century for operating the motors and others electric machines. It has been improved and it can be used in the whole range of high voltage until 1100 kV

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Module II

EMD II
(ELECTRICAL MANAGEMENT DEPARTMENT-2) I was assigned this department from 6st July to 18thAugus

***Generator ***Protection

***Transformer

Page70

GENERATORS
The basic function of the generator is to convert mechanical power, delivered from the shaft of the turbine, into electrical power. Therefore a generator is actually a rotating mechanical energy converter. The mechanical energy from the turbine is converted by means of a rotating magnetic field produced by direct current in the copper winding of the rotor or field, which generates three-phase alternating currents and voltages in the copper winding of the stator (armature). The stator winding is connected to terminals, which are in turn connected to the power system for delivery of the output power to the system.

A 210 MW Turbine Generator at Faridabad Thermal Power Station,

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They range from relatively small machines of a few Megawatts (MW) to very large generators with ratings up to 1900 MW.

ROTOR
The rotor winding is installed in the slots machined in the forging main body and is distributed symmetrically around the rotor between the poles. The winding itself is made up of many turns of copper to form the entire series connected winding. All of the turns associated with a single slot are generally called a coil. The coils are wound into the winding slots in the forging, concentrically in corresponding positions on opposite sides of a pole. There are numerous copper-winding designs employed in generator rotors, but all rotor windings function basically in the same way. They are configured differently for different methods of heat removal during operation. In addition almost all large turbo generators have directly cooled copper windings by air or hydrogen cooling gas.

Rotor of a Turbo Generator

Cooling passages are provided within the conductors themselves to eliminate the temperature drop across the ground insulation and preserve the life of the insulation material. In an axially cooled winding, the gas passes through axial passages in the conductors, being fed from both ends, and exhausted to the air gap at the axial center of the rotor.

Page73

BEARINGS
All turbo generators require bearings to rotate freely with minimal friction and vibration. The main rotor body must be supported by a bearing at each end of the generator for this purpose. In some cases where the rotor shaft is very long at the excitation end of the machine to accommodate the slip/collector rings, a steady bearing is installed outboard of the slip collector rings. This ensures that the excitation end of the rotor shaft does not create a wobble that transmits through the shaft and stimulates excessive vibration in the overall generator rotor or the turbo generator line. There are generally two common types of bearings employed in large generators, journal and tilting pad bearings.

AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
All large generators require auxiliary systems to handle such things as lubricating oil for the rotor bearings, hydrogen cooling apparatus, hydrogen sealing oil, de-mineralized water for stator winding cooling, and excitation systems for field-current application. Not all generators require all these systems and the requirement depends on the size and nature of the machine. For instance, air cooled turbo generators do not require hydrogen for cooling and therefore no sealing oil as well. On the other hand, large generators with high ou tputs, gnerally above 400 MVA, have water-cooled stator windings, hydrogen for cooling the stator core and rotor, seal oil to contain the hydrogen cooling gas under high pressure, lubricating oil for the bearings, and of course, an excitation system for field current.

Page74

There are five major auxiliary systems that may be used in a generator. They are given as follow 1. Lubricating Oil System 2. Hydrogen Cooling System 3. Seal Oil System 4. Stator Cooling Water System 5. Excitation System

1. Lubricating Oil System

The lube-oil system provides oil for all of the turbine and generator bearings as well as being the source of seal oil for the seal-oil system. The lube-oil system is generally grouped in with the turbine components and is not usually looked after by the generator side during maintenance.

Lubricating Oil System Layout

Page75

The main components of the lube-oil system consists generally of the main lube-oil tank, pumps, heat exchangers, filters and strainers, centrifuge or purifier, extractor, and various check valves and instrumentation. The main oil tank serves both the turbine and generator bearing and is often also the source of the sealing oil for the hydrogen seals. It is usually located under the turbines and holds thousands of gallons of oil. Heat exchangers are provided for heat removal from the lube oil. Raw water from the local lake or river is circulated on one side of the cooler to remove the heat from the lube oil circulating on the other side of the heat exchanger.

2. Hydrogen Cooling System

As the hydrogen cooling gas picks up heat from the various generator components within the machine, its temperature rises significantly. This can be as much as 46degree C, and therefore the hydrogen must be cooled down prior to being re-circulated through the machine for continuous cooling. Hydrogen coolers or heat exchangers are employed for this purpose. Hydrogen coolers are basically heat exchangers mounted inside the generator in the enclosed atmosphere. Cooling tubes with fins are used to enlarge the surface area for cooling, as the hydrogen gas passes over the outside of the finned tubes. Raw water (filtered and treated) from the local river or lake is pumped through the tubes to take the heat away from the hydrogen gas and outside the generator. The tubes must be extremely leak-tight to ensure that hydrogen gas does not enter into the tubes, since the gas is at a higher pressure than the raw water.

3. Seal Oil System

As most large generators use hydrogen under high pressure for cooling the various internal components. To keep the hydrogen inside the generator, various places in the generator are required to seal against hydrogen leakage to atmosphere. One of the most difficult seals made is the juncture between the stator and the rotating shaft of the rotor. This is done by a set of hydrogen seals at both ends of the machine. The seals may be of the journal (ring) type or the Thrust-collar type. But one thing both arrangements have in common is the requirement of high pressure oil into the seal to make the actual seal. The system, which provides the oil to do this, is called the seal-oil system. In general, the most common type of seal is the journal type. The seal-oil pressure at the hydrogen seals is maintained generally about 15 psi above the hydrogen pressure to stop hydrogen from leaking past the seals.

Seal Oil System Packaged Unit

4. Stator Cooling Water System

The stator cooling water system (SCW) is used to provide a source of de-mineralized water to the generator stator winding for direct cooling of the stator winding and associated components. SCW is generally used in machines rated at or above 300 MVA. Most SCW systems are provided as package units, mounted on a singular platform, which includes all of the SCW system components. All components of the system are generally made from stainless steel or copper materials.

Stator Water Cooling System

System Components

Pumps:
Generally, ac motor driven pumps are used to deliver the cooling water to the windings. In some instances a dc motor driven pump is used for emergency shutdown.

Heat Exchangers:
Heat exchangers are provided for heat removal from the SCW. Raw water from the local lake or river is circulated on one side of the cooler to remove the heat from the De mineralized SCW circulating on the other side of the heat exchanger.

Filters and/or Strainers:

Full-flow filters and/or strainers, or a combination of both, are employed for removal of debris from the SCW. Strainers are generally sized to remove debris in the 20 to 50 range and larger and filters for debris in the range of 3 and larger. They can be mechanical or organic type filters and strainers. Debris removal is important to reduce the possibility of plugging in the stator conductor bar strands.

De-Ionizing Subsystem:
A de-ionizing subsystem is required to maintain low conductivity in the SCW, generally in the order of 0.1 S/cm. High conductivity can cause a flashover to ground in the stator winding, particularly at the Teflon hoses where an internal tracking path to ground exists. The system generally maintains a continuous bleed-off of 5% from the main SCW flow to keep the conductivity in the operable range.

Stator Cooling Water System Storage or Makeup Tank:

In the event the SCW is lost, or the SCW system must be refilled after shutdown and draining, the system requires replenishing. Therefore a storage tank to hold sufficient makeup water is required. Some systems are open to atmosphere while others maintain a hydrogen blanket on top of the water to keep the level of oxygen at a minimum.

Gas Collection and Venting Arrangement:

Since no SCW system is leak proof, there is some ingress of hydrogen and natural collection of other gases such as oxygen in the SCW system. A means for venting off these gases is required. Generally, the excess gases are vented to atmosphere. In some systems the venting process is monitored and/or quantified and in other systems there is none. This is manufacturer-specific.

5. Excitation System
Rotating commutate or exciters as a source of DC power for the AC generator field generally have been replaced by silicon diode power rectifier systems of the static or brushless type.

A typical brushless system includes a rotating permanent magnet pilot exciter with the stator connected through the excitation switchgear to the stationary field of an AC exciter with rotating armature and a rotating silicon diode rectifier assembly, which in turn is connected to the rotating field of the generator. This arrangement eliminates both the commutator and the collector rings.

A typical static system includes a three-phase excitation potential transformer, three single phase current transformers, an excitation cubicle with field breaker and discharge resistor, one automatic and one manual static type voltage regulators, a full wave static rectifier, necessary devices for mounting on a remote panel, and a collector assembly for connection to the generator field.

PROTECTION
The protection system of any modern electric power grid is the most crucial function in the system. Protection is a system because it comprises discrete devices (relays, communication means, etc.) and an algorithm that establishes a coordinated method of operation among the protective devices. This is termed coordination. Thus for a protective system to operate correctly, both the settings of the individual relays and the coordination among them must be right. Wrong settings might result in no protection to the protected equipment and systems, and improper coordination might result in unwarranted loss of production. The key function of any protective system is to minimize the possibility of physical damage to equipment due to a fault anywhere in the system or from abnormal operation of the equipment (over speed, under voltage, etc.).Electric power generators are most often the most critical electrical apparatus in any power plant. In fact, given the electrical proximity between the generator and the main step-up transformer (SUT), those two most important apparatuses share some of the protective functions. Given the prohibited cost of replacing any of these two, in particular, the generator, significant expense goes in providing the most comprehensive protection coverage. Protection systems can be divided into systems monitoring current, voltage(at the machines main terminals and excitation system), windings, and/or cooling media temperature and pressure, and systems monitoring internal activity, such as partial discharge, decomposition of organic insulation materials, water content, hydrogen impurities, and flux probes. Protective functions acting on the current, voltage, temperature, and pressure parameters are commonly referred to as

primary protection. The others are referred to as secondary protection or monitoring devices. Secondary functions tend to be monitored real time, or on demand. For instance, hydrogen purity is monitored on-line real time, while water content (for water leaks) is not. Temperature detectors (RTDs or thermocouples) on bearings (and sometimes in on windings) may be monitored on-line real time, or they may not. Furthermore these functions may more often than not result in an alarm, rather than directly trip the unit (core monitors).

Multi-function Generator Protection Device

GENERATOR PROTECTIVE FUNCTION

Protection devices are designed to monitor certain conditions, and subsequently, to alarm or trip if a specified condition is detected. The condition is represented by a function or protective function code. Thus there is a relay for every protective function. If a relay only monitors and thus protects against a single set of conditions, it is said that the relay is asingle-function device. In the past most relays

were single-function devices. Some multi-function relays are dedicated to transformers, others to motors, and others to generators. Advances in solid-state electronics have led to less costly devices. A multi-functional relay containing all the protective functions required for the protection of a generator can be combined with a few discrete relays providing backup protection for critical functions. Alternatively, two or more multi-functional relays can be applied, providing partial or comprehensive redundancy. There are many combinations of these discrete and multi-functional relays that can be adopted, depending on when the power plant was build, the size of the units, system conditions, the idiosyncrasy of the designer, and many other factors. Relays or protection devices are divided into two categories according to how they process data. The first category is that of analog relays; the second is that of numerical (also called digital) relays. Bear in mind that a relay can be electronic but still process the data in an analog manner.

TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a static device consisting of a winding, or two or more coupled windings, with or without a magnetic core, for inducing mutual coupling between circuits. When an alternating current flows in a conductor, a magnetic field exists round the conductor. If another conductor is placed in the field created by the first conductor such that the flux lines link the second conductor then a voltage is induced into the second conductor. The use of a magnetic field from one coil to induce a voltage into a second coil is the principle on which transformer theory and application is based.

A 220 kV Transformer at Power Plant

ANSI/IEEE defines a transformer as a static electrical device, involving no continuously moving parts, used in electric power systems to transfer power between circuits through the use of electromagnetic induction. The transformer is one of the most reliable pieces of electrical distribution equipment. It has no moving parts, requires minimal maintenance, and is capable of withstanding overloads, surges, faults, and physical abuse that may damage or destroy other items in the circuit. Often, the electrical event that burns up a motor, opens a circuit breaker, or blows a fuse has a subtle effect on the transformer. Although the transformer may continue to operate as before, repeat occurrences of such damaging electrical events, or lack of even minimal maintenance can greatly accelerate the eventual failure of the transformer. The fact that a transformer continues to operate satisfactorily in spite of neglect and abuse is a testament to its durability. However, this durability is no excuse for not providing the proper care. Most of the effects of aging, faults, or abuse can be detected and corrected by a comprehensive maintenance, inspection, and testing program. Transformers are exclusively used in electric power systems to transfer power by electromagnetic induction between circuits at the same frequency, usually with changed values of voltage and current. There are numerous types of transformers used in various applications including audio, radio, instrument, and power. In Faridabad Thermal Power Station, we deal exclusively with power transformer applications involving the transmission and distribution of electrical power. Power transformers are used extensively by traditional electric utility companies, power plants, and industrial plants. The term power transformer is use d t o refer to those transformers used between the generator and the distribution circuits, and these are usually

rated at 220 k VA and above. Power systems typically consist of a large number of generation locations, distribution points, and interconnections within the system or with nearby systems, such as a neigh boring utility. The complexity of the system leads to a variety of transmission and distribution voltages.

A Power Transformer at a Thermal Power Plant

CONSTRUCTION
A power transformer is a device that changes (transforms) an alternating voltage and current from one level to another. Power transformers are used to step up(transform) the voltages that are produced at generation to levels that are suitable for transmission (higher voltage, lower current).Conversely, a transformer is used to

step down (transform) the higher transmission voltages to levels that are suitable for use at various facilities (lower voltage, higher current). Electric power can undergo numerous transformations between the source and the final end use point. Voltages must be stepped-up for transmission. Every conductor, no matter how large, will lose an appreciable amount of power (watts) to its resistance(R) when a current (T) passes through it. This loss is expressed as a function of the applied current (P=I2R). Because this loss is dependent on the current and since the power to be transmitted is a function of the applied volts (E)

Times the amps (P=IE), significant savings can be obtained by stepping the voltage up to a higher voltage level, with the corresponding reduction of the current value. Whether 100 amps is to be transmitted at 100 volts (P=IE, 100amps X 100 volts = 10,000 watts) or 10 amps is to be transmitted at 1,000volts (P=IE, 10 amps X 1,000 volts = 10,000 watts) the same 10,000 watts will be applied to the beginning of the transmission line. If the transmission distance is long enough to produce 0.1 ohm of resistance across the transmission cable, P=I2R, (100 amp)2 X 0.1 ohm = 1,000 watts will be lost across the transmission line at the 100 volt transmission level. The 1000 volts transmission level will create a loss of P=I2R, (10 amp) 2 X0.1 ohm = 10 watts. This is where transformers play an important role.

Although power can be transmitted more efficiently at higher voltage levels, sometimes as high as 500 or 750 thousand volts (kV), the devices and networks at the point of utilization are rarely

capable of handling voltages above 32,000 volts. Voltage must be stepped down to be utilized by the various devices available. By adjusting the voltages to the levels necessary for the various end use and distribution levels, electric power can be used both efficiently and safely. All power transformers have three basic parts, a primary winding, secondary winding, and a core. Even though little more than an air space is necessary to insulate an ideal transformer, when higher voltages and larger amounts of power are involved, the insulating material becomes an integral part of the transformers operation. Because of this, the insulation system is often considered the fourth basic part of the transformer.

Core
The core, which provides the magnetic path to channel the flux, consists of thin strips of high grade steel, called laminations, which are electrically separated by a thin coating of insulating material. The strips can be stacked or wound, with the windings either built integrally around the core or built separately and assembled around the core sections. Core steel can be hot- or cold rolled, grainoriented or non grain oriented, and even laser-scribed for additional performance. Thickness ranges from 0.23 mm to upwards of 0.36 mm. The core cross section can be circular or rectangular, with circular cores commonly referred to a form construction. Rectangular cores are used for smaller ratings and asauxiliary transformers used within a power transformer. Rectangular cores use a single width of strip steel, while circular cores use a combination of different strip widths to approximate a circular cross-section. The type of steel and

Page90

arrangement depends on the transformer rating as related to cost factors such as labour and performance. The maximum flux density of the core steel is normally designed as close to the knee of the saturation curve as practical, accounting for required over excitations and tolerances that exist due to materials and manufacturing processes. For power transformers the flux density is typically between 1.3 T and 1.8 T, with the saturation point for magnetic steel being around 2.03 T to 2.05 T. There are two basic types of core construction used in power transformers: Core form and Shell form.

In core-form construction; there is a single path for the magnetic circuit. For single-phase applications, the windings are typically divided on both corelegs as shown. In three-phase applications, the windings of a particular phase are typically on the same core leg. Windings are constructed separate of the core and placed on their respective core legs during core assembly. In shell-form construction, the core provides multiple paths for the magnetic circuit. The core is typically stacked directly around the windings, which are usually pancake-type windings, although some applications are such that the core and windings are assembled similar to core form. Due to advantages in short-circuit and transientvoltage performance, shell forms tend to be used more frequently in the largest transformers, where conditions can be more severe. Variations of three-phase shell-form construction include five and seven legged cores, depending on size and application.

Page91

(A)

(B)

*Schematic Diagram of core-form Construction *Schematic Diagram of Shell-form Construction

Page92

Windings
The windings consist of the current-carrying conductors wound around the sections of the core, and these must be properly insulated, supported, and cooled to withstand operational and test conditions. Copper and aluminum are the primary materials used as conductors in power-transformer windings. While aluminum is lighter and generally les sex pensive than copper, a larger cross section of aluminum conductor must be use carry a current with similar performance as copper. Copper has higher mechanical strength and is used almost exclusively in all but the smaller sizer anges, where aluminum conductors may be perfectly acceptable The conductors used in power transformers are typically stranded with are ctangular cross section, although some transformers at the lowest ratings may use sheet or foil conductors. Multiple strands can be wound in parallel and joined together at the ends of the winding, in which case it is necessary to transpose the strands at various points throughout the winding to prevent circulating currents around the loop(s) created by joining the strands at the ends. Individual strands may be subjected to differences in the flux field due to their respective positions within the winding, which create differences in voltages between the strands and drive circulating currents through the conductor loops. Proper transposition of the strands cancels out these voltage differences and eliminates or greatly reduces the circulating currents. In core-form transformers, the windings are usually arranged concentrically around the core leg, which shows a winding being lowered over another winding already on the core leg of a three phase transformer. Shell-form transformers use a similar concentric arrangement or an interleaved arrangement. With an

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inter leave individual coils are stacked, separated by insulating barriers and cooling ducts.

There are several types of windings:-

** Pancake Windings

**Disc Windings

**Helical Windings

**Layer (Barrel) Windings

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**A view of Pancake Winding **A View of Helical Winding

A View of Layer Winding NAMEPLATE DATA The transformer nameplate contains most of the important information that will be needed in the field. The nameplate should never be removed from the transformer and should always be kept clean and legible.

A Wye Delta Transformer Nameplate

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Although other information can be provided, industry standards require that the following In be displayed on the nameplate of all power transformers: a. Serial Number: The serial number is required any time the manufacturer must be contacted for information or parts. It should be recorded on all transformer inspections and tests. b. Class: The class will indicate the transformers cooling requirements and increased load capability. c. K VA Rating: The k VA rating, as opposed to the power output, is a true indication of the current carrying capacity of the transformer. K VA ratings for the various cooling classes should be displayed. For three phase transformers, the k VA rating is the sum of the power in all three legs. d. Voltage Rating: The voltage rating should be given for the primary and secondary, and for all tap positions. e. Temperature Rise: The temperature rise is the allowable temperature change from ambient that the transformer can undergo without incurring damage.

Polarity (single phase): The polarity is important when the transformer is to be paralleled or used in conjunction with other transformers. f. Phasor Diagrams: Phasor Diagrams will be provided for both the primary and the secondary coils. Phasor diagrams indicate the order in which the three phases will reach their peak voltages, and also the angular displacement (rotation) between the primary and secondary. g. Connection Diagram: The connection diagram will indicate the connections of the various windings, and the winding connections necessary for the various tap voltages. Percent Impedance: The impedance percent is the vector sum of the transformers resistance and reactance expressed in percent. It is the ratio of the voltage required to circulate rated current in the corresponding winding, to the rated voltage of that winding. With the secondary terminals shorted, a very small voltage is required on the primary to circulate rated current on the secondary. The impedance is defined by the ratio of the applied voltage to the rated voltage of the winding. If, with the secondary terminals shorted, 138 volts are required on the primary to produce rated current flow in the secondary, and if the primary is rated at 13,800 volts, then the impedance is 1 percent. The impedance affects the amount of current flowing through the transformer during short circuit or fault conditions. h. Impulse Level (BIL):

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The impulse level is the crest value of the impulse voltage the transformer is required to withstand without failure. The impulse level is designed to simulate a lightning strike or voltage surge condition. The impulse level is a withstand rating for extremely short duration surge voltages. Liquid-filled transformers have an inherently higher BIL rating than dry-type transformers of the same k VA rating. i. Weight: The weight should be expressed for the various parts and the total. Knowledge of the weight is important when moving or un tanking the transformer. j. Insulating Fluid: The type of insulating fl.uid is important when additional fluid must be added or when unserviceable fluid must be disposed of. Different insulating fluids should never be mixed. The number of gallons, both for the main tank, and for the various compartments should also be noted.

***_______________________***

VIKASH KUMAR

NOTE