2a. What is Radioactivity? and why does it happen?

The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons and glued together by a strong a ttraction BUT only certain combinations of n/p seem to be stable (see stability curve graph on right). Any isotope of any element that does not lie in the stabi lity band with a stable n/p ratio is likely to be radioactive! Radioactivity results from the random and spontaneous breakdown of the unstable nucleus of an atom. This breakdown is called radioactive decay of the unstable nucleus of the atom ( radioisotope). When an unstable nucleus splits a different nucleus with a different number of p rotons is formed and so a different element is formed (NOT possible in chemical changes, but this is a nuclear reaction!). The breakdown of an unstable atom is referred to as radioactive decay or radioac tive disintegration. It is a random process meaning it is a matter of chance which particular nucleus decays. Because it involves high energy nuclear changes, radioactivity is completely una ffected by the temperature, pressure, physical state or chemical state of the at oms. You cannot alter the rate of decay at all! The energy changes involved with nuclear changes like radioactivity, are much gr eater, than those for physical or chemical changes of materials like boiling or fuel combustion etc. A radium source was used, which also contains other radio-isotopes and a lead ca sing was the only safety precaution used! How people like Marie Curie and Ernest Rutherford etc. survived beyond the age o f 60 is a mystery! Anyway! it was found that the original 'emission' from the radium source was spl it into three beams by an electric or magnetic field (diagram on the right). (i) The alpha beam was attracted/deflected towards a negative plate, showing it was positive, since opposite charges attract/like charges repel - the rules of e lectric charge interaction. (ii) The beta beam bent towards a positive plate (showing it was negative). (iii) The gamma beam passed through un-deflected (showing it had no charge). Note: Although the alpha particles have the biggest charge of +2, the beta beam (smaller charge of -1) is more easily deflected because of its much smaller mass (nearly 8000 x smaller, mass ratio for He2+ : e- is 4 : 1/1850). Note that in other nuclear particle separation experiments, a proton (+), or any other positive particle beam, bends towards the negative plate. The radiation can be detected and measured in several ways By use of a Geiger-Muller (GM) tube and counter. This electronically amplifies t he ionising effect of the radiation and is used for very accurate measurements o f radioactivity and it can detect a single radioactive event. A Geiger-Muller (GM) tube and counter set up in the laboratory may record a back ground radiation of 25 counts per second. That means 25 individual, mainly gamma rays, and some beta particles (probably n o alpha particles) are 'hitting' the approximately 1cm2 detector area every seco nd. So, think how many must hit your body!, but don't worry, we seem to have survive d millions of years of evolution so far, and the body's repair system can deal w ith a few hits! Just out of curiosity, look up how many neutrino's we survive from passing throu gh our body from the Sun every second! its scary!!!!! Photographic film reacts to radiation in the same way as it does to light. It is used in film badges by workers in the nuclear industry and hospitals to monitor how much radiation people are exposed to in their potentially harmful environme nt. The film is developed after specified time interval, and the amount of 'expo

sure' or darkening of the film is a measure of how much radiation has 'hit' the person. The activity of a radioactive source is measured in ... Becquerel units (Bq, s-1), 1 becquerel = 1 disintegration of an unstable nucleus per second. or in curie (Ci, 3.7 x 10-10 s-1), 1 curie = 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per seco nd. A disintegration means the decay or breakdown of an individual unstable nucleus, so 1 curie = 3.7 x 1010 becquerel of unstable nuclei decaying per second. Doses of radiation are measured in gray, sievert or roentgen. Gray units (Gy, J kg-1) are based on the absorbed dose of ionising radiation ene rgy in joules per kilogram of absorbing material. 1 Rad = 10-2 Gy Sievert units (Sv, J kg-1) are based on the dose equivalent of ionising radiatio n and these units seem to the most important when dealing with health and safety issues. 1 Rem = 10-2 Sv Rentgen units are based on the ionising effect of the radiation. 1 rentgen = 2.58 x 10-4 C kg-1 (charge in coulombs per kilogram of material) Radioactive contamination in a material e.g. its activity in food, might be meas ured in Bq/Kg or Bq/litre. Biologically significant levels of radiation: Maximum dose allowed for general public: 5 mSv/year (mSv = millisievert = Sv/100 0, 1 mSv = 100 mRem) Maximum dose allowed for radiation workers (medical, industrial, nuclear power): 50 mSv/year Natural background dose rate: 1.25 mSv/year Maximum dose due to atmospheric atomic weapon testing 1954-61: 12 Sv/year ( =micro= 10-6) Maximum dose due to medical and industrial use: 120 Sv/year Average dose due to nuclear reactors: 2 Sv/year Threshold for nausea ('radiation sickness'): 1 Sv in a few hours Threshold for death: 1.5-2.0 Sv in a few hours (not 100%, but fatalities start t o occur in the days or weeks after exposure to the radiation)