December 4, 2009 Professor Ralph Greif Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering 6107 Etcheverry Hall, Mailstop 1740 University

of California at Berkeley Berkeley, CA 94720-1740 Dear Professor Greif: Enclosed is a copy of the Final Report for the Valve and Cam Dynamics lab by Group M 2: Team Discovery Channel (Team DC). Team DC is composed of five team members: Kevin Huynh, Darren Kwong, Chris Ohanian, Mitch Olson, and Simon Xu. Between 1pm and 5pm on November 2nd, 9th, and 16th Team DC conducted an investigation of the valve and cam simulation located in Hesse Hall. The aim of the experiment was to understand the valve and cam system behavior on both a theoretical and physical operating basis. Data wascollected for numerous springs under different configurations of shims and dampers. In addition to this procedure, a design analysis was carried out to optimize the system for a predetermined operating condition. The attached report details the experimental system and procedures for the Valve and Cam Dynamics lab. Thank you for your support with this project; please feel free to contact me with any further questions.

Sincerely,

Team Discovery Channel

Simon Xu
Kevin Huynh Darren Kwong Chris Ohanian Mitch Olson

Enclosures: 1
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Valve and Cam Dynamics:

An Investigation of Modes of Failure
Final Report

Team Discovery Channel (Group M2):

Report by: Simon Xu (18549810)

December 4, 2009

Abstract
In order to maximize the lifetime of a provided Ford engine valve and cam system under given operating conditions, the setup of the valvetrain system may be adjusted, namely through changing different combinations of springs, shims, and dampers. An experimental system was provided to simulate a refurbished Ford engine with a cam shaft driven by an electric motor. In this study, several runs of the experimental system under varying motor speeds were made, where data from an LVDT and force transducers on the spring and the lifter was taken to determine how plots of force and valve position changes with respect to changing parameters. First, the results obtained from the experiments were validated under theoretical considerations to lend credence to the investigation. Valve float occurred at higher RPMs for stiffer springs or springs with added shims. Additionally, the dampers reduced the negative effects of spring surge. Then, under the failure criteria of fatigue and valve float, the investigation concluded that an optimal setup for a typical commuter car should use a Ford spring with no shims and dampers. Even though spring surge occurs in the Ford spring at higher RPM, the fatigue present is not enough to result in failure.

Contents
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... 3 1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 4 2. Theory ....................................................................................................................................................... 5 3. Experimental System .............................................................................................................................. 10 4. Results and Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 12 5. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................... 23 6. Appendix ................................................................................................................................................. 27 7. References .............................................................................................................................................. 31

1. Introduction
Variations of automotive applications, i.e. racing cars and commuter cars, require reliable performance at different operating conditions. Their designs prioritize different qualities, whether it is maximizing component life, minimizing component wear, or maximizing power output. One system which plays a significant role in determining a cars engine performance is the valve and cam system, which actuates the opening and closing of valves for intake charge. A cam lobes unique profile enables the translation of rotational motion to linear motion, which lends itself to a prime application in the control of an engines valves through a structure composed of a rocker arm, spring, and lifter, among other features. Therefore, this investigation aims to optimize the operation of a valvetrain system, examining the implications of changing select hardware components such as springs, dampers, and shims. After establishing the foundation for how the valvetrain operates and how to modify the systems performance, this report will investigate the effect of different shims and dampers on the occurrence of spring surge and valve float, which subsequently result in decreased performance. Accordingly, the collected datameasurements of spring force, lifter force, and valve displacement will be collected across a range of camshaft RPMs. Different optimal configurations will exist for different automotive applications. Thus, the most critical mode of failure is dependent on the design goal, and the ideal configuration of shims and dampers for a given spring will be uniquely tuned to the end-use of the engine. By testing the effect of each shim and damper individually and then following with a focused test of various combinations, this investigation aims to systematically optimize performance of the valve and cam for the specific application of a commuter car.

2. Theory
Fundamentals of Vibrations Vibrating systems are often modeled as idealized spring-mass-damper systems. A schematic is provided in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Spring-Mass-Damper System Schematic

The equation of motion is defined as

= + + Where, = = = =

Given an impulse input force and no damper, the spring-mass system will oscillate with constant amplitude at the systems undamped natural frequency, o, which is given as =

With an impulse input force, the spring-mass-damper system oscillates at the systems damped natural frequency, = 1 2 . The free response amplitude peak decays exponentially, with = cos , where A is the initial peak amplitude, d is the damped natural frequency, and the damping ratio = 2 .

Engine Valvetrain A typical internal combustion engine operating on the Otto Cycle requires that intake air be introduced into and exhaust gases be expelled from the combustion chamber at the appropriate times during the combustion cycle. To accomplish this, intake and exhaust valves at the top of the chamber open, when necessary, to expose the chamber to the intake and exhaust ports, respectively. The valves are opened by a rotating camshaft which is connected and synced with the engine crankshaft. The cam and valve system requires a variety of components to ensure consistent and reliable operation. Figure 1.2 presents a schematic depicting the major components.

Figure 1.2: Schematic of overhead cam valvetrain system.

The camshaft rotation depresses the rocker according to the profile on the cam lobe. The rocker pivots on one end at the valve lifter and is in contact with the top of the valve stem at the other. The static position of the valve is closed (against the valve seat) due to the compression of the valve spring against the valve retainer.

Cam and Valve Dynamics The dynamics of the valvetrain can be analyzed by considering the rocker and the forces acting upon it. Figure 1.3 presents a free-body diagram of the system.

Figure 1.3: Free-body diagram of cam and valve system.

The cam force rotates the rocker, with angular velocity , around an idealized pivot at the lifter. The spring force is equal to the product of the spring displacement and the spring constant, as defined by Hookes Law. The instantaneous inertial force is equal to the product of the effective mass of the system and the instantaneous acceleration. The effective mass of the system must consider the fact that the all parts of the rocker and spring are not accelerated equally, since the rocker pivots at one end of the arm and one end of the spring is fixed during compression. By considering that the inertia of the rotating rod is given as
1 3

2 , it can be shown that , = 3 .

1 3

Similarly, the effective mass of the spring is given as

. These two masses are added to the

masses of the valve, retainer, and keepers to determine the effective mass of the system. The acceleration of the system is determined from the instantaneous acceleration of the valve. Failure Mode: Valve Float Valve float is a condition in which the rocker loses contact with the cam lobe. This results in greater valve displacement and longer duration than designed for, and can potentially result in contact between the valve and the piston. Beyond potentially catastrophic failure, the impact loads seen as the rocker returns to contact with the cam lobe will likely increase component wear and
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reduce component lifetime. As a result, the valve float failure criterion requires that a spring does not exhibit valve float at an engine speed lower than the maximum engine RPM. Valve float is typically seen at maximum valve displacement, when the valve spring must complete the valves deceleration and reverse its direction of travel. If the spring forces cannot overcome the inertial force at this point, the valve will continue to compress the spring until adequate spring force is produced to reverse the direction of travel, resulting in the rocker losing contact with the cam lobe. It is important to note that as soon as the rocker loses contact with the cam, the valve assembly and spring behave as a spring-mass system oscillating at the systems natural frequency. Failure Mode: Spring Surge Spring surge is a fluctuation in spring force caused by an internal resonance of the spring. Figure 1.4 illustrates spring surge, which manifests as a local compression of adjacent coils. The local compression travels along the length of the spring through contact between coils, and the impact at the base of the spring results in a measureable force fluctuation.

Figure 1.4: Illustration of spring surge.

Spring surge occurs when the spring is forced at a frequency, = 2

, where k is the

spring rate and M is the mass of the spring. The force fluctuations will also occur at the same frequency, .

Spring surge results in a secondary cyclic loading on the spring, in addition to the cyclic loading caused by the cam forcing the valve open. While the magnitude of this secondary component is much lower than that of the cam acting on the system, it occurs at a higher frequency approximately an order of magnitude higher resulting in a rapid increase in the number of load cycles seen by the spring, which may result in premature fatigue failure. The failure criterion for spring surge requires that fatigue failure does not occur for 500,000 miles of driving, with an average operating RPM of 4000 RPM. In quantifying the fatigue effects of the loading on the spring, the stress on the spring caused by the cam rotation and spring surge can be determined based on the magnitude of spring compression. This stress will be multiplied by a safety factor, which is typically in the range of 1.510. The shear stresses can then be transformed into principle stresses, and can be used in Miners Rule, which states that failure occurs when

=1

In the above equation, there are k principle stress magnitudes, (1 1), which each contribute ( ) cycles. ( ) is the number of cycles to failure for a given stress magnitude and can be determined from an S-N diagram, which gives the number of cycles to failure for a given peak stress of cyclic loading. C is typically found experimentally to be between 0.7 and 2.2, and all calculations will use C = 0.7 as an additional safety factor. Failure Mode: Impact Loads As the engine RPM increases, the valve system acceleration must increase, since the same valve displacement must occur in a shorter period of time. Therefore, the forces and stresses on the

system will increase, resulting in a drop in component lifetime. As stated previously, valve float will also result in severe impact loads as the rocker comes back into contact with the cam lobe.

3. Experimental System
The setup for the cam and valve dynamics experiment consists of an instrumented internal combustion engine on a dynamometer. The engine is non-functional, with many of the components housed in the engine block having been removed, and the valvetrain is exposed with a clear valve cover. The oiling system in the engine head remains fully functional to ensure reliable operation. The engine is connected to a dynamometer that drives the engine at a specified rotational speed. The engine used in testing is instrumented to measure cam position, valve position, spring force, and lifter force. Figure X presents the system schematic indicating the location of prominent sensors.

Figure 1.4: System schematic highlighting relevant sensors used for experimental measurements.

The cam rotational position is measured with an optical rotary encoder connected to the end of the camshaft. The valve position is measured with a LVDT, which measures the position of the valve into the combustion chamber. Piezoelectric force transducers beneath the lifter and valve springs measure the differential forces during operation. All data is logged through a LabView Virtual

10

Instrument (VI) over a single revolution of the camshaft. Performance details of the instrumentation used can be found in the Appendix. To determine the optimum spring for the commuter car design criteria, a range of valve springs, shims and dampers will be tested. For these tests a range of constant tension, progressive and dual spring assemblies with varying spring rates will be used. The rates of the springs are tested on an instrumented spring rate tester. A manual crank depresses the spring to full compression, while a load cell measures spring force and a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) measures spring deflection. The data is acquired in LabView and can be processed to obtain local and average spring rates. Steel shims will be placed beneath the spring to vary the static preload. The shims can be combined to give a height ranging from 0.030-0.120, in 0.030 increments. Finally, various friction dampers will be implemented to control spring force fluctuations due to spring surge. A full summary of the tests performed can be found in the Appendix.

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4. Results and Discussion

General Plot Trends In order to discuss the results that were obtained from different runs on the valve and cam system, it is important to understand the facets of the plots produced and determine notable characteristics. Looking at a typical graph from the data collected from the crane aftermarket double inner spring (CADs) with 0.090 shims, at a high RPM, we can analyze specific trends. In the example shown below, there are two peaks which occur at roughly 40 degrees and 150 degrees in the angular position of the camshaft. These spikes in lifter force are in response to the inertial forces which peak at this location, corresponding with an increase in acceleration. Where these two peaks occur on the Force-Cam Angle plot is dependent on the camshaft profile Also observed on each of the plots are the bumps that occur on the measured spring force. Normally, the measured spring force has a smooth profile, since spring force is directly proportional to the displacement. In this case, however, the system has reached a high enough RPM to begin to experience somewhat noticeable spring surge. This occurs when there exists a strong enough forcing function which matches the natural frequency of the system. The existence of spring surge adds an additional frequency to the plot, creating a bumpy curvature. Meanwhile, the plot of the valve displacement remains mostly constant throughout the different trials. This makes sense, since the valve has a maximum opening length which depends upon the cam profile. Since this parameter was not changed, the valve plot should not change either. What can be observed through the valve displacement plot, however, is an indication of valve float. When float occurs, the maximum displacement, which is shown to be around 10 mm (Figure 4.1), is exceeded due to excessive inertial forces.

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Two Peaks

Surge

Full open

Figure 4.1: Plot of the spring and lifter force (TOP), and the valve position (BOTTOM) for CADs Inner with .09 shims. Indicated on the plots are peaks in lifter force due to spikes in inertial forces, and influence of spring surge on the spring force.

Data Consistency Check: Valve Float In order to ensure that the data obtained was in line with our theoretical assumptions, several data consistency checks can be made. First of all, the natural frequency of the system given the spring can be compared with the frequency at valve float. Taking an example at the CADS inner with 0.030 shims, we see that the theoretical natural frequency of the system is

13

 , =

12610 / = . / 0.19273

Figure 4.2: Plot of the spring and lifter force, and the valve position for the CADS inner with 0.030 shims at 4346 rpm.

Based upon the experimental data, it is apparent that half a period is approximately 100 degrees. Thus, running a calculation for a whole period under a speed of 4346 rpm yields:

We see that the predicted value for valve float is somewhat similar to the theoretical value (~19% error). Theoretically, valve float occurs when the inertial forces are equivalent to the spring forces. Therefore, another method that we can use to validate our results for valve float is by setting these forces equal. = =

14

Then, the acceleration for each of the trials can be obtained given just the RPM. The following equation was obtained from a quadratic trend fit.

Situation Shim [in] 0 0.03 Base 0.06 0.09 0.12 0 0.03 CADS Inner 0.06 0.09 0.12 0 CASS Damper 0 0.03 Ford 0.06 Damper CADS 0 CADS Outer 0

Shim [mm] 0 0.762 1.524 2.286 3.048 0 0.762 1.524 2.286 3.048 0 Damper 0 0.762 1.524 Damper 0 0

Effective mass [g] 193.07 193.07 193.07 193.07 193.07 192.73 192.73 192.73 192.73 192.73 207.33 210.47 205.87 205.87 205.87 211.47 208.73 201.33

Spring Force [N] 348.076 361.472 374.869 388.266 401.663 280.58 290.20 299.81 309.43 319.044 1011.222 1011.222 778.745 805.100 831.454 822.670 903.690 602.416

Acceleration [m/s] 1802.88 1872.27 1941.66 2011.05 2080.43 1455.81 1505.70 1555.59 1605.48 1655.36 4877.28 4804.66 3782.77 3910.78 4038.80 3890.30 4329.40 2992.13

Predicted Float RPM Experimental RPM 5148.9 5257.1 5363.4 5468.0 5571.0 4578.2 4663.7 4747.9 4830.9 4912.9 8883.2 8811.0 7734.2 7876.0 8015.8 7853. 8325.3 6802.4 4460 4564 4646 4740 4862 4233 4205 4346 4309 4539 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Table 4.1: Comparing the predicted float RPMs from the two equations above with the actual RPMs which float occurred at for different scenarios. Since the maximum RPM attainable with the experimental setup was 5000 RPM, if float occurs at higher speeds, it wont be observed experimentally, but the predicted results are extrapolated here.

As evidenced from comparing the predicted and experimental float RPMs, the model which was described earlier is proven valid.

Data Consistency Check: Valve Position A manual measurement of the rocker arm ratio was taken, which was multiplied by measurements of the cam profile to provide a data consistency check for the valve displacement characteristic. Shown below is a plot of the expected valve lift profile (found by multiplying the cam profile and rocker arm ratio) overlaid with the LVDT measurements for the base spring at 1254 RPM (Figure 4.3).

15

12 cam profile*rocker arm ratio 10 valve lvdt

Valve Displacement [.001 in]

8 6 4 2 0 0 -2 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Angular Displacement [Degrees]

Figure 4.3: Theoretical vs. Experimental Valve Displacement Curves for Base Spring at 1254 RPM

With the original rocker arm ratio measurement of 1.63, the experimental valve displacement profile did not match the theoretical curve exactly. However, by scaling this rocker arm ratio to 1.75 which was closer to known historical measurements, the theoretical valve displacement profile very closely matched the characteristic plot from the base spring. Data Consistency Check: Spring Surge From experimental data, there exists a relationship between the spring surge frequency and the frequency of the driving lifter force impulse.

16

Figure 4.4: Plot of the spring and lifter force, for the Ford spring with 0.09 shims at 4402 RPM demonstrating the relationship between frequency of spring surge and lifter force impulse.

From the above plot, it can be inferred that the impulse in lifter force is driving the spring surge, where the impulse is half of a cycle and its full cycle would have approximately the same frequency as the spring surge. Additionally, there is an expectation that this frequency should be very close to the natural frequency of the Ford Spring at 4402 RPM spring, which is: , =
1 2

= 375 Hz. This matches well with the experimental frequency, which corresponds to

about 33 degrees (Fig 4.4). The value below shows that the experimental matches well theoretically. 2201 Spring Force A similar analysis was also conducted to compare expected spring force with experimental values from testing. To predict spring force values, the displacement of the spring (total height installed height + shim height + LVDT reading) was multiplied by the corresponding spring constant. Then, these expected values were plotted against the cams angular position and overlaid with measured spring force values for the base spring at 1254 RPM with a .03 in shim (Figure 2.2).
360 33

60 = 400

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400

350 Expected Spring Force

Spring Force [N]

300

Spring Force

250

200

150 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Angular Displacement [Degrees]

Figure 4.5: Expected Spring Force and Actual Spring Force vs. Cam Position for Base Spring at 1254 RPM with .03 shim

When the both force curves are offset to the same pre-load, the curves show similar trends with the actual spring force exhibiting higher values at the peak when compared to the experimental measurements. This discrepancy can be attributed to the linear curve fit used to determine the base spring constant (which was not entirely correct, as small deviations were seen) as well as to the simplification of the spring force to F=-kx which assumes a perfect system with solely linear movement. Lifter Force In the free body diagram of the system, the lifter force was treated as a fixed end. The forces that are recorded from the force transducer are thus reflective of the solution to the free body diagram. Since the spring force acts in a direction which is same as that of the lifter force, during valve float the peak lifter force experiences a spike (Fig 4.6) which is a result of the spring no longer being in contact with the rocker arm.

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Max Lifter Force (absolute) [N]

1400

1200 1000
800 600

Base
CADS

CADS Inner CADS Outer

CASS Ford

400 200 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 RPM

Figure 4.6: Plot showing the rise sudden sharp rising in max lifter force due to valve float.

Additionally, with the addition of shims to a spring, the overall max lifter force increases slightly because the force from the cam lobe increases as well (Fig 4.7).
1400 1300

Max Lifter Force (absolute) [N]

1200 1100 1000 900

800 700 Ford

Ford Damped Ford .03" shim

Ford .09" shim

1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 RPM

Figure 4.7: Plot showing the rise of the max lifter force due to increases in RPM. Overall, the lifter force increased as more shims were added.

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Dampers For springs where spring surge occurred at higher speeds, a frictional damper was used to reduce the effects, since the resisting friction force increases with speed. Figure 4.8 shows an example of the calculation of the damping coefficient (see Theory). An exponential fit of peaks of the surges from the damped CASS spring at a camshaft speed of 2402 RPM used to determine the damping ratio of the system. With the exponent = 106, this damper indicates a damping ratio = 106/0.

Figure 4.8: Plot of the spring surge peaks of CASS damped spring at 2401 RPM camshaft speed with an exponential curve fit.

The following damping coefficients were determined (Table 4.2).

Damper Copper Outer Copper Inner Copper Inner + Outer Steel Cup
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c [kg/s] 18.6 19.7 34.0 103.8

[] 0.109 0.115 0.199 0.607

Table 4.2: Damping coefficients found from valvetrain configurations that experienced spring surge.

The steel cup damper displayed the highest damping coefficient, which makes sense because during the installation of the damper, it was apparent that it was a relatively tight fit compared with the other dampers. Discussion of Uncertainties Sources of error, both systematic and experimental, attribute to a level of uncertainty in the results obtained during the Valve and Cam Dynamics lab. To begin, the measurement uncertainty of all measurement devices propagates through all eventual calculations that utilize those data sets. For instance, the piezoelectric force transducer has a sensitivity of 4.3pC/N which is a theoretical limit on the instruments precision. That instrumental error source is present as measured values of the force are used in the data analysis. Additionally, there is a human measurement error inherent to many of manual length readings for the springs and other hardware components as well as the assumption of a constant spring constant (through use of a linear curve fit) which propagates similarly. To determine an upper estimate for the uncertainty of the force data collected for the valvetrain system, the theoretical spring forces were compared with experimental spring forces for the base spring with a .03 in shim at 1252 RPM (analysis shown in Presentation of Results). Determining the percent error between corresponding points demonstrates a maximum deviation of approximately 10%, which represents an upper value for force uncertainty. Another source of uncertainty is present in the calculation of valve acceleration. The valve displacement data for all trials showed small fluctuations between discrete data points. Although not visually significant in the displacement curve, after conducting a finite difference differentiation twice on a displacement data set, the fluctuations become extremely large on a plot of valve acceleration vs. time (Figure 4.1). In addition to the error seen in the amplification of the
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displacement fluctuations, the use of a finite differentiation contributes to the total uncertainty since its accuracy is limited by the resolution of the data. The noise present in the acceleration curves also made accurate determination of acceleration at maximum displacement difficult. Hence to find this acceleration value, a representative data point was chosen from the data set which appeared consistent with visual trends at the expected time of maximum displacement. These three factors amplification of displacement fluctuations, finite difference differentiation, and need for manual determination of maximum accelerationcontribute to a relatively significant uncertainty in computed valve accelerations.
10 9

2.50

2.00 1.50
Valve Velocity [m/s]

Valve Displacement [mm]

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

1.00 0.50
0.00 -0.50 0.00 -1.00 -1.50 -2.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

0
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 Time [s] 0.030 0.035 0.040

0.045

-2.50 0.050

Time [s]

1000 800
Valve Acceleration [m/s^2]

600 400 200 0 -200 0.00 -400 -600 -800 Time [s]

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

Figure 4.9: For the base spring at 1254 RPM, the second finite difference derivative of the displacement curve (top left) results in an acceleration curve (bottom) with heavy noise

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5. Conclusion
Summary From the data acquired and an analysis of results obtained, a recommended system setup may be established, with modifications to only the use of different springs, the amount of shims added, and the inclusion of different dampers. This numerically corresponds to the changing parameters of spring constant, shim height, and damping coefficient. By targeting the failure criteria of valve float and fatigue, a recommended configuration is determined for the valve and cam system, under the RPM operating conditions of a typical commuter car. Fatigue Analysis To determine failure of the springs under fatigue, Miners Rule was used. Compressed springs experience all stress in shear, which can be determined by the spring formula:

where F is the force on the spring, D is the average of the inner and outer diameter, Kw is a correction factor ,and d is the diameter of the coil. A correction was then made through the use of the Goodman Relation, which calculates a corrected stress amplitude for a spring system with a preload:

where is the amplitude of the oscillation, is the corrected stress amplitude, is the mean stress, and is the ultimate tensile stress. Finally Miners Rule can be employed, taking into account both the primary compression load on the spring, as well as the load from spring surge.
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The results of calculating stress are shown in Fig 5.1.

Equivalent Amp [psi] Surge Amplitude [psi] Ford Base CADS inner CADS outer CASS Ford w/ Outer Damper Ford w/ Inner Damper Ford w/ Both Damper CASS w/ Damper Ford w/ Steel Cup 2400 rpm 5000 rpm 2400 rpm 4500 rpm 2400 rpm 4200 rpm 2400 rpm 5000 rpm 2400 rpm 5000 rpm 2400 rpm 5000 rpm 2400 rpm 5000 rpm 2400 rpm 5000 rpm 2400 rpm 5000 rpm 2400 rpm 4800 rpm 979.8355023 1360.035783 1227.848004 1278.886057 872.6486351 953.0969841 1003.032263 1154.954298 1296.907041 1398.204759 1042.549741 1314.308622 1078.218314 1225.8235 973.9030703 1146.365553 817.7424434 851.842839 113.6322349 174.0598676 447.9552399

144.8609907

153.1204394 366.5577861

Table 5.1: Table of the amplitude values obtained for use on an S-N Curve. The highest amplitude is about 1400 psi with 450 psi surge. An estimated 10 cycles of surge occur every revolution.

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Figure 5.1: S-N Curve for steel. The springs used in the experiment were approximately 0.55% Carbon.

As noted from the figures, the calculated equivalent amplitudes are too low for any Miners Rule analysis. Thus, the spring can be assumed to have an infinite lifetime with a factor of safety of over 40, regardless of the existence of spring surge or not. Reducing Chances of Valve Float To reduce the possibility of valve float, either more shims could be added to an existing spring, or a spring with a higher spring constant could be used. The latter case is ideal, so springs which have the potential to float within the operating range, the Base spring and CADS inner (Table 4.1), are not recommended for a commuter car, which runs from 2000-5000 RPM. Other Considerations Cost: Double springs generally cost over twice as much as single springs, due to the tolerances necessary to fit a spring within another spring. Heat: Inclusion of a friction damper to reduce spring surge converts energy into waste heat, which could also potentially damage system components at higher speeds.
25

Wear: Damage to the system components increases as the spring constant or number of shims increases. Increasing the constant or number of shims increases the forces on the lifter arm system.

Recommendation In conclusion, taking into account all the failure criteria, it is recommended to utilize a Ford spring for a commuter car. Shims and dampers are not recommended for these operating conditions because they contribute to addition of heat and increased wear to the system components. In the interest of wear, a better choice would actually be to use the CADS, which actually has a lower spring constant than the Ford spring, but in the interest of costs, the Ford single spring is the better choice. If a completely new spring is manufactured, an ideal design is a progressive spring. The base spring used in the experimental trials had much too low of a spring constant to prevent valve float, but with an appropriately increased spring constant, a progressive spring could both minimize wear on the system components and prevent the onset of valve float.

26

6. Appendix
Data Sheets Below are various data sheets, starting with a table of cam angle versus lobe displacement.
Cam Angle [Degrees] 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 Lobe Displacement [.001 in] 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cam Angle [Degrees] 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190 195 200 205 210 215 220 225 230 235 240 Lobe Displacement [.001 in] 0 0 0 0 1 1.75 4 10 22 37 59 83 112 141 165.5 187 202 212 217 218 213 204 191 171 Cam Angle [Degrees] 245 250 255 260 265 270 275 280 285 290 295 300 305 310 315 320 325 330 335 340 345 350 355 360 Lobe Displacement [.001 in] 148.25 122 91 63 40 22.25 11 5 3 2 1 0.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Table 6.1: Data sheet for lobe displacement as a function of cam angle.

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Rocker Arm Measurements:

Distance Rocker Arm Measurements lifter to cam lobe contact point lifter to valve stem center Rocker Arm Ratio [ ] 1.465 2.391 1.632082

Table 6.2: Data sheet for rocker arm measurements.

Spring Height Measurements:

Height Spring Crane Inner Base Crane Outer Crane Double Ford Crane Single [in] 1.966 1.895 2.125 2.125 1.977 1.775 Installed Height [in] 1.474 1.499 1.474 1.474 1.474 1.474 Retainer [in] 0.14 0.115 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 Outside Diameter [in] 0.922 1.503 1.3 1.3 1.35 1.417 1.011 1.034 0.170 0.192 6 5 Inside Diameter [in] 0.77 0.802 0.99 Coil Diameter [in] 0.112 0.126 0.155 6 8 6 Numer of Coils

Table 6.3: Data sheet for spring height measurements.

Mass Measurements:
mass Component Base Ford Ford w/ Damper CASS CASS w/ Damper CADS CADS Inner CADS Outer Black Retainer Silver Retainer Silver Retainer Keepers Rocker Arm LVDT Core Valve + LVDT Core [g] 35.5 61.6 78.4 66 75.4 70.2 22.2 48 30.2 26.1 31.5 4.3 116.5 5 112

Table 6.4: Data sheet for component mass measurements.

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Spring Constants
Spring Spring Constant Height [N/mm] [mm] Crane Inner 12.618 Base 17.581 Crane Outer 22.927 Crane Double 34.393 Ford 34.586 Crane Single 58.165 Crane Single with Damper 58.165 Installed Height [mm] 49.936 37.440 48.133 38.075 53.975 37.440 53.975 37.440 50.216 37.440 45.085 37.440 45.085 37.440

Table 7.5: Data sheet spring constants from load cell calculations

Definition of Failure Team DC chose to optimize the valvetrain system for a commuter car. Failure criteria was set based on an assumed operating RPM between 2000 and 3000 RPM and a maximum worst case of 8000 RPM. First, the valvetrain was considered to fail with the occurrence of valve float because of the potential for catastrophic consequences if the valve were to collide with the piston. Secondly, the valvetrain was considered to fail if under a fatigue analysis, the spring component would yield due to cyclic loading and any associated spring surge.

29

Experimental Plan Table 5.1 presents the schedule of experiments.

Date Tasks to be Completed

11/2

Measured load-displacement for 6 different springs: Base, Ford, Crane Single, Crane Double, Crane Inner, Crane Outer. Tested Base, Ford, Crane Single, Crane Double, Crane Inner, and Crane Outer springs in the valvetrain system Tested Base spring and Crane Double Inner spring with 0.030, 0.060, 0.090, and 0.120 shims. Tested Ford spring with 0.030 and 0.090 shims. Tested Ford and Crane Single springs with dampers. While tests were being run, measured the installed height of each of the springs not being used in the test, as well as the actual spring height. Performed measurements on intake cam profile and rocker arm ratio. Measured major and minor diameters of spring coils Measured spring coil diameters Test Crane Single spring with damper and 0.030 shim, damper and 0.060 shim Test Ford spring with damper and 0.030 shim, damper and 0.060 shim. Obtain F-d curve for crane single w/ damper Test Ford spring w/ inner and outer cup copper damper, and both. Perform presentation and conclusion of findings, on how the system performance is affected by changing mentioned parameters (installation of shims and dampers).
Table 5.1: Proposed schedule of experiments.

11/9

11/16

11/23

The justification for the tests that will be performed is based upon the results acquired from the first week of data collection. Because spring surge is counteracted by use of dampers and valve float is counteracted by the use of shims, the springs from Week 1 with notable spring surge are tested with dampers, and springs with notable valve float are tested with shims to observe changes in behavior.

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7. References
Beckwith, Thomas G., Roy D. Marangoni, and John H. Lienhard V. Mechanical Measurements (6th Edition). Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2006. Print. Spring Fundamentals, 2009. Panontin, Tina L., and Sheri D. Sheppard, eds. Fatigue and Fracture Mechanics (Astm Special Technical Publication// Stp). West Conshohocken: Astm Intl, 1999. Print.

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