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GUARANTEED 2:1 ESSAYS OR YOUR MONEY BACK Degree Essays Essay Bank Engineering Stress Distribution In The Steel Plate

Stress distribution in the steel plate

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1BACKGROUND

When a solid body with a pre-existing crack is subjected to externally applied forces, stresses will be concentrated at the vicinity of the crack tip. If these stresses exceed a certain critical value, the crack will start propagating outward resulting in the failure of the body. Based on the loading type, there are three basic crack propagation modes in a fracture process, namely: Mode I (tension, opening), Mode II (shear, sliding), and Mode III (shear, tearing). Accordingly, a crack can propagate according to any of these modes or a combination of them. To overcome such difficulties, a centrally notched disk type specimen under diametrical compression has been proposed and extensively used in the past for fracture toughness study of brittle materials including rocks. [1] This specimen geometry is very convenient for mixed mode I-II. Chen et al. (1998) have numerically studied the mixed mode failure trajectories for rock using boundary element method. But the work is limited to only pure mode-I and pure mode-II failure, and does not cover the whole spectrum of the mixed mode I-II failure. Therefore, crack propagation for mixed mode failure in diametrically compressed disk requires further investigation. In order to predict the physical behaviours of the structure with failure path of crack in such specimens, simulation of two dimensional finite element models is desirable. With the recent increase in computing power, CASCA twodimensional finite element model crack modeler of compression steel load plate has become feasible. In their work, the failure path in such specimens were traced and compared with the theoretical predictions.

1.2CURRENT WORK
The project presents the analysis of the stress distribution in the steel plate subjected to compression load. There are many types of steels which is the most commonly used in the application of civil and mechanical structures, were selected and analysed by using finite element method. The results obtained from the computer simulation will then compared with experimental results for verification. A CASCA and Fran2D/L commercial softwares were used for modelling and simulating on the stress distribution of the crack.

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1.3PROBLEM STATEMENT
Propagation of crack in engineering material including steels can cause failure. This commonly occurs in boilers, spring, railway, wheel and bridge applications are subjected to stress loads such as tension or compression loads which effectively result cracking in the structure. The study of crack propagation in steel due to compression load is an important topic especially in civil and mechanical structures application. Although much research has been accomplished by applying tension loads, there were still limited compression load analysis been carried out. Yet, many components are subjected to compression loading and the cracks were observed. Research should be pursued until cost effective and attractive solutions are available for all subjected forces types.

1.4OBJECTIVES
The idea of this work is to simulate the stress distribution in the steel plate under compression loads. The validation of the computer proposed models in this work will be confirmed with experiment. The objectives of this project are 1. To develop a model with CASCA Finite element model commercial crack modeler of compression steel load plate. 2. To simulate the crack propagation in steel plate under compression load. 3. To confirm, refine and complement the simulation work with experiment.

CHAPTER 2LITERATURE REVIEW2.1INTRODUCTION TO FRACTURE MECHANIC

Fracture mechanics is a method for predicting failure of a structure containing a crack. It uses methods of analytical solid mechanics to calculate the driving force on a crack and those of experimental solid mechanics to characterize the material's resistance to fracture. In modern materials science, fracture mechanics is an important tool in improving the mechanical performance of materials and components. It applies the physics of stress and strain, in particular the theories of elasticity and plasticity, to the microscopic crystallographic defects found in real materials in order to predict the macroscopic mechanical failure of bodies. Fractographic is widely used with Fracture Mechanics to understand the causes of failures and also verify the theoretical failure predictions with real life failures. [2] It has been known for a long time that compression loads have a strong influence on fatigue crack propagation (FCP) of metal. Even during cyclic compressive loading a crack can initiate in notched specimens [3-6]. Those cracks stops after some time and are therefore called non propagation cracks. Farmers (1983) [7] found that the mechanics of deformation in a cyclic loading test are similar to that seen in a creep test except that the cycling process represents a direct energy input which satisfies the condition for crack propagation much more quickly than the application of a constant load. However, crack propagation can continue under constant loads if the energy in the system exceeds that required for crack to propagate.

2.1.1GRIFFITH'S ENERGY RELATION

Fracture Mechanics was introduced during World War I by English aeronautical engineer, A.A.Griffith, to explain the failure of brittle materials. Griffith was faced with the problem that theoretical calculations showed that the stress at the tip of a sharp crack approaches infinity. Accordingly, any structure containing a crack should fail, no matter how small the crack or how light the load. To solve this dilemma, Griffith developed a thermodynamic approach. He developed a quantitative relation for fracture of cracked solids (1921). He proposed that the equilibrium condition at which the energy released by the crack growth is equal to the energy required creating the new surface. For a plane strain state is given by [8] = modulus of elasticity = applied stress = specific surface energy

b = one-half crack width

2.1.2FRACTURE TOUGHNESS MEASUREMENT

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There are three common fracture toughness measurements for linear and nonlinear fracture mechanics. These measurements are established in dealing with fracture of cracked solids: linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM), which uses the stress intensity factor, K, elastic plastic fracture mechanics (EPFM), which uses the J-Integral, and the crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) method. These measurements will be described in following section.

2.2LEFM(Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanic)

Linear elastic fracture mechanics is a well developed subject and most of the recent works focus on elastic-plastic fracture. In linear elastic fracture mechanics, engineers can design a structure with the application of stress intensity factors corresponding to difference fracture modes. However, the stress intensity factor does not represent the true fracture mode beyond the elastic region. Therefore, two parameters, CTOD and J-integral, were developed to understand and solve the non-linear fracture problem in late 70s.

2.2.1MODES OF CRACK GROWTH

There are three basic modes of crack surface displacement [9] which can cause crack growth; these are shown in Fig 1. Mode I : The opening mode. The crack surfaces move directly apart. Mode II : The edge sliding mode. The cracks surfaces move normal to the crack front and remain in the crack plane. Mode III : The shear mode. The crack surfaces move parallel to the crack front and remain in the crack plane.

2.2.2STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR

Crack surfaces are stress-free boundaries adjacent to the crack tip and therefore dominate the distribution of stresses of the area. [9] The stress intensity factor, K, describes the stress field in front of a crack tip, which depend geometry and loading. In general, the opening mode intensity factor is given by, : compressive stresses simply close to the crack.

a : crack length Engineers are mostly worried about the brittle fracture because the brittle fractures bring most devastating accidents and happen rapidly, and usually the brittle fractures take place when the applied stress increases such that the stress state at the crack tip reaches a critical value. The fracture toughness can be defined in terms of the stress intensity factor, K, but at a critical stress state as below: KIC= (2.3) Y : Dimensionless parameter that depends on both the specimen and crack geometry. In LEFM, the stress intensity factor K is related to energy release rate by two factors by the following formulas: = (2.4) : poison's ratio The dimension of is Dim [] = =

2.3Finite Element Method IN FRACTURE mechanic

The finite element method (FEM) is a numerical procedure can be used to obtain solutions to a large class engineering problems involving stress analysis, heat transfer, vibration, deflection, buckling behaviour and many

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other phenomena; it can be used to analyze either small or large-scale deflection under loading or applied displacement. The simulation is required because of the astronomical number of calculations needed to analyse a large structure. Finite element analysis is a way to deal with structures that are more complex than can be dealt with analytical solution using classical theories. Most of the works related to simulate the crack were used FRAN2D/L and FRAN3D/L software counted in Cornell University. Many finite element packages include crack analysis modules that use such elements but one which was specifically developed for this purpose is FRANC2D/L [7]. In this study, FRANC2D/L has been used as an analysis tool to present the up-to-date capabilities of numerical approaches in comparison with the previously mentioned analytical methods. The stress level are employed in a specialized finite element finite element program designed to calculate crack propagation in plane stress and axisymmetric structures, called FRANC2D/L. [11] Propagation edge cracks are examined at a number of sites in the coatings of the high-voltage stator winding end turn.[12] CASCA software used to design a model, the input parameter to simulate the sample in the FRANC2D/L is below: Young's Modulus Poisson ratio Thickness

KIC Density

2.3.1NUMERICAL METHOD
There are many practical engineering problems for which we cannot obtain exact solutions. To deal with such problems, we need numerical approximations. There are two common classes of numerical methods: a) Finite difference method (FDM). b) Finite element method (FEM). [13,14] The term finite element distinguishes the technique from the use of infinitesimal differential element used in calculus, differential equation, and all differential equation [15]. The FDM is an approximation to the differential equation; the FEM is an approximation to its solution. The most attractive feature of the FEM: a) Handle complex geometries (and boundary) with relative ease while FDM in its basic form is restricted to handle rectangular shapes and simple alterations thereof. b) Choice in all types of analysis in structural mechanics (i.e. solving for deformation and stresses in solid bodies or dynamics of structures) while computational fluid dynamics (CFD) tends to use FDM or other methods (e.g., finite volume method).

2.3.2Mathematical Procedures
Since the failure load and the failure path in the mixed mode loading condition depend on the nature of stresses acting at the crack tip, determination of stress field in a specimen subjected to externally applied forces is the first point in tracing the crack propagation path. Assuming a homogeneous, isotropic, and linearly elastic material, stress state for an uncracked disk under diametrical compression was formulated by Atkinson et al. (1982). The stress components in polar coordinates are the radial stress (r), the tangential stress (), and the shear stress (r) in figure 4 and they are given in the following forms [24]: (2.5) (2.6) (2.7) F1= 2*(1- r/R cos ), F2= 2*(1+ r/R cos ), F3= (1+ r2/R2 - 2 r/R cos )2, F4= (1+ r2/R2 + 2 r/R cos )2,

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0 = P/RB (2.8) P: load at failure, R: radius of the disk specimen, B: thickness of the disk specimen, R: radial distance, : inclination angle with respect to the loading direction (degrees). Figure 2.4: Stresses in polar coordinates for uncracked disk.

2.3.3Finite Element Model

The finite element method has been proven to be a powerful tool for the calculation of electrical, magnetical and thermal fields. This method, the most widely used technique for engineering, design and analysis, approximates the solution of various differential equations and boundary problems. To employ the finite element method, the object space has to be segmented into finite elements. Inside each element a set-up function has to be chosen, which course depends on this elements degrees of freedom. The resulting shape functions span a function space which includes the approximation of the solution. The grade of shape functions, the shape, size and amount of used elements can vary widely which yields to a high flexibility. [16] A finite element model is the association of a finite element mesh with a set of simulation attributes, which are additional information necessary for the complete definition of the physical problems. The discretization, denominated finite element mesh, consists of a group of nodes (points with coordinates) and a group of cells, called finite element with a predefined topology. The elements are defined by a list of node connectivity [13, 17].

2.3.4Element Aspect Ratio

When discretizing two and three dimensional problems, try to avoid finite elements of high aspect ratios: elongated or skinny elements, such as the ones illustrated at Figure 5. (The aspect ratio of a two or three-dimensional element is the ratio between its largest and smallest dimension.) As a rough guideline, elements with aspect ratios exceeding 3 should be viewed with caution and those exceeding 10 with alarm. Such elements will not necessarily produce bad results which depend on the loading and boundary conditions of the problem but do introduce the potential for trouble. Figure 2.5: Elements with good and bad aspect ratios.

2.3.5Finite Element Mesh One important aspect of three-dimensional finite element simulation is mesh generation. It is a research area that has been active since the method was first developed [17].
Physical Interfaces A physical interface, resulting from example from a change in material, should also be an inter element boundary. That is, elements must not cross interfaces. It shows at figure 6. Preferred Shapes In 2D FE modelling, if have a choice between triangles and quadrilaterals with similar nodal arrangement, prefer quadrilaterals. Triangles are quite convenient for mesh generation, mesh transitions, rounding up corners, and the like. But sometimes triangles can be avoided altogether with some thought.

2.4 ISSUES CONCERNING COMPRESSION LOADS

There have been numerous works studied the compression load related with buckling [18]. For instance, Vroman [19] took residual stress data in three identical steel stiffened sheet plates. The configuration was typical of naval vessel structures. These results were questionable since they did not exhibit high tensile regions around the stiffeners. The measured forces across the panel also did not satisfy equilibrium. It is likely that the relatively coarse measurement spacing did not accurately capture the narrow tensile regions surrounding the stiffeners. There was significant variation in the measured compressive residual stresses, despite the fact that the steel plating was carefully selected from a large batch to all exhibit similar strengths. Earlier compression tests by Kondo and Ostapenko [20] provide more accurate measurements of the residual stresses in stiffened panels. Their sectioning coupon pattern was very refined. Their measurements capture the tensile zones around the stiffener weld lines and demonstrate the equilibrium conditions found in residual stress pattern.

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A 3.2 inch crack was found in a pipe at a nuclear power plant in Japan, causing leakage of radioactive water. The pipe is of stainless steel and the crack was found in the curved portion. Officials were using sound waves to determine the causes of cracking. [24] In other work, a crack in a main water pipe in Atlantic City has caused a water emergency in Atlantic City, NJ tonight. The pipe is 87 years old and four feet in diameter; it is one of only two pipes carrying water into the city. A large crack in the valve was found and a full break would result in no water for a week in the city. [21]

2.5 EXPERIMENTAL OF FRACTURE MECHANICS

Experimental work has been conducted to predict the initial crack growth angle and the crack propagation path in various materials [25] used simply supported beams for the study of mixed mode crack propagation in marble. Such specimens require extensive machining for sample preparation. To overcome such difficulties, a centrally notched disk type specimen under diametrical compression has been proposed and extensively used in the past for fracture toughness study of brittle materials including rocks [22]. This specimen geometry is very convenient for mixed mode I-II. Chen et al. [23] have numerically studied the mixed mode failure trajectories for rock using boundary element method. Nevertheless, their work is study is limited to only pure mode-I and pure mode-II failure, and does not cover the whole spectrum of the mixed mode I-II failure. Therefore, crack propagation for mixed mode failure in diametrically compressed disk requires further investigation.

2.5.1 Split Cylinder Test

This test uses the same type of cylinders as are used in the compressive test from above. But instead of standing up in the loading machine, the cylinder lays on its side. The machine pushes down on the free side of the cylinder. The cylinder will split in two halves. Based on the load at which the cylinder split, compute a tensile strength, F of the concrete. The equation is: F=2P/() d.L P : the load at which the cylinder failed d : the diameter of the cylinder L : the length of the cylinder

CHAPTER 3METHODOLOGY3.1INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the procedures of experiment and simulation work were detailed. The studies were carried out by applying radial load on the steel plate with difference angle loads. In this project, a steel plate model subjected to the compression loads were analyzed through experimental and simulation. The experimental works were done at the Strength Laboratory in UPM. The simulation of the models were be developed by using CASCA and analyzed by FRANC2D/L. The methodology is shown in Figure 3.1.

3.2MATERIAL SELECTION
The material used in project was mild steel-Aluzink F36A Metal-coated Mild Steel. The mechanical and material properties used are based on mild steel which are exhibited in Table 3.1. Table 3.1: Properties and Dimension of the plates [26] Material Type Mild steel

Modulus of Elasticity, E200 GPa Poisson's Ratio, Thickness Diameter Kic Density Yield strength 0.29 5.0 mm 70.0mm 28MPa 7.87g/cc 220MPa

3.3SPECIMEN DESIGN
The detailed of the specimen geometry and its dimensions are shown in Figure 3.2.

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D =100 mm 5mm 100 mm Fig 3.2: Specimen geometry

3.3.1 Specimen Force Analysis

The specimens were tested on Instron Universal machine of 250kN. A 100kN compression force was applied. The yield stress of the mild steel used at experiment was 220MPa as in the Table 3.1. The stress can be related in equation 3.1. (3.1) Hence, where D=Diameter of specimen t=thickness of specimen 5mm thickness of plate was chosen as available in our foundary laboratory. Solution the equation gives a diameter of the plate 100mm. In order, to avoid specimen buckling under compression loads, the Euler's buckling equation were employed as below: (3.2) where Pcr=critical buckling load (Mild steel) Since cr below the y, the Euler's equation is valid. Therefore, the specimen will not buckle when the compression load is applied to the specimen.

3.4 SIMULATION WORK

In this simulation work, finite element method will be carried out by using fracture finite element software. The software used were CASCA and FRANC2D/L that developed by Cornell University USA.

3.4.1 CASCA and FRANC2D/L

CASCA is a pre-processor for FRANC2D/L. CASCA is an interactive program for a simple two dimensional mesh generator. The program's advanced modeling a sample and allow the creation of finite element meshes. At first, CASCA imports model geometry. After that, CASCA will then generate mesh. Once the finite element method is completed, the model will be send to a two dimensional crack propagation simulator, FRANC2D/L. The program is used to assign material properties and boundary condition, perform stress analysis, introduce crack and propagate crack. In addition, FRANC2D/L quickly and clearly displays analysis results in structural and crack propagation FRANC2D/L is an interactive program for the two-dimensional analysis of structures. Its capabilities include elastic and elastic-plastic material response, simulation of linear elastic (LEFM) and elastic-plastic crack growth (using the crack tip opening angle approach), analysis of layered structures (such as lap joints or bonded repairs), and a linear plate bending option.

3.4.2 Geometry Modeling By Using CASCA

The simulation work is begin with geometry modeling. Normally, the geometry scale set 12 units at figure 3.3. The geometry scale is determined as 100 units in order to increase accuracy as depicts in Then, select Geometry and get circle. By default, the whole option is active. Select keypad and key in the position (-0.1, 0) for the starting point of the circle and (0, 0) for the center point of circle. The display should be shown at Figure 3.5. From the main menu, select subdivide. In the subdivision, select Num Segmentsand key in 20. The product showed in Figure 3.6. The purpose of subdivide is to specify nodal densities along the boundaries in the structure.

3.4.3 Mesh Generation

Return to the main page, select icon Mesh. To make the analysis easier, select Automatic. The display of the mesh generation showed at Figure 3.7. Finally, from the main menu page, save the file by select Write Mesh and Write.

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3.4.4Simulation by FRANC2D/L
Firstly, select Pre-Processand then define the Problem Type of the simulation, Plane Stress. Next, select Material option. A new window will appear that contains the material properties at Figure 3.8. Enter the values of the material properties that showed below: a) Young's modulus, E b) Poison ratio, Nu c) Thickness d) Fracture toughness.KIC e) Density

3.4.5Boundary Condition
In this step, the loads that applied to the model are compression loads. The loads applied on the top circle is Point loads. Then, key in the values of the loads. The purpose of creating load case is to analysis the finite element model in difference angle of the initial crack. Figure 3.9

3.4.6 Stress Analysis and Post-Processing

Select the Analysis option, the Linear option and the Direct Stiff option. The program will perform a linear elastic stress analysis by using a direct elimination (Gauss elimination solver). When the analysis completed, there will a little report to be printed out that summaries the size of the model and the time required for the analysis. This is show at Figure 3.10. Then, select Post-Processing, and Deformed Mesh. This option is to provide the deformed shape of the structure for the loads that applied.

3.4.7 Crack Initial Location

To initiate a crack, select Modifyand then continue by New Crack. There are three crack-face options: a) Non-Cohesive - a normal traction free crack surface b) Cohesive - crack models used for rock and concrete c) Gap Element - add friction in the crack faces and prevent overlap. Cracks can start from the edge of the structure (Edge Crack) or internal crack (Int Crack). For this model, select Int Crack. Firstly, key in the location of crack initial. That is (-15,0) and (15,0). Then, select Analysis, Linear, Direct Stiff and Return option to make a new analysis.

3.4.9 Crack Propagation

To grow the crack, enter the Modify page and select Move Crack option. Then, click Automatic option and steps. Key in the value of step-5. Finally, select Post-processing and Deformed Mesh. The program will give the result of the growth of the crack.

3.5EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
The experimental works were performed at the Strength Laboratory in UPM. The results obtained in the experimental were then used to compare to the simulation work. The experimental point loads were obtained directly from the testing machine. Crack propagation was observed while compression loads were applied to the model. The surface of upper and lower model was compressed in the radial direction.

3.6Upper And Lower Jigs Design

Upper and lower jigs (see Figure 3.11) were designed in the experimental work for applying two point compression loads on the model. The circular plate was fixed in the jig to provide contact between the jig with the plate and lower plates of the model. The material of the jig is steel. The lower and upper jigs were used to support the specimens to avoid any movement when the compression load is applied.

CHAPTER 4RESULTS AND DISCUSSION4.1OVERVIEW

In this chapter, results from developed finite element model were compared with experiment. There are three different angles were applied by point load which are zero degree, thirty degree and forty five degree to study the

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effect of loading angle. The angle loads defined from the vertical initial crack. It is envisaged that, the stress distribution in the steel plate obtained from the difference angles load will provide a clue for potential crack initiation and propagated in mix mode condition, mode I and mode II.

4.2CRACK PROPAGATION PATH

The crack propagation directions obtained from simulation and experimental works were compared based on a different angles load introduced as mentioned in previous section as shown Figure. Initial fake crack located at the center of the specimen, stresses will be concentrated at the crack tip. Yet again, if these concentrated stresses reach a critical value, failure occurs due to propagation of the initial crack from the tip and extended towards the loading points. As soon as the propagating crack reached the upper and lower boundaries of specimen, the specimen failed and split into two pieces.

4.2.1SIMULATION RESULTS
The propagation trajectories paths of zero degree, thirty degree and forty five degree angle compression loads were different as shown in the Figures 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 respectively. It can be seen that the simulation line prediction fall between these specimens. It is worth to note that the propagation directions are towards and ended at the point of loading.

4.2.2EXPERIMENT RESULTS
Angle loads Zero degree Thirty degree Forty five degree Figure 4.4: Before and after experiments for different loading angle. The patterns of the failure path under the mixed mode I-II conditions were observed as shown in Figure 4.4. The distribution of compression stress in the uncracked plate shows that the failures are not due to fracture, but an apparent of a plastic deformation at upper and lower contacted of the plate region. This was because ductile rupture involves at a high degree of plastic deformation in mild steel, the fracture behavior of a propagating crack changes fundamentally. Some of the energy from stress concentrations at the crack tips is dissipated by plastic deformation before the crack actually propagates. The big difference between the simulation works compared with the experimental work was the propagation is not exhibited in the real experiment. This is due to the FRANC2D/L simulation software for the input of properties only corporate the Young's Modulus, poison ratio, fracture toughness, density and thickness of plate only and incorporates the yield stress of the material. Consequently, the result of experiment was failed at the plastic deformation that take placed at the contact and cause the crack can unpropagated. Moreover, extensive plastic deformation takes place before fracture in ductile fracture. Most of ductile metals can sustain a very large deformation or more strain before fracture under favorable loading and environment condition, especially materials with high purity. The strain at which the fracture happen is controlled by the purity of the material. At room temperature, pure iron can undergo deformation up to 100% strain before breaking, while cast iron and high carbon steel can barely 3% strain. So, the differences between simulation and experimental in strain need to be considered. Before experimentAfter experiment

CHAPTER 5CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS5.1 CONCLUSIONS

A two-dimensional finite element model was used to examine the crack propagation of the specimens under compression different angle of loads and comparisons were made to the experimental results for verification. These comparisons include path trajectories crack propagation. The results obtained from the simulation analysis are different with the experiment results. A finite element method has not been successfully developed and it can be not applied for the prediction of other material, load and size of geometry in plate crack propagation under compression loads. The work suggested that, if the simulation software incorporates the yield stress of the material, then the crack propagation can be predicted. A cost saving could reached from carrying and experimental work. In addition, it also can give good control of experimental techniques, confirming, complementing and refining the specimen design before commencing the experiment tests.

5.2RECOMMENDATIONS
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In this project, the improvement could be made to obtain the validation between simulation and experimental work. Since the simulation analysis and experimental analysis were not the same, the recommendations are basically can be divided into further simulation and experimental work. For experimental work, to obtain better crack propagation under compression loads, cast iron or high carbon steel with lower strain can be used to avoid plastic deformation. Furthermore, while modelling the specimens for experimental work; do make sure the parameter of the specimens must be calculated correctly to avoid buckling of specimens. On the other hand, for simulation work, it is recommended that CASCA geometry modelling should be improved. Nowadays, the geometry of specimens becomes more complicated. At present, if one still wishing to use the CASCA software, they need to spend a lot of time to draw the specimens. Yet, by using the software to draw without key in the coordinate is more accurate and increases the efficiency analysis in the software like a computer aided design (CAD). Moreover, it is also recommended that the FRANC2D/L software need to improve by applying the yield stress of the material. These can be proved by the experiment and simulation analyses are not the same due to the specimens failed in plastic deformation. However, time and cost are vital of the considerations of these recommendations.

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