j ournal of materi als processi ng technology 1 9 9 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 417424

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Analyses of the fundamental parameters of cold die
compaction of powder metallurgy
H.A. Al-Qureshi
a,
, M.R.F. Soares
b
, D. Hotza
a
, M.C. Alves
a
, A.N. Klein
a
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, PGMAT, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Cx.P. 476,
88040-900 Florian opolis, SC, Brazil
b
Fras-le, RS 122 km 66, no. 10945, Caxias do Sul, RS, Brazil
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 14 May 2007
Received in revised form
20 July 2007
Accepted 8 August 2007
Keywords:
Powder metallurgy
Green density
Internal/wall friction
Porosity
Work-hardening
Shape factor
a b s t r a c t
The main object of this paper is to produce an expression relating the green density and
porosity of the compact as a function of process parameters. The analysis takes into account
the internal coefcient of friction between the particles and the powder/container interface
friction, and the work hardening effect of the particles. A modied analytical expression for
the yield compressionstress based onthe internal coefcient of frictionand the shape factor
of the particle was also introduced in the analysis. Experiments were performed on cold
die compaction of powder of different particles, having sizes between 45 and 150m. The
inuence of the outstanding parameters of the P/M was analyzed and it was found that the
internal, and the powder/container coefcients of friction play major roles in controlling the
axial density distributions. Comparison between experimental and theoretical results of the
green density and the total porosity distributions demonstrated remarkable agreement for
all the tested conditions for different work hardening behaviour of the particles. In addition,
and for the purpose of verication of the present theory, other published work was also
compared and found to be in very good correlation with the predicted results. Other relevant
parameters will also be discussed.
2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The powder metallurgy (P/M) industries have expanded more
rapidly than those using the conventional process, and are
widely used for a variety of products. This is mainly due to the
outstanding advantages, such as, facility of components man-
ufacture, material utilization, and economical advantages for
large production. Other advantages include, energy saving,
the possibility of producing near net shape products of com-
plex geometries and high strength, use of re-cycled metals,
less noise, and no toxic fumes or pollutants. However, despite
these distinct advantages, the P/M technique has some dis-
advantages such as, initial tooling costs, raw material, i.e.

Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 48 3721 9268x213.

E-mail address: alhazim@emc.ufsc.br (H.A. Al-Qureshi).
powder costs are higher than conventional solid bulk, and
special care must be taken against corrosion (Fischmeister,
1982; MPIF Standard, 1994; Parker, 1985; Hausner and Mal,
1982; Jones, 1960; Lenel, 1980; Thumler and Oberacker, 1993;
German, 1998).
Generally, the P/M components can be produced by two
methods; rstly, cold die compaction of the powder, and
secondly subsequent sintering. Normally, die compaction of
metal powder undergoes a number of stages, namely, ini-
tial compaction, which involves particle rearrangements. The
physical properties such as, particle size and shape greatly
inuence this initial stage. This is followed by the elastic-
plastic deformation, and here the mechanical properties and
0924-0136/$ see front matter 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2007.08.030
418 j ournal of materi als processi ng technology 1 9 9 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 417424
Nomenclature
H distance of the element from the top surface
compact-instantaneous
n work-hardening exponent
p
a
applied external pressure of the punch
r current radius of the element
r
f
die radius of container
U porosity factor
z current height of the element
Greek symbols
density factor
d
z
incremental axial true strain
z shape factor of the particles
j coefcient of friction between powder/wall
container interface
j
i
internal coefcient of frictionbetweenparticles
,, ,
g
, ,
p
, ,
t
powder density at any stage, green, tap, and
theoretical densities
,
c
increase in density
o
r
radial stress
o
yc
yield compressive stress
o
z
axial compressive stress
o effective stress in compression of the bulk
material
the quality of the particles are important factors, which con-
trol the compressibility behaviour of the powder. The nal
stage of compaction is almost totally an upsetting of the bulk
material. Hence, the work hardening of the particle affects
the hardness of the nal product. As a result, the powder
compacted component is produced with inhomogeneous dis-
tributions of density and porosity. This is due to the frictional
forces in between particles (internal friction), and/or between
the powder and the container walls (powder/container fric-
tion). This, evidently, causes shrinking during distortion of
the product. However, some P/M components are required to
have a certain percentage of porosities so that pores may be
lled with gases, liquids and self-lubricants for specic appli-
cations. Needless to say, the green density of compact has
direct inuence on the densication and porosity of the prod-
uct and hence the strength. It seems, however, that all the
previously developed expressions depend totally or partially
on experimental factors, due to the unknown parameters.
Studies were performed involving the simulation of powder
compaction using the FEM and based on the elastic-plastic
behaviour of large displacement, where the powder is consid-
ered as a continuumwhichexhibits plastic deformationunder
applied external pressure (Doraivelu et al., 1984; Kuhn and
Downey, 1971; Gurson, 1977; Green, 1972; Coube and Riedel,
2000; Shima, 2000; Zavaliangos, 2000; Li et al., 1994; Justino et
al., 2004).
New components to be produced by the P/M process are
governed by tooling design and manufacturing parameters.
These factors are time consuming resulting in high costs, par-
ticularly for complex tooling employing multi-level punches
and product transfer. In addition, any damage to the tools dur-
ing the trial is another time and cost factor to be taken into
account. Here, the use of the nite element simulations of the
compaction and sintering process becomes an outstanding
method for predicting the green density distribution, sinter
distortions and other relevant factors. There are many com-
mercial general-purpose FEM programmes available, which
are relatively user friendly, andare usedby many industries for
performing limited calculations. However, these programmes
also have certain disadvantages, such as, mesh generations,
body modeling assumptions, operational costs and others,
which due to such high investments may hinder the smaller
industries. In this situation, the phenomenological models,
which are based on the solid mechanics may prove to be very
useful, easy to manipulate and understand the process vari-
ables in order to adjust the solution to the required part.
The main purpose of this work is to ll this simulation gap
and demonstrate how each major parameter plays a part in
the P/M process. It is based on the authors previously pub-
lished theoretical model to predict the green density porosity
distributions (Al-Qureshi et al., 2005).
2. Theoretical considerations
The cold die compaction of powder metallurgy involves
several complex parameters, such as, rearrangements, frag-
mentation, work hardening and others making it complicated
to analyze theoretically the mechanism of compaction. Pre-
viously published works in general, rely on empirical or
semi-theoretical expressions to relate the green density as a
function of process parameters. Recently, the authors have
published an analysis of the cold die compaction of powder
materials based on the axi-symmetric solution of large defor-
mation, but it didnot elaborate onother important parameters
(Al-Qureshi et al., 2005). Therefore, the aim of this paper is to
incorporate these parameters, such as, work hardening, size
of particles, internal friction, and porosity and also to exam-
ine their effect on the distribution of densication of powder
during the compaction process.
The present analysis assumes that the powder is placed
in a container where it is compressed axially and simultane-
ously frombothends, Fig. 1. Considering the equilibriumof the
forces on a small element of thickness (dz) at a distance z from
the center line, and assuming that the coefcient of friction
between powder/wall container (j) and the radial stress are
constants, hence the equilibrium equation in the Z direction
results in
do
z
=
2jo
r
dz
r
f
(1)
where o
r
is the radial stress. As the diameter of the billet is con-
stant (2r
f
), then for plain strain conditions (radial strain=hoop
strain) result in o
r
=o

. By employing this relation in the cri-

terion of von Mises for the effective stress ( o) of the bulk
material, the following equation is obtained [19],
o
r
= o
z
+ o (2)
FromEqs. (1) and (2) together with boundary condition (Z=H/2
when o
z
=p
a
) thus, the instantaneous axial stress can be
j ournal of materi als processi ng technology 1 9 9 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 417424 419
Fig. 1 Schematic diagrams of compacting tools and stresses on compacted element.
expressed as
o
z
o
=
_
1 +
p
a
o
_
_
exp
_
j(H 2Z)
r
f
__
1 (3)
where p
a
is the compact external punch pressure applied by
the punches from both ends simultaneously, and H is the
instantaneous height of the compact cylinder. It is essential
to assume that there is no total or partial sticking taking place
between the powder/container interface.
Clearly, the theoretical green density is a function of the
applied pressure and the instantaneous axial compression
strain (d
z
=dH/H). This strain can be obtained from the
incompressibility condition (m=AH,
t
), where the mass (m)
of the powder/compact is constant at all times, and A is the
cross-sectional area of the compact. By differentiation and
simplifying, the incompressibility relation gives
d
z
=
dH
H
=
d,
,
t
(4)
Fromclose examinationof the above procedure, it becomes
evident that a general relationship between the incremen-
tal axial stressstrain is needed before the nal solution can
be reached. In the present theory and based on the elastic
visco-plastic behaviour of the compact during compression,
the following relationship between the true-stressstrain
behaviour is proposed
d
z
= e
(
oz
o
)
d
o
z
o
(5)
where the factor =(,
t
,
p
)/,
t
, where ,
t
and ,
p
are the the-
oretical and the tap densities, respectively. Eq. (5) can be
integrated by using Eq. (4), then
_
,g
,p
d,
,
t
=
_
oz
0

o
e

oz
o
do
z
(6)
and the result of Eq. (6) gives the theoretical green density (,
g
)
expressed as
,
g
= ,
p
+(,
t
,
p
) (1 e

oz
o ) (7)
Therefore, the nal expression for the theoretical green den-
sity for any compact at any compression stage as a function
of the process parameters can be obtained by substituting Eq.
(3) into Eq. (7), hence
,
g
= ,
p
+,
c
(8)
where
,
c
= (,
t
,
p
)
_
1 exp
_

_
1 +
P
a
o
_
e
j(H2Z)
r
f +1
__
The ,
c
will be termed as the increase in densication due to
compaction or increase in density.
The effective stress ( o) in Eq. (8) is extremely important
and is greatly inuenced by the internal friction between the
powder particles (j
i
) and the geometry of the particles. For
this reason, the present analysis proposes the modication,
which was proposed previously to suit the present situation
(Al-Qureshi et al., 2005), and is given by
o = z
1
o
yc
_
1 +j
i
1 j
i
_
(9)
where o
yc
is the yield stress in compression of the bulk mate-
rial, and z is the shape factor of the particles. This ratio (z)
characterizes the surface conguration of the particle, where
the surface area of the particle should be compared with some
linear dimensions (MPIF Standard, 1994; Hausner and Mal,
1982).
As has been stated in previous works the work hardening
of the particles has direct inuence on the densication of
the powder (Jones, 1960; Lenel, 1980; Thumler and Oberacker,
1993; German, 1998; Doraivelu et al., 1984; Kuhn and Downey,
1971; Gurson, 1977). To take this effect into account in the
present theory, then clearly, the second term (,
c
) of Eq. (8),
420 j ournal of materi als processi ng technology 1 9 9 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 417424
whichcorresponds to the densicationduring the compaction
process should be raised to the power (n). Thus Eq. (8) can
nally be expressed in general form as
,
g
= ,
p
+(,
c
)
n
(10)
where n is the work-hardening exponent which is similar to
that expressed for the metallic materials. On close examina-
tion of Eqs. (8) and (10), it becomes evident that the green
density of the compact powder is inuenced by a number
of factors. These parameters play an important role in con-
trolling the presence of porosity in the compacted part. The
percentage porosity is simply dened as (Lenel, 1980; Thumler
and Oberacker, 1993; German, 1998)
U =
,
t
,
g
,
t
(11)
where ,
g
is the theoretical green density given in Eq. (10) and
may also be used as the experimental green density, when
comparison is needed.
3. Experimental procedure
In the present experiments, the raw material used was Ancorsteel 85
HP, a water-atomized pre-alloyed 0.85w/o molybdenum low-alloy steel
powder, which has high compressibility and is normally used for high
performance applications. The powder was fractioned in 6 different
classes of particle size 45150m according to MPFI standard 05. The
chemical compositions (w/o) are as follows: C<0.01, O=0.08, Mn=0.12,
and Mo=0.86. Sieves were stacked in order, with the largest mesh size
at the topandthe panat the bottom. Asample of powder weighing (50g)
was spread on the top sieve of a stack of sieves and agitated for 15min.
Inorder, the powder fractions remaining oneachsieve andcontainedin
the bottom pan were separated for classications. An electromagnetic
vibration machine was used as sieve agitator.
The conventional compactiontooling consisted of a strong cylindri-
cal container witha central hole, whichrepresentedthe diameter of the
compact part, Fig. 2. This was housed in a special cavity in a oating die
attached to the xed platen of the hydraulic testing machine. Whereas,
the upper punch was attached to the movable platen of the press, the
lower punch rested on the xed platen. The compaction process was
simply performed by lling the cylindrical space in the container with
the pre-prepared powder without lubricant, as mentioned previously.
Both the upper and the lower punches were brought into contact with
tapped powder in the cylinder. This was followed by applying an axial
load, whichcausedthe powder to be compressedfrombothends simul-
taneously, andsubjectedto highcompressive stresses. At the endof the
compaction stroke, the upper punch was removed and the lower punch
usedto eject the compact cylindrical product. Typical dimensions of the
compacted product are of 9.5mm in diameter and 151mm in height.
During the compression cycle, a trace of the axial load against the
axial displacement was provided. In addition, the radial stress on the
cylindrical wall causedbythe axial appliedpressure was measured, and
it was used to calculate the coefcient of friction between the pow-
der/cylinder wall interface (j). This information was obtained from
suitably positioned strain gauges on the outer container surface, as
shown in Fig. 2. The above procedure was repeated for other powder
classications. The green density (mass per unit volume of an unsin-
tered part) of all samples was calculated using a micrometer and digital
balance.
4. Discussion of results
The kinetic variations of the process parameters during the
compaction process make it very difcult to establish pre-
cise analysis of this technique. However, the present analysis
includes as many process parameters as possible, Eq. (8), and
they will be discussed here. Firstly, it is a known fact that the
coefcients of friction between the powder/cylinder interface
(j) and internal friction between the particles (j
i
) are not con-
stants. Clearly, these parameters must be estimatedbefore any
attempt to make any theoretical calculations using Eqs. (10)
and (11).
From the present experiments, a plot of the radial stress
as a function of the punch pressure was performed for all the
tests. It was found that the slope of these nearly linear rela-
tionship yielded an approximate value of j=0.050.25 which
depends greatly upon the lubricants used and the surface n-
ish of the tools. On the other hand, previously published work,
indicated that the value of the internal friction is approx-
imately j
i
=0.080.15. This value is an estimation, and will
be used in the present theoretical calculations (Doraivelu et
al., 1984; Kuhn and Downey, 1971; Gurson, 1977; Green, 1972;
Coube and Riedel, 2000; Shima, 2000; Zavaliangos, 2000; Li et
al., 1994; Justino et al., 2004; Al-Qureshi et al., 2005).
Fig. 2 Experimental tool for powder compaction (A) tool assembly and (B) punches and internal container.
j ournal of materi als processi ng technology 1 9 9 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 417424 421
Fig. 3 Comparison between present theoretical and
experimental results of green density for particle size of
Fe+0.85w/o molybdenum powder (150 and 45m)
(Al-Qureshi et al., 2005).
The theoretical porosity and density can be predicted from
Eqs. (10) and(11) byknowing the tapandthe bulkmaterial den-
sities, geometry of the initial and nal compacted powder, the
effective compressive stress of the bulk, friction conditions,
and by incrementing the applied pressure values. This results
in the theoretical curve of the green density as a function of
compacting pressure shown in Fig. 3. This gure reveals that
very good agreement is obtained between the theoretical val-
ues fromEq. (10) for n=1, and the experimental results for d
150
and d
45
(Al-Qureshi et al., 2005). It is clear fromFig. 3 that there
is a slight difference between the density distributions for the
powder particles of d
45
andd
150
, andbecause of the evidence it
was decided that all other comparison results would use only
the d
150
.
It is worth mentioning that the variation of the density
along the height of the compacted part is extremely essen-
tial for industrial application. Needless to say, this distribution
plays an important role in controlling the quality, and inu-
ences directly the mechanical properties of the nished part.
Therefore, it is essential to determine the density of the
compact at different heights. Consequently, the compacted
component was quase-equi sliced into segments similar to
poker chips as shown in Fig. 4, where the density and the
location were measured. In addition, to obtain the complete
theoretical green density curve, the shape factor (z) of the
particle was also determined from the scanning electron
micrographs shown in Fig. 5. Various micrographs were taken
at different locations, and the average value of the shape fac-
tor of z =0.8 was obtained for the compacted part. Using this
information together with mechanical properties, geometry,
and operational parameters of the process, the theoretical
curves can be plotted for any combination of variables. Thus,
the inuence of the powder/wall coefcient of friction on the
axial density distribution can be obtained from a plot of den-
sity at different height locations. A typical curve is shown in
Fig. 6. This gure shows the theoretical curves for various coef-
cients of friction powder/wall interface for only the upper
half of the compacted part since it is symmetrical. From close
examination of this gure, it appears that all the experimen-
tal values fall within the region j=0.050.1 of the powder/wall
Fig. 4 Typical compacted of Fe+0.85w/o molybdenum
component and sliced segments for density measurements.
Fig. 5 Scanning electron micrographs of the top surface of
the compact specimen of Fe+0.85w/o molybdenum
powder1000.
Fig. 6 Comparison between present theoretical and
experimental density results of Fe+0.85w/o molybdenum
powder for various powder/container coefcients of
friction.
422 j ournal of materi als processi ng technology 1 9 9 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 417424
Fig. 7 Comparison between present theoretical and
experimental density results of Fe+0.85w/o molybdenum
powder for various internal coefcients of friction.
interface coefcient of friction. Furthermore, the densities at
the upper and lower surfaces are denser than the middle
plane of the cylindrical component, Fig. 6, for any value of
j
i
. As mentioned earlier, this is due to the presence of the
frictional forces between the wall and the metal powder. This
behaviour is observed throughout the present experiment,
Figs. 79. Needless to say, the most outstanding feature of Fig. 6
is that the density becomes more uniform as the powder/wall
coefcient of frictiondecreases, whichreects the importance
of the surface roughness of the container and the lubricants
used.
The friction between the powder particles during com-
paction process, which is called the internal friction (j
i
), plays
an important role in the process. To demonstrate this effect,
typical theoretical curves for the density distributions for
the upper half of the compacted component as a function
of location, for various values of internal coefcient of fric-
tion (j
i
=0.050.20) are shown in Fig. 7. From examination of
these curves, it is clear that the effect of the internal friction
becomes evident particularly in the last stages of the com-
Fig. 8 Comparison between present theoretical and
experimental density results of Fe+0.85w/o molybdenum
powder for various shape factors of particles.
Fig. 9 Comparison between present theoretical and
experimental density results of Fe+0.85w/o molybdenum
powder using different applied axial pressures.
Fig. 10 Comparison between present theoretical and
experimental porosity results for particle size of 150m for
various work-hardening exponents.
paction process. Hence to reduce the percentage of pores and
make the product denser, it is essential to add good solid lubri-
cant to the compact beforehand. Also, the experimental curve
is situated well within the accepted internal friction region.
It is also clear from Eq. (9) that the effective stress of
the bulk material plays a major role in controlling the green
density and the porosity of the nal product, which is conse-
quently inuenced directly by the shape factor of the particles.
The shape factor, which was discussed previously and mea-
sured, dominates these properties, Fig. 5 (MPIF Standard, 1994;
Hausner and Mal, 1982). Typical theoretical curves for various
values of shape factor are shown in Fig. 8. The gure demon-
strates that nearly regular and equi-shaped particles produce
better density distribution with the minimum porosity of the
j ournal of materi als processi ng technology 1 9 9 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 417424 423
Fig. 11 Comparison between present theoretical and
experimental porosity results of ne iron powder (Lenel,
1980), with work-hardening effect, n=0.98.
product. Also, it is evident that the higher the applied pressure
the denser the product becomes, as shown in Fig. 9.
In addition, the present analysis examines the effect of the
work hardening of the particle during the last stage of com-
paction. This behaviour is known to have some inuence on
the nal compact density and porosity, but was not accounted
for in the previous mathematical considerations (Doraivelu et
al., 1984; Kuhn and Downey, 1971; Gurson, 1977; Green, 1972;
Coube and Riedel, 2000; Shima, 2000; Zavaliangos, 2000; Li et
al., 1994; Justino et al., 2004; Al-Qureshi et al., 2005). The inu-
ence of work hardening can be demonstrated by plotting a
curve of porosity (U%) as a function of compaction pressure
(p), given in Eqs. (10) and (11), for various values of (n). On close
examination of Fig. 10, it becomes evident that the theoreti-
cal and the experimental curves are closely tted and divert in
the nal stages of compaction, and are best tted for the value
of n=0.96. In addition, other published experimental work is
reproduced here for comparison purposes with the present
theoretical results, and are plotted in Figs. 1113, for different
metallic powders (Lenel, 1980; Li et al., 1994). Clearly, these
gures demonstrate the versatility of the predicted values
from the present theoretical analysis. It can also be observed
that non-ferrous powders have to undergo more plastic defor-
mation than the ferrous powders. As a whole, however, the
work hardening of the particle has an inuence on the den-
sication of the compact, particularly in the last stages of
the compaction process. Also, work hardening leads to an
increase in the hardness of the particles, which makes den-
sication more difcult in subsequent stages of compaction.
The present analysis points out that should the micro struc-
tural state require improvement, annealed powder or heat
treatment can be adopted.
Fig. 12 Comparison between present theoretical and
experimental porosity results of ne copper powder (Lenel,
1980), with work-hardening effect, n=0.97.
Fig. 13 Comparison between present theoretical and
experimental results for pure Ni powder (Li et al., 1994),
with work-hardening effect, n=0.93.
424 j ournal of materi als processi ng technology 1 9 9 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 417424
Fig. 14 Comparison between present theoretical and
experimental porosity results for particle size of 150m for
various internal coefcients of frictions.
As mentioned earlier, the use of good solid lubricant will
lead to a better densication and less porosity in the product,
as shown in Fig. 14. This technique may be utilized as a tool
for testing the quality of the solid lubricants used.
5. Conclusions
The present theory derives expressions to predict the green
density and the porosity of the compacted part for any given
geometry and powder. All the examined known parameters
have remarkable inuence on the nal densication and the
reduction of porosity of the product. The excellent agreement
between the experimental and the theoretical results makes
the present theory more reliable to be employed for the ini-
tial stages of development of tools. This eventually will lead
to the optimization steps to improve the nal properties of
the produced part as well as the tooling life. The use of this
theory will help to reduce the number of experiments needed
for qualifying the compacted part of the required density and
porosity. In addition, this method is put forward as a tech-
nique for testing the quality of the solid lubricants, which will
evidently reduce time consuming experiments and costs dur-
ing the development of a new component. Also, it is worth
mentioning, that care must be taken in estimating the yield
stress, coefcients of frictions, and other relevant parameters
otherwise this may lead to modifying the nal component
densication.
Finally, the present analysis is mainly based on solid
mechanics approach, which is less costly to apply than the
sophisticated FEM, particularly during the initial phases of
development of new components by this P/M process.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank UFSC-LabMat and Fras-le for the
use of the facilities and CNPq and FINEP for partially nanc-
ing the project and grants for two authors. Thanks are also
extended to Dr. H.C. Pavanati, Mr. D. Binder, Mr. N.A.A. Hus-
sein, Mr. A. Casaril and Mr. E.R. Gomes for their assistance.
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