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Lecture XIII
Briefly describe the tertiary structure of Mb and Hb subunits (the “globin fold”),
explain how the helices are designated, and the roles of the proximal and distal His
residues in heme and oxygen binding.
Myoglobin and hemoglobin subunits are similar in polypeptide sequence and
contain a heme, and their overall structure of subunits are similar. More notably,
they have a similar tertiary structure, yet a different quaternary structure.
Myoglobin is a monomeric protein consisting of a single polypeptide chain with
153 amino acid residues, while hemoglobin is heterotetrameric, consisting of two
α (141 AA residues) and two β chains (146 AA residues). The quaternary
2
structure of hemoglobin confers then allosteric properties. Myoglobin can bind to oxygen as well as release.
Hemoglobin’s function in vertebrate erythrocytes is to transport O2 form lungs to tissues and transport CO2 from
tissues to lungs. Myoglobin is mainly the storage element within muscle tissue. It binds to O2 delivered to tissue
by blood and stored until needed as terminal electron acceptor for energy metabolism, and is the main
intracellular transport for oxygen. To be a potent carrier, it needs to be able to carry as well as release its ligand.
The proximal and distal histidine residues in the heme group are typically the main point of interest in
myoglobin and hemoglobin. They play a role in the cooperativity of hemoglobin and associated metal complex.
Remember that hemoglobin, as a structure, is very compact, with almost no empty space inside. It is mostly
(~75%) α-helical, the rest mostly β turns and loops (at the surface). There are 8 helices, designated A-H from N
to C terminus. The helices at the surface are amphipathic and the helices are termined by proline. The polar R-
groups are mostly at the surface, except HIS (F8)/fifth ligand (proximal) and HIS (E7)-near sixth coordination
site but distal. As a quaternary structure it is a tetramer with two α and two β subunits in adult (and different at
different stage of life). Noncovalent bonds stabilize this structure. The α/β interactions dominate.
Describe how and where in the structure of Mb and Hb O2 binds, including roles of
protein functional groups and heme, and the oxidation state of the heme Fe required
for O2 binding.
Remember that myoglobin is the oxygen storage protein (a single subunit) in muscle. It binds
to oxygen in muscle cells and kept until needed. Hemoglobin is the oxygen transport protein in
the blood. It circulates in red blood cells, and binds to oxygen in the lungs and releases it to
oxygen-requiring tissues. The affinity for oxygen is modulated, involving tight binding in
lungs, but easy release when needed in tissues. The modulation relies on the allosteric
properties of hemoglobin.
Oxygen binds to the heme group of hemoglobin and myoglobin. Heme is known also as iron
protoporphyrin IX, with the bound Fe2+ iron. Each iron has six coordination sites, one of which can be occupied
by O2. Note that the iron acts as a prosthetic group to pick up the oxygen. If iron was a lone actor, it would be
immediately reactive and spur greater damage to the organism, particularly humans.
Know how to interpret the O2 binding curves [Y (fractional saturation) vs. pO2], i.e.
NON cooperative ligand binding to a protein or cooperative ligand binding and
explain what is meant by cooperativity. On both curves, indicate the value of P50, the
pO2 at which fractional saturation of protein with O2 is 0.5. In what part of the
cooperative binding curve (what part of the [ligand] concentration range) is protein
predominantly in the low binding affinity conformation, and in what part of the
ligand concentration range is the predominant form the high binding affinity
conformation?
We can utilize the association and dissociation equilibria to our advantage in
fractional saturation. Fractional saturation (signified as Y or θ) is the fraction of total
binding sites on protein occupied by ligand. We can determine the fraction saturation
!"#$"#% !"#$! !""#$%&' [!"] [!]
by the following formula: 𝑌 = = = . This shows that as
!"!#$ !"#$"#% !"#$! !" ! ! ! ! ![!]
[ligand] is added, more proteins are bound to ligand. When the fraction saturation is
exactly 0.5, the concentration of ligand will be equal to the dissociation constant
( 𝐿 = 𝐾! ).
3
Myoglobin binding to oxygen follows the same protein ligand interactions. However, since O2 is a gad it is more
convenient to utilize partial pressures of oxygen (in the gas phase above the solution), than concentrations of O2
dissolved in the solution, in the following formula: 𝑀𝑏𝑂! ⟺ 𝑀𝑏 + 𝑂! . Thus, we can utilize the same methods to
!" [!! ]
determine the dissociation constant: 𝐾! = , and we can further utilize this new equation to determine the
[!"#! ]
[!"#! ] [!! ] !"!
fractional saturation: 𝑌 = = = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘! = 𝑝!" . We know that myoglobin is an oxygen
!" ![!"#! ] ! ! ![!! ] !!" !!"!
storage protein in tissues, and 1 oxygen binding site per myoglobin allowing for a hyperbolic binding curve. Free
myoglobin implies myoglobin with empty binding sites, and myoglobin with oxygen imply occupied sites. Thus at
p50 is the pO2 that gives 50% saturation.
Explain how Hb works physiologically (in vivo), i.e., how cooperativity in O2 binding
to Hb facilitates “loading” of O2 in the lungs and “unloading” of O2 in the tissues.
Include the role of the R state (oxy onformation) and the T state (deoxy
conformation) of Hb.
Remember that heme binds to oxygen. Free heme binds to carbon monoxide 20,000 times better than oxygen.
Thus, the protein regulates access to the heme. The heme in myoglobin binds
to carbon monoxide only 200 times better. A distal histidine can offset the
bonding angle. It adopts a slight angle because His E7 sterically blocks the
perpendicular arrangement.
This leads to the cooperativity of hemoglobin. Remember that the hemoglobin is involved in the transport of
oxygen and carbon dioxide. Thus in the lungs, it has to have a high affinity to load the oxygen before delivering
to the tissues. However, at the tissues, it needs to have a low affinity because it needs to release oxygen. The
cooperativity enhances oxygen delivery and release by hemoglobin. The following describes the relative
saturations at the lung, tissue, and the difference.
Briefly describe the structural change that occurs when O2 binds to the heme of a
subunit of Hb, including: (1) what in the heme structure triggers the protein
structural change when O2 binds, (2) how that first protein structural change is
communicated to other subunits to change the quaternary structure and the O2 of the
other subunits, and (3) effect of the quaternary structural change on size of the
central cavity.
The structural change occurring involves
the cooperativity of the structure. When
there is no O2 binding (such as in
deoxyhemoglobin), the heme iron lies
slightly outside porphyrin plane, bound
(coordinated) to an N of proximal HIS (F8)
residue. When O2 binds to the iron, Fe2+
moves into plane of heme, pulling with it
HIS F8. Oxygen binding initiates structural
changes.
4
At the tertiary level, there is conformational change in one subunit. It causes
structural changes in interface between α1β1 and α2β2 protomers. This
triggers that quaternary change in whole hemoglobin tetramer. At the
quaternary level, α1β1 shifts relative to α2β2 and rotates approximately 15
degrees. Thus when it binds, it decreases in size of the central cavity.
Binding pulls the histidine towards the heme moving F helix. This a small
change that is a major player in the protein’s function. Essentially, this is the
allostery involved in hemoglobin. If there was a mutation from the histidine
to glycine, the cooperativity would become absent, because there is no bond
between the glycine and ion. There would be no communication, and thus consequently no allostery.
Deoxyhemoglobin (the T state) goes to oxyhemoglobin (the R state). The allostery (switching the T and R
states) is the main contributor to the sigmoidal shape of the binding curve. The conversion from T to R is
characteristic of allosteric proteins. When there is no oxygen present, the equilibrium lies far toward the T state
(where there is a weak oxygen binding). The α1β1 shifts relative to α2β2 and rotates by approximately 15°. On
the opposite end (when there is oxygen binding), the equilibrium is shifted toward the R state. Oxygen binding is
a molecular switch that induces a change in oxygen binding affinity over the whole population of Hb molecules in
solution. High affinity curve is where the R state predominates. The low affinity curve is at the point of low
oxygen, where the T state is predominant. Remember, the T state (deoxyhemoglobin) is where the is no oxygen
binding, while the R state (oxyhemoglobin) is when the oxygen is bound.
The cooperativity of the hemoglobin can be modeled into a concerted or sequential element. The following table
discusses the models:
Model Diagram Description
Concerted Everything with either be in T state or in R state. All
subunits are in the same conformation in equilibria.
These)ionic)interac8ons)stabilize)the)T)state)
5
tissues, but has little effect in the lungs but a much profound effect in the tissues, where oxygen needs to be
released.
This is particularly seen in other animals, but also in the early fetus. During early development, the human fetus
expresses different α and β hemoglobin genes. These are similar but not identical to the hemoglobin genes
expressed in adults. Fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen because the fetus has to extract oxygen
from maternal erythrocytes. This ability is found in the tertiary and quaternary structures of the hemoglobin.
Structural)Basis)of)the)Bohr)Effect
At the quaternary level, fetal hemoglobin does not have the β subunits found in adult hemoglobin, but γ subunits. )
At the tertiary level, the positively charged histidine residues found in the adult hemoglobin is essentially
replaced by the hydrophilic serine, meaning that the ionic interactions are not present.The)N_termini)of)Hb)chains)lie)at)an)
This allows stabilization
interface)between)α)and)β)subunits)
into the R state from the absence of ionic interactions.
ionic)interac8on)
with)Asp)94))
But also remember that 2,3-BPG is not the only relevant chemical in question. It
is important to recognize that carbon dioxide (CO2) and H+ ions are also negative
allosteric effectors of hemoglobin. In active muscle cells, oxygen is rapidly
consumed and carbon dioxide and protons are produced. As the pH is lowered thereCO2)reacts)with)the)+)charged)N_
is a decrease in binding
affinity, and that when [CO2] is added, there is also a decrease in binding affinity from stabilization of the T state.
term)to)form)_)charged)carbamate)
affinity decrease. The groups)=>)ionic)interac8ons)at)the)
Combination of the two will reveal that it will have the furthestAt)lower)pH,)His)146)protonated curves can be seen, from
α/β)interface)
the effects, shifting to the right.
These)ionic)interac8ons)stabilize)the)T)state)
The structural basis of the Bohr effect is found in the ionic interaction between His 146 and Asp 94 and the
covalent interaction of the N-termini of Hb and carbon dioxide. The ionic interactions are what stabilize the T
state. If His 146 becomes deprotonated, then the T state destabilizes. But remember, that the pKa can occur
alongside conformation change. At a lower pH, His 146 is protonated. The covelent interaction involves carbon
dioxide reacting with the positively charged N-termini to form a negatively charged carbamate group while
releasing a proton. This leads to ionic interactions at the α/β interface.
Effec8ve)transport)due)to)combined)
This can lead to an overall understanding of the allostery and Bohr effects. Remember that at inhalation where
allosteric)effects) reversal'of'carbamate'formaFon'
[O2] is the highest, hemoglobin (in the R state) will bind to oxygen
O (inhaled)
2' ' =>'loss'of'CO '(exhaled)'
2 to the tissue capillaries and then be transported (by erythrocytes)
R_state)
deprotonaFon'of'β'His'146 to the tissue capillaries where it will be conform to the T state (and
[CO ])lower)
2
consequently release oxygen). From metabolism, the proton and
Hb(O ) )carries)O )to)
2 4 2
8ssue)capillaries)
[H ])lower)/)pH)higher)
+ carbon dioxide concentrations will increase and then be bound to
Lungs
2,3_BPG)throughout)body)(in) the T state to the lungs. Deprotonation of Β His 146 will occur and
both)lungs)and)8ssues))__)livle)
effect)in)lungs,)but)enhances) carbon dioxide will then be release through exhalation, allowing
release)in)8ssues)(=>)T)state))
2 CO )binds)to)T)state)in) reversion to the R state.
8ssues)and)is)
Tissues transported)to)lungs)
from)metabolism) HIS)146)is)protonated)
[H+])and)[CO2])higher)) This can later lead to a clinical application in terms of elements
T)state) such as mutant hemoglobin and the role of altitude in oxygen
O 'is'released'
2
binding. At high altitude states, the concentration of 2, 3 BPG
increases and the oxygen-binding curve will shift right. For mutant hemoglobin, this
mainly involves exploration of the structure-function relationships in a protein. Mutant
hemoglobins can encompass silent mutations, but there are
mutations that can spur serious diseases. For example, sickle
hemoglobin (HbS) is when there is a change in normal residue 6
from negatively charged glutamic acid to hydrophobic valine can
spur serious consequences.
In sickle cell anemia, the change from glutamic acid to valine creates a hydrophobic
patch, which spurs aggregation of hemoglobin. This causes red cells to distort and
block capillaries. In diseases such as α-thalassemia, the β chains are affected and the hemoglobin does not
become cooperative. In sickle hemoglobin (HbS), the hydrophobic valine on subunit of 1 tetramer sticks to patch
on T state subunit of another tetramer. The two subunits spur two knows, causing 2 hydrophobic patches. This
propagates aggregation and can cause long rigid fibers. Such aggregation can cause red blood cell sickling. The
long fibers distort shape of red blood cells, sickle-shaped cells clog the capillaries and poke holes in cells and
cause a low hemoglobin concentration. The following table will outline the diseases in a simplified form:
Type of Disorder Affected part of Protein Description
Sickle Cell Anemia Hemoglobin Q6 is mutated to V6, creating a hydrophobic patch
to allow hemoglobin to aggregate, distorting and
block capillaries
α-Thalassemia Decreased synthesis of α-Chains Hemoglobin does not become cooperative
(excess number of β-Chains)
β-Thalassemia Decreased synthesis of β-Chains Forms insoluble aggregates resulting in few red
(excess number of α-Chains) cells.
Fortunately, for sickle hemoglobin patients, all is not lost. Such a mutation allows protection from such diseases
such as malaria. Thus, it is attributed as evolutionary shift. One copy allows viability while providing protection
from malaria.
6
Lecture XIV
Terminology
Term Definition
Rate Enhancement Factor by which catalyst increases rate of reaction. Calculated by:
!!"#"$%&'(
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑛ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = .
!!"#$%$&'()*
Cofactor Substance required to be present in addition to an enzyme for reaction to be
catalyzed.
Coenzyme Non-protein chemical compound that is bound to a protein and required to
protein’s biological activity.
Prosthetic Group Metal ion or organic or metallo-organic compound other than an amino acid that’s
tightly bound to a protein (binding is covalent or tight non-covalent), required or
the protein’s function/activity. 𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛 ⟷ 𝐴𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛 + 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
Catalyst Substance that is not consumed by the reaction itself, and speed or slow the
reaction’s progress. They operate under physiological conditions, work by
forming complexes, but are not chemically altered by the reaction.
Activation Energy Energy that must be overcome in order for a chemical reaction to occur.
Transition State Configuration along reaction coordinate where the highest energy occurs, thus it
must either go to either product or reactant.
Transition State Analog Chemical compounds with a structure that resembles transition state of a
substrate in a chemical reaction.
Active Site Site of enzyme where a substrate binds to.
Enzyme-Substrate Complex Complex formed when substrate binds to enzyme.
Induced Fit Interaction between enzyme and substrate is weak, but weak interactions
produce conformational changes in the enzyme to achieve shape
complementarity.
Initial Velocity Reaction velocity where the concentration of product is approximately zero.
Steady State State where rate in the production of product is equal to the rate in the
production of reactant, where 𝑘!"#$%#& = 𝑘!"#"!$" .
Vmax Maximum rate achieved by the system, at maximum (saturating) substrate
concentrations.
Km Concentration of substrate at which velocity is exactly one-half of the maximal
velocity.
kcat Reaction rate that is observed when the catalyst is present.
Turnover Number Number of substrate molecules converted into product by one enzyme molecule
per unit time, when enzyme is fully saturated with substrate.
Kes Rate constant for the dissociation of the enzyme-substrate complex
Enzyme Efficiency Refers to rate enhancement, in which by increasing the rates results in a more
efficiency chemical reaction.
Double Reciprocal Plot Graphical representation of the linear Lineweaver-Burk equation of enzyme
kinetics, which determines reciprocal velocity as a function of the reciprocal of
substrate concentration.
Reversible Inhibition Reversible inhibition binds via weak, non-covalent interactions, which can be
(Competitive, pure easily removed by dialysis or dilution. There are three types of reversible
noncompetitive, inhibition:
uncompetitive) 1. Competitive: Involves competition for the active site, affecting KM.
Binding and release of inhibitor from the active site forms an
equilibrium with dissociation constant Ki.
2. Uncompetitive: Involves inhibitor binding only to the complex formed
between enzyme and substrate. Km and Vmax are reduced by equal
amounts.
3. Noncompetitive: Reduces activity of the enzyme by binding to a
completely different site on the enzyme. Changes the apparent Vmax and
creates a different intercept.
Irreversible Inhibition Bind very tightly to the enzyme by possibly even covalent bonds, and is
essentially irreversible because it is a kinetically controlled process. Can
inactivate proteins by altering active site of the target. This can help understand
which functional groups are required for enzyme activity.
Affinity Label Molecular similar to structure to a particular substrate for a particular enzyme.
Transition State Analog Molecules resembling the transition state, which are potential inhibitors of
enzymes.
7
Suicide Inhibition Form of irreversible enzyme inhibition that occurs when an irreversible complex
(Mechanism-Based (by covalent bonding) forms during normal catalysis. The substrates like
Inhibitor) molecules that cannot complete the reaction. Forms a stable inhibitor-enzyme
complex.
Review
Term Definition
Equilibrium Constant Ratio of concentrations when equilibrium is reached in a reversible reaction. It
occurs when the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse
reaction.
Mass Action Ratio for a [!]! [!]!
Ratio of product and reactant concentrations. Calculated by: 𝑄 = .
Reaction [!]! [!]!
Describe the general properties of enzymes as catalysts that are especially important
for their roles as biological catalysts.
Enzymes are typically treated as biological catalyst because (1) they are not altered chemically in the reaction,
(2) they operate under physiological conditions (at moderate temperatures, around a neutral pH, and a low
concentration in an aqueous environment, and (3) work by forming complexes with their substrates and
consequently binding a unique microenvironment for the reaction to proceed. The substrate is going to bind to
the enzyme. Any deviation away from physiological conditions can have an effect on structure.
Explain the effect of a catalyst on the rate of a reaction, and on the equilibrium
constant of a reaction. Express the velocity of a simple reaction in terms of the rate
constant and the concentration of the reactant.
Catalysts can strongly affect the rate of a reaction. Some catalysts can strongly increase the rate of an reaction,
while others can strongly decrease the reaction rate. We can measure the rate of the reaction simply by
[!"#$%#&%] [!"#$%&']
measuring the concentration of the reactant or product over time 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑜𝑟 . We can
!"#$ !"#$
also determine the rate enhancement as a quotient of the catalyzed and uncatalyzed rate constants
!!"#"$%&'(
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑛ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = .
!!"#$%$&'()*
Express the equilibrium constant of a reaction in terms of the rate constants for the
forward and reverse directions. (Note Chemical*Kine)cs
*
that equilibrium constants are symbolized
with upper case K and rate constants
• For*the*reac)on*with lower case k.)
kF (P = Product)
(S = Substrate)
S P
kR
Well, if we have a reaction consisting• ***Velocity*(rate)*of*forward*reac)on*=*v
of substrates and *=*k products going
*[S] ** • Rate constants
F F
case k’s
eq* to equilibria, we can state that the
are lower
€
8
same factor. If the forward rate constant decreases, so decrease must the reverse reaction go by the same
factor.
If an enzyme increases the rate constant for the forward reaction by a factor of 108,
by what factor does it increase the rate constant for the back reaction? What is the
rate enhancement brought about by the catalyst for that reaction?
Remember that the though the reaction pathway is changed, the thermodynamic properties (particularly ΔG)
should not change. Thus, increasing the rate constant for the forward reaction by a factor of 108 should allow an
increase of the rate constant for the back reaction by a factor of 108. The rate enhancement is 108 because the
enzyme increased the rate constant by 108.
Enzymes*lower*the*ac)va)on*energy*
Draw the free energy diagram of a hypothetical reaction and show how a catalyst may
increase the rate of the reaction, pointing out on the diagram ΔG for the overall
reaction, ΔG uncat, ΔG catEssence*of*catalysis:*Stabiliza)on*of*the*transi)on*state
✜ ✜
.
= transition state
ǂ ΔG ǂ
ǂ
ΔGuncat
= ΔGuncat
- cat
high*energy*barrier*
=*
slower*reac)on* ǂ € €
€ ΔGcat
ΔG’=*Free*
€ lower*energy*barrier* energy*gap*
Enzymes*change*
=* between*
the*pathway*of*a* reactants*
faster*reac)on*
reac)on* and*products*
* at*
Enzymes*bind* equilibrium*
)ghtly*to*the*
transi)on*state*
We need to remember the thermodynamic variables involved in a reaction. We know that molecules have to
collide with enough energy in order for the reaction to occur. This amount of energy is known as the activation
energy, which is the energy required to cause the reaction to occure. The catalyst increases the rate of the
reaction by decreasing the activation energy required in order to achieve the reaction. A lower energy barrier
implies a faster reaction. Remember that the enzymes change the pathway of a reaction, but not the change in
Gibbs free energy. The rate of the reaction is dependent on the activation energy.
Indicate (and name) the quantity on a free energy diagram (HINT: it’s a specific
kind of ΔG) that determines the magnitude of the rate constant for the reaction at a
given temperature. You don’t have to memorize the equation relating this quantity to
k.
The rate constant (k) is dependent on ΔGŦ, which denotes the Arrhenius activation energy or the free energy of
activation for the reaction. This consists of the difference in free energy between the transition state and the
starting state, which is the “barrier” over which the reaction must go in order to proceed. This can be calculated
! ! !∆! !
by the following equation: 𝑘 = ! 𝑒 !" , where h is the Planck Constant, R is the gas constant, and kb is the
!
Boltzmann Constant. Though this equation should NOT be memorized, we can observe how we can increase the
reaction rate. Increasing the temperature (T) can do this, but it leaves the possibility of the protein’s
denaturation. However, understanding this equation can allow us to understand how to derive the rate
!∆! !
!"#"$%&'(
!! !
! !"
! ∆! ! !
!"#$%$&'()* !∆! !"#"$%&'( !!"#"$%&'(
enhancement. 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑛ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = =𝑒 !" = .
!∆! ! !!"#$%$&'()*
!! ! !"#$%$&'()*
!
! !"
9
What reaction parameter (kinetic parameter) do enzymes affect in order to increase
the rate?
Remember that catalysts increase rate constants because the enzymes decrease ΔG≠. They also decrease the
energy of the transition state, thus stabilizing the transition state, allowing for the reaction rate to increase.
*
Ac)ve*sites*
Describe the different models existing for enzyme-substrate binding.
5*–*Specificity*of*binding:*defined*arrangement*of*atoms*in*an*ac)ve*site,*2*models*
*
Ac)ve*of*the*unbound* Enzyme*changes*shape*upon*
Model Diagram
enzyme*is*complementary*
in*shape*to*the*substrate:*
rigid,*inflexible*ac)ve*site*
substrate*binding*to*achieve*
shape*complementarity* Description
Lock and Active site of unbound enzyme is complementary in shape to the substrate: a
Ac)ve*sites*
* Key
5*–*Specificity*of*binding:*defined*arrangement*of*atoms*in*an*ac)ve*site,*2*models*
rigid, inflexible active site
*
Ac)ve*of*the*unbound* Enzyme*changes*shape*upon*
enzyme*is*complementary* substrate*binding*to*achieve*
in*shape*to*the*substrate:* shape*complementarity*
E.*Fischer,*1890* D.*Koshland,*1958*
rigid,*inflexible*ac)ve*site*
LOCK*and*KEY*model* INDUCED*FIT*model*
substrate complex, and from this complex a product is yielded (as a function of time).
[S]
V0 = Vmax
K M +the
Recognize [S]Michaelis-Menten equation, and sketch a graph of V0 vs. [S] for an
enzyme-catalyzed reaction that illustrates Vmax and Km.
[!]
The Michaelis-Menten equation is as follows: 𝑉! = 𝑉!"# , where [S] is the
k +k ! ! ![!]
K M = −1 2 Michaelis*constant*concentration of the substrate, and KM is the
€ k1 Michaelis constant, the concentration of substrate
where the velocity is exactly half-maximal
!
𝑉! = !"# . Based on the forward and reverse
!
reactions, we can determine the Michaelis constant
! !!
as: 𝐾! = !! ! . If the Michaelis constant is must
!!
€ larger than substrate concentration 𝐾! ≫ [𝑆] ,
! [!]
then 𝑉! = !"# .
!!
We need to remember that before the reaction occurs, the enzyme must bind to
substrate to yield a noncovalent enzyme-substrate complex. Thus, the
concentration of the enzyme-substrate must increase before product increases. Once the concentration of the
enzyme-substrate stops increasing and reaches a steady-state, the concentration of product will increase in a
linear fashion until the concentration of substrate is depleted, where the rate of formation of product slows and
equilibrium is reached.
10
Define Km in terms of the rate constants in the Michaelis-Menten kinetic mechanism;
give the operational definition of Km that holds no matter what the actual kinetic
mechanism is for a particular enzyme.
!!! !!!
Based on the forward and reverse reactions, we can determine the Michaelis constant as: 𝐾! = . KM is the
!!
Michaelis constant, the concentration of substrate where the velocity is exactly one-half of the maximal velocity.
!!"#
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑉! = . This is the operational definition that holds for ANY kinetic mechanism.
!
Given a hyperbolic Vo/Vmax vs. [S] plot, explain the meaning of the ratio Vo/Vmax in
terms of occupied active site concentration and total active site concentration, and
find Km directly from the graph, including its units.
The ratio VO/Vmax can be interpreted as the relative rate, where the reaction velocity VO is in terms of the
maximal velocity Vmax. In terms of occupied site concentration and total site concentration, this is simply a
quotient of the occupied and total active site concentration. This can aid in determining the fraction of occupied
active sites, regardless of total active site concentrations. From any hyperbolic graph, we can also determine the
Michaelis constant KM finding the concentration of substrate where the relative rate is 50%, or 0.5, because the
KM is the concentration where VO is half of Vmax.
11
NonlCompe))ve*inhibitors*
Explain competitive, uncompetitive, and pure noncompetitive inhibition in terms of a
diagram of linked reaction equilibria for formation of ES, EI, and (if it can form) EIS.
• The*enzyme*can*bind*substrate*in*the*ac)ve*
site,*and*inhibitor*in*a*regulatory*site.*
Type of Definition Uncompe))ve*inhibitors
Reaction Diagram *
Inhibition • The*binding*and*release*of*the*inhibitor*from*
the*regulatory*site*forms*an*equilibrium*with*
Uncompetitive Binding to site formed by enzyme-substrate complex. i.*
dissocia)on*constant*K Inhibitor binds
Compe))ve*inhibitors *
only to the ES
• The*inhibitor*can*bind*to*either*E*or*the*ES*
complex.*When*I*is*bound,*the*enzyme*is*in*a* complex
state*with*a*slower*cataly)c*rate.*But*
Noncompetitive Binding at a regulatory site not near the substrate*affinity*is*unaffected*and*K
active site. M*is*
unchanged.*
High*[S]*does*not*
overcome*effect*of*I
• So*the*enzyme*cannot*achieve*Vmax,*but*
rather*a*lower*apparent*maximal*velocity*
Competitive Competition for active site with substrate
KM*/*Vmax*unchange
binding*and*release*of*I*from*the*
ac)ve*site*forms*an*equilibrium*with*
dissocia)on*constant*Ki*
KM*and*Vmax*are*reduced*by*equal*amounts
Explain how these 3 types of inhibition can be distinguished from each other
graphically: on a VO vs. [S] plot, and on a double reciprocal (Lineweaver-Burk) plot.
Type of Definition Interpretation VO vs. [S] Plot Lineweaver-Burk
Inhibition KM Vmax KM/Vmax Plot
Com- Competition for é - é
petitive active site with
substrate
Noncom- Binding at a - ê é
petitive regulatory site not
near the active site.
12
Lecture XV
Enzym e Catalysis
Terminology
Term Definition
Proteolysis Directed degradation (digestion) of proteins by cellular enzymes known as
proteases.
Serine Protease Enzymes that cleave peptide bonds in proteins, which serine serves as the
nucleophilic amino acid at the active site.
General Acid Based on the Bronsted-Lowry definition, a proton donor.
General Base Based on the Bronsted-Lowry definition, a proton acceptor.
Catalytic Triad Three amino acid residues found inside the active site of certain protease enzymes,
namely serine, aspartate, and histidine.
Tetrahedral Reaction intermediate in which the bond arrangement around an initially double-
Intermediate bonded carbon atom has transformed from trigonal to tetrahedral.
Acyl-Enzyme Intermediate formed from acylation of the substrate, formed by the attack of the
Intermediate active site serine residue on a peptide bond in a protein substrate.
Nucleophile Species that donates an electron-pair to an electrophile to form a covalent bond.
Oxyanion Hole Region in space where the backbone amide hydrogens of serine 195 and glycine 193
point into the active site. Remember, the binding site specificity pocket and
catalytic triad play a role in the chymotrypsin chemical machinery.
Most enzymes use a combination of several mechanistic strategies to increase the reaction rate.
General catalytic mechanisms used by enzymes to increase the rates of chemical reactions.
Catalytic Description
Mechanism
General Acid- A group on the enzyme acts as an acid or base, donating or removing (according to the
Base Bronsted-Lowry definitions) to the substrate during the reaction.
Covalent A group on the enzyme becomes covalently modified during reaction, e.g. by forming a
covalent bond to the substrate during the reaction.
Metal Ion The enzyme to facilitate a chemical rearrangement or binding step uses a metal ion.
Catalysis by The enzyme holds two substrates near in space and in precisely the correct spatial
Approximation orientation to optimize their reaction. Optimized by (1) proximity and (2) orientation.
13
Which type of functional group can act as a general-base,
general acid, nucleophile?
Enzyme functional groups can act as Bronsted acids or bases to allow proton
transfer and facilitate bond cleavage. Remember that a Bronsted acid donates a
proton, while the Bronsted base accepts a proton. They are oriented to the active
site to permit favorable interaction with bound substrate. The group that donates
a proton in catalysis then has to accept a proton in catalytic mechanism for
catalyst to be regenerated in original conjugate acid form. Acids or bases promote
organic reactions. Thus, one can conclude from this is that pH plays a major role
in the rate of a reaction.
Nucleophiles (or nucleus-loving) will form a chemical bond with an electro phile
(the electron-loving) by donating an electron pair. When a covalent bond is
create, the rate acceleration occurs by transient formation of the covalent
catalyst-substrate bond. It requires a highly reactive group, consisting of the
nucleophilic functional group on the enzyme to react with the substrate to form the covalent bond. It is typically
stepwise, and more reactive in the second step due to lower activation energy relative to the non-covalent
catalytic mechanism. Thus, the enzyme alters the pathway of the reaction progression.
Given an enzyme mechanism, be able to identify which residue most likely acts as a
general acid, general base or covalent catalyst.
Behavior Definition Indication
General Acid Proton Donor Electrophile receives a proton, with the enzyme
gaining a proton. (Enzyme attacks a proton.)
Functional groups are typically protonated.
General Base Proton Acceptor Nucleophile attacks a proton, removing a proton
from the enzyme. Functional groups are typically
deprotonated.
Covalent Catalyst Rate acceleration by transient Bonding of catalyst with substrate (catalyst-
formation of a covalent catalyst- substrate bond).
substrate bond.
How can pH affect enzyme activity? Why? What is the optimum pH of an enzyme?
Remember that the substrate needs to bind to the enzyme in order for the catalytic effects to occur. The
ionization states of the amino acid residues are involved in the catalytic activity. Changes in pH can affect the
ionization state of the substrate and possibly spur variation of the protein’s structure. The optimum pH in
protein/substrate interactions is the pH at which the substrate maximally binds to substrate. The substrate
attaches itself to the enzyme via ionic bonding. Any change (such as increasing or decreasing the pH) that
disrupts ionic binding will disrupt ionic interactions.
Op1mum(pH(and(protein/substrate(
interac1ons(
pH < optimal pH(lower(than(7(V(acidic 0
pH(higher(than(7(V(basic +1
( Op1mum(pH(around(7(
A(substrate(ajaches(itself(to(the(enzyme(via(two(
ionic(bonds.(( VNH3+:(no(
VCOOV:(picks(up(H+( VNH3+:(
change VCOOV:(no(change(
loses(H+(
pH > optimal
pH(lower(than(7(V(acidic pH(higher(than(7(V(basic -1 0
Ionic(bonds(between(the(substrate(and(the(enzyme(cannot(be(formed.((
If(those(bonds(were(necessary(to(ajach(the(substrate(and(ac1vate(it(in(some(
way,(then(at(lower(pH(or(higher(pH,(the(enzyme(won't(work.(
VNH3+:(no(
change VCOOV:(picks(up(H+( VNH3+:(
VCOOV:(no(change(
loses(H+(
Ionic(bonds(between(the(substrate(and(the(enzyme(cannot(be(formed.((
If(those(bonds(were(necessary(to(ajach(the(substrate(and(ac1vate(it(in(some(
way,(then(at(lower(pH(or(higher(pH,(the(enzyme(won't(work.(
14
Given a graph showing an enzyme’s activity (as a function of pH) – be able to
interpret the data, i.e. what is the optimum pH, what residues could be involved in
catalysis (see lysozyme pH profile).
The graph of optimum pH graph is similar to a titration curve, because as the pH increases (similar to increasing
base) the activity of the enzyme can be observed. Remember that the optimum pH is the pH at which the
protein’s enzymatic activity is maximal (at 100%). It is possible to roughly estimate the pKas of certain
functional groups at the points where there is 50% activity. The ionization states of the residues explain the pH-
activity profile of an enzyme because protonation or deprotonation can affect the ionic forces involved in the
enzyme-substrate interaction.
One is able to predict the action of the amino acid based on the amino acid residue. The pH will predict whether
the amino acid residue will act as a proton donor or a proton acceptor. Remember that the amino acid functional
groups can act in the process as a proton donor or a proton acceptor.
Name enzymes that use metal ion catalysis, general acid-base catalysis, covalent
catalysis, catalysis by approximation or combination of those.
Enzyme Catalytic Mechanism Utilized
Acid-Base Covalent Metal Ion Catalysis by Approximation
Serine Proteases: Hydrolysis ✓ ✓
Enhance Rate
Carbonic Anhydrases ✓
Restriction Endonuclease: ✓
Specificity, Hydrolysis
Nucleoside Monophosphate ✓ ✓
Kinases: Group Transfer
Enolase: Two Step Reaction ✓ ✓
Lysozyme ✓
Explain why peptide bonds are kinetically stable in the absence of a catalyst, given
that equilibrium lies far in the direction of hydrolysis.
Peptide bonds are kinetically stable in the absence of a catalyst, given that equilibrium lies far in the direction of
hydrolysis, mainly because they have the partial double bond (the resonance structure) that allows for stability.
Though peptide hydrolysis is thermodynamically favored, it is kinetically slow. This is we have enzymes called
proteases to undergo proteolysis. Proteolysis is the directed degradation (digestion) of proteins by the
proteases. There are four classes of proteases:
Type of Protease Catalytic Mechanism Utilized
Acid Base Covalent Metal Ion Catalysis by Approximation
Serine ✓ ✓ ✓
Cysteine ✓
Aspartic Acid ✓
Metallo-proteases ✓
15
One example of a protease is chymotrypsin, which is a digestive serine protease involved in the breakdown of
proteins and peptides so that their amino acids can be used. They particularly cleave proteins on the carboxyl
side of aromatic, large hydrophobic residues (right), and the amino-terminal side of the peptide bond to be
cleaved (left). These residues are not easily accessible because the hydrophobic amino
acids are in the core, and thus difficult to access.
The final way to determine the mechanism of a reaction is site-directed mutagenesis. Mutations along certain
amino acid resides can help determine the amino acid’s role in the protein’s action. However, the same rules
apply. If kcat is unchanged, then the mutation must occur at the specificity pocket. If KM is unchanged, the
mutation must occur at the catalytic triad. Changes in the specificity in the specificity pocket will change the KM
along with the Vmax.
Describe the main features of the chemical mechanism of hydrolysis of peptide bonds
by chymotrypsin, including the following:
What is the “job” of the catalyst (the protease), i.e., what group
needs to be made more susceptible to nucleophilic attack?
The protease chymotrypsin has structural elements at the active
site. It has a Serine 195, Histidine 57, and an Aspartic Acid 102.
These three amino acids are in proximity of the Chymotrypsin(Mechanism(
active site and thus known as the catalytic triad. nucleophilic(ajack(facilitated(by(
HisN:(ac1ng(as(general(base(*
His 57 is a general base catalyst that facilitates
the removal of the hydroxyl proton on Serine
195, allowing formation of an alkoxide ion, which
is a strong nucleophile. The Aspartic Acid 102
allows orientation of the His 57 and stabilizes the
protonated form due to its negative charge.
Remember that the bond between the carboxyl Acylation: 2nd product
Deacylation: bonded to SER and 1st
side of aromatic, large hydrophobic residue and 2nd product is product is released
the amino-terminal side of the peptide residue is released
proton(back(to(Ser(O*
and de-acylation. Acylation requires addition of
the acyl group to the enzyme to yield an acyl-
enzyme intermediate. Deacylation with water
nucleophilic(ajack(facilitated(by(
will yield the enzyme and a carboxylic acid HisN:(ac1ng(as(general(base(*
product. The free enzyme is re-generated. The
16
group that needs to be more susceptible to nucleophilic attack is the Serine 195 group. It is made more
nucleophilic than usual with the assistance of nearby His residue as the general base. The nucleophilic attack is
facilitated by the Histidine, acting as the general base. Acylation will allow the 2nd product to bind to serine and
the 1st product is released. Acylation allows formation of the 1st Tetrahedral Intermediate. Serine attacks the
carbonyl of the substrate in a nucleophilic fashion and allows stabilization by the Asp. The O of Ser-OH is
activated by H-bond of the His on catalytic triad. This helps maintain perfect orientation of His and ser in
hydrogen bonded network, and facilitates proton transfer by electrostatic stabilization of HisH+ after it has
accepted the proton. complex also yields a tetrahedral intermediate with an oxyanion hole, which is covalently
bonded to carbonyl C. HisN, acting as a general base, then facilitates the nucleophilic attack. At deacylation, the
HisH+ acts as a general acid and donates proton back to the serine.
The hydrophobic “specificity pocket” of chymotrypsin is the area of the active site responsible for
chymotrypsin’s substrate specificity. Remember that chymotrypsin is specific to peptide bonds containing an
aromatic. The glycine (the smallest amino acid) residues line the pocket to allow bulky hydrophobic side chains
to fit in the binding site, whilst allowing Ser 189 to allow the reaction to occur via nucleophilic attack. The active
site is where the chemistry occurs, mainly to stabilize the transition state. The hydrophobic pocket is where the
binding occurs and is involved in the specificity.
Explain the role of each member of the catalytic triad in the reaction.
Amino Acid- Role in Reaction
Position
SER 195 Involved in the direct nucleophilic attack of the carbonyl of the substrate, activated the
H-bond to HIS in catalytic triad.
HIS 57 General base catalyst, allowing facilitation of the removal of the S195 hydroxyl proton.
This allows formation of the alkoxide ion, the nucleophile.
ASP 102 Orientation of the HIS 57 and stabilizes the protonated form.
Compare (very briefly, just the “bottom line”) the overall 3-dimensional structures
of chymotrypsin, trypsin, and elastase, and compare the substrate binding
specificities of those 3 enzymes, explaining the relationship of the “specificity
site/pocket” structure to the differences in substrate specificity.
Mammalian serine proteases have nearly identical 3-dimensional folds. It has a
40% sequence identity, explaining the homologous nature of the the serine
proteases. The tertiary structure explains the same mechanism to hydrolyze
peptide bonds. Within this family there are also proteolytic enzymes in the blood-
clotting cascade.
However, delving into the active sites will allow for certain differences among
these enzymes. SER 189 of chymotrypsin is lined with glycines and only has the
serine. Thus one can conclude that it has particular affinity for aromatic groups such as phenylalanine,
tyrosine, and tryptophan. The ASP 189 of trypsin has a negative carboxylic acid function group, thus allows the
inference of favorable binding to positively charged amino acids. Elastase has Valines at positions 190 and 216,
allowing small amino acids to enter. Proline cannot permit binding due to the fused ring structure. If there was
17
a mutation in the catalytic triad, the reaction rate would be significantly
diminished but binding could still occur, meaning the KM would remain
constant while the kcat would decrease. The change of amino acid in the
specificity pocket can change the specificity of the molecule.
Such interactions allow for catalysis by approximation (induced fit). Once the
nucleotide interacts with the P-loop, there are local structural rearrangements and the
closing down of the lid domain. This allows isolation of the active site from the aqueous
environment, preventing transfers of phosphate to water. The lid closes and brings
the two substrates together and assures that the hydrolysis only occurs when the
acceptor is proximal.
Knowing the mechanism of an enzyme i.e. active site residues and residues
responsible for specificity, be able to interpret/predict the effect of mutation on
enzyme activity, enzyme specificity.
Active site residues rely on what substrate residues are being bound. The residues responsible for specificity in
the active site are those that make up the pocket of the enzyme. Mutation will change the enzyme’s activity by
how much the mutation affects the characteristics of the active site. If the mutation is not in the active site,
there is no change in enzyme activity. If the mutation changes polarity/charge of active site residues, the
activity will consequently diminish or cease completely in activity. A mutation can change enzyme specificity by
how much the mutation affects the characteristics of the pocket. If it changes the polarity/charge, the specificity
will be lost and unable to bond to correct substrate residues.
18
Hydrophobic Pocket Unchanged or Decreased Decreased Decreased
However, anything that affects binding will affect the overall activity of the enzyme. Anything that can affect
the binding may or may not change the kcat, because there is change to the specificity for that specific amino
acid. A conservative mutation can induce the smallest change, while a nonconservative mutation can induce the
largest change.
Have an appreciation for the commercial use of enzyme in the chemical and
pharmaceutical industries.
Biological catalysts have been utilized, even though society did not know what caused such catalysis, such as in
the fermentation of fruit juices and the baking of bread. The applications of biocatalysts to commercial processes
will continue as long as there are consumer needs and diseases. However, there is still much to know about
biological catalysts, as scientists research biochemical pathways, and attempt to apply these catalysts to replace
previous, possibly inefficient catalysts.
19
Lecture XVI
Regulation of Enzym es
Feedback inhibition is a decrease of the enzyme’s activity from the product binding to the enzyme. ATCase is the
enzyme that catalyses the first step in a biosynthetic pathway that produces pyrimidine nucleotides needed for
nucleic acids, energy storage, and enzyme cofactors. ATCase is essentially inhibited by the end product of the
pathway. When CTP levels are low and more isneeded, the activity of ATCase increases to make more. When
CTP is abundant, however, the pathway is shut down. ATCase displays sigmoidal kinetics, and thus substrate
binding to one active site converts enzyme to R state and increasing their activity. The active sites show
cooperativity.
20
Briefly explain the allosteric regulation of ATCase, including its quaternary
structure, its role in metabolism, and how its activity is regulated by allosteric
inhibition and activation. Include the physiological rationale for the inhibition and
activation.
Allosteric control involves the activity being controlled by modulating the
levels of small signaling molecules. Allosteric enzymes have multiple
subunits, which exert influence on one another in the complex. The binding
of substrate at one site affects the affinity for substrates at other sites,
eventually causing a conformational shift from a less active state to a more
active state. The conformational change is linked with ligand binding,
yielding homotropic or heterotrophic effects.
Homotropic effects involve the substrate binding to allosteric enzymes, and the allostery is based on
concentration number of bound substrates. Simply put, the substrate acts as an effector. This cooperative
substrate binding and activation involves the substrate binding to one active site, altering substrate binding
affinity and/or catalytic activity at other active sites on the same enzyme molecule. Extreme homoallostery can
occur at concentrations of substrate below a critical.
Heterotrophic effects involve the binding of other ligands (regulatory signaling molecules) to different sites from
the primary ligand (regulatory site). This can cause conformational changes that alter primary ligand binding
affinity or catalytic activity. Positive regulation typically involves ligands known as activators, which allow the
enzyme to favor the R state. Negative regulation typically involves inhibitors, which allow the enzyme to favor
the T state. Heterotropic effectors bind to a different site from the active site.
N-(Phosphoneacetyl)-L-Aspartate (PALA) can be utilized to identify active sites via a competitive inhibitor,
because it will bind to the same active site. PALA binding causes a conformational change from the T
(tense/absence of substrate)) state to the R (relaxed/presence of substrate) state. PALA is a homotropic
allosteric enzyme. At high concentrations, the enzyme does not work, as the enzyme is in the T state. At low
concentrations, it doesn’t have binding either, and doesn’t go into the T state. Thus, binding of the ligand must
occur for the enzyme’s shift from the T state to the R state.
Sketch plots of VO vs. [S] for an allosteric enzyme that illustrate positive homotropic
regulation and positive and negative heterotropic regulation, with ATCase as an
example. Specifically, sketch (all on the same axes) for ATCase: VO vs. [aspartate]
curves with no heterotropic regulators present, with an allosteric inhibitor present,
and with an allosteric activator present.
Homoallostery occurs through cooperative substrate binding and activation. The substrate binding to one active
site alters the substrate binding affinity and/or catalytic affinity at other active sites on the same enzyme
21
molecule. Homotropic allosterism occurs when the binding of the first enhances the probability of consecutive
substrate binding.
Meanwhile, heteroallostery occurs when the binding of other ligands (regulatory signaling molecules) to sites
different from the primary ligand and cause conformational changes that alter primary ligand binding. There
are two types of regulation by heterotropic effectors, positive and negative. Positive (or activating) allostery
occurs when the binding yields a shift (or favoring) towards the R state of the enzyme. Negative (or inhibiting)
heteroallostery occurs when the binding causes the shift towards the T state.
Generaliza'on*
In summary, this can be described in the following table:
Type of Allostery Diagram
Homotropic*Allosterism*
Example
Heterotropic*Allosterism*
Description
Homotropic Oxygen Identical ligands communicating in response to
binding to substrate to ligand. The substrate also acts as a
hemoglobin. ligand, and thus the regulatory activity is based on
Generaliza'on* the binding of substrate to ligand.
Homotropic*Allosterism* Heterotropic*Allosterism*
Describe in general terms how cells carry out reversible covalent modification of
enzymes, and how the modification would be removed.
Covalent modifications involve the covalent attachment of another
molecule to modify the activity of the enzymes. A specific enzyme
catalyzes the modification reaction. The modifying group removed by a
different catalytic enzyme. The enzyme can cycle between active and
inactive (or more and less active) states. Phosphorylation and
dephosphorylation are probably the most common means of regulating
enzymes, membrane channels, and virtually every metabolic process in eukaryotic cells. The enzyme is
regulated by covalent modifications. Protein kinases are one of the largest protein families known. They are
typically involved in the addition of the phosphoryl group. In phosphorylation, the phosphoryl transfer involves
ATP or another nucleoside triphosphate to a protein. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the most common
phosphoryl group donor, and it is extremely variable (the Gibbs Free Energy is extremely negative), so this is
essentially irreversible. Protein kinases catalyze phosphorylation. Kinases are very specific not only for local
sequence but also for three-dimensional structure around it, and phosphorylate only a single target protein or a
small number of closely related target proteins. Some protein kinases are multifunctional and can
phosphorylate many different target proteins. A particular kinase always phosphorylates a residue in a specific
sequence or a “consensus” sequence. Dephosphorylation involves the phosphate group being removed by
hydrolysis of the phosphate ester. Protein phosphatases catalyze dephosphorylation.
22
Name (“generic” names) the types of enzymes that catalyze phosphorylation and
dephosphorylation of proteins, specify what types of amino acid functional groups are
generally the targets of phosphorylation, and show the structure of such an enzyme
functional group before and after phosphorylation.
Reaction Description Generic Target Amino Acid Functional Structure of Enzyme (before
Enzyme Groups and after)
What is the consensus sequence for PKA? Which residues are involved?
Protein kinases are very specific not only for local sequence but also for three-dimensional structure around it,
and phosphorylate only a single target protein or a small number of closely related target proteins. Some
protein kinases are multifunctional and can phosphorylate many different target proteins. Kinases typically
phosphorylate a residue in a specific sequence of a “consensus” sequence. In PKA, there are two consensus
sequences: (1) –Arg-Arg-X-Ser-Z or (2) –Arg-Arg-X-Thr-Z, where X is a small amino acid residue and Z is a large
hydrophobic residue. Protein kinase A binds other substrate protein sequences with a much lower affinity, so
doesn’t phosphorylate them very often.
23
protein kinase A. The PKA inactive form (without cAMP bound) has two catalytic
subunits and two regulatory subunits (C2R2). The regulatory subunits are
inhibitory. This form cannot phosphorylate the targets. The cAMP binding to the
regulatory subunits makes the regulatory subunits dissociate from the catalytic
subunits. This makes it a great example of integration of allosteric regulation and
regulation by reverse covalent modification.
Describe the general mechanism by which zymogens are activated à active enzymes.
Zymogens (or proenzymes) are biologically synthesized, catalytically inactive precursor polypeptide chains.
They fold in three dimensions and are later
activated by enzyme-catalyzed cleave
(hydrolysis) of one or more specific peptide
bonds. Zymogen activation is an irreversible
proteolytic-activating process. The strategy
involved with this involves the prevention of
indiscriminate proteolysis, and delivery only
when necessary. The zymogens are stored in
granules, relatively inert, and upon hormonal
activations, the granules are dumped into the
small intestines, spurring activation. The
different digestive proteases have different
substrate specificities, enabling the breakdown of
a wide variety of peptides. A single enzyme
known as trypsin activates all the zymogens.
Trypsin is activated by enteropeptidase, which is secreted by cells lining the digestive tract. In turn, trypsin
activates the other zymogens.
With these enzymes, there are also inhibitors of proteolytic enzymes. PTI binds very tightly to trypsin and it is
extremely difficult to dissociate the complex. Pancreatic trypsin inhibitor is a substrate, but the peptide bond
“after” the lysine is cleaved only VERY slowly. The combination of very tight binding and very slow catalytic
turnover makes PTI a very effective inhibitor. It is inhibited due to the change in shape of the complex as well as
its tight binding.
Give examples of enzymes and proteins that are derived from zymogens and the
biological processes they mediate.
The gastric and pancreatic zymogens are mainly involved in
digestion. Once again they are synthesized and stored in
granules, and (once activated) are secreted into the small
intestine, where they are activated.
24
active form). When two dipeptides are removed, then α-chymotrypsin is yielded into an A, B, and C chain
interlinked by an interchain disulfide bond. The effect of creating a break at isoleucine 16 is to yield an N-
terminal at the B chain. The interaction at ASP 194 is ionic. The N-terminal of isoleucine 16 is turned inward,
allowing binding.
Define isozymes.
Isozymes are enzymes that differ that have the same function, similar sequence, but different kinetics. They are
expressed in different tissues to optimize for the particular metabolic needs. The distribution of different
isozymes ofa given enzyme reflects at least four factors: (1) the different metabolic patterns in different organs,
(2) different locations and metabolic roles for isozyme in the same cell, (3) different stage of development in
embryonic and fetal tissues and in adult tissues, and (4) different responses of isozymes to allosteric
modulators.
25
Lecture XVII
Describe the three classes of carbohydrates with respect to structure and function.
Carbohydrates are another class of biomolecules that are involved in nutritional, structural,Carbohydrate,Func7ons,
and informational
aspects of biological processes. They are the most abundant molecules on earth. They are typically held to the
empirical formula (CH2O)n where n is a value greater than three (n ≥ 3). The name Nutri7onal, Structural, Informa7onal,
itself refers to the 2:1 ratio of H and O (such as water), and consequently received the • Energy,storage,
–,glycogen,,
starch,
• Cell,walls,–,
bacteria,,plants,
• Molecular,
recogni7on,
• Exoskeleton,–, • CellHcell,
name carbohydrates. Carbohydrates function according to nutritional, structural, and • Fuels,–,glucose,
• Metabolic,
arthropods,
• Connec7ve,
communica7on,
informational demands. From there, there are three types of structural intermediates,, 7ssues,,
car7lage,,bone,
• Components,of,
carbohydrates: (1) simple sugars, (2) complex carbohydrates (polysaccharide), and nucleo7des,
Recognize and identify structural features of simple sugars: aldose, ketose, linear,
ring, chiral centers, epimers, reducing end, anomers. Simple,sugars,
Structural Description Illustration
Feature • AldehydeHcontaining,
monosaccharides,are,called,aldoses,,
Aldose Monosaccharide with an aldehyde. The carbonyl is 1, 1,
,
at the end of the carbon chain. • KetoneHcontaining,monosaccharides,
2, 2,
are,called,ketoses,,
,
Simple,sugars,
• The,carbonyl.atom.(C=O),is,either,
at:,
– the,end,of,the,carbon,chain,(aldose),
Ketose
• AldehydeHcontaining, – the,second,carbon,(ketose),,
Monosaccharide with a ketone.monosaccharides,are,called,aldoses,,
The carbonyl is at 1,
Cycliza7on,of,Monosaccharide
1,
,
the second carbon. 2, 2,
• KetoneHcontaining,monosaccharides,
are,called,ketoses,, Monosaccharides,of,five,,six,or,seven,carbons,are,generally,more,s
in,aqueous,solu7on,as,cyclic,structures,than,as,open,chains,,
,
• The,carbonyl.atom.(C=O),is,either,
at:,
– the,end,of,the,carbon,chain,(aldose), can,be,oxidized,by,Cu2+,(reduce,Cu2+),,
– the,second,carbon,(ketose),,
no,oxida7on,
Linear Description of the carbon backbone with not
cyclization.
26
Cycliza7on,of,Monosaccharides,
Monosaccharides,of,five,,six,or,seven,carbons,are,generally,more,stable,
in,aqueous,solu7on,as,cyclic,structures,than,as,open,chains,,
can,be,oxidized,by,Cu2+,(reduce,Cu2+),,
no,oxida7on,
Ring Cyclic form of the carbohydrate with the carbonyl
attacks the C-5 carbon. Sugars,have,chiral,centers,which,result,
in,different,enan7omers,,
• Glyceraldehyde,is,the,smallest,monosaccharide,,
Epimers,
Chiral Centers Optically active centers along the carbon backbone, enan7omers,
which can alter function by altering the functional • Two,sugars,that,differ,in,configura7on,around,
groups on the centers. a,single,carbon,
27
Three types of glycoconjugates: glycoprotein, proteoglycan, peptidoglycan. Describe
structures, branching, attachment to proteins or peptides (N-linked and O-linked).
Carbohydrates can be attached to other biomolecules, yielding compounds known as glycoconjugates. 50% of all
human proteins are glycoproteins, and approximately 1% of the human genome encodes enzymes required for
the synthesis and degradation of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates. The building blocks of glycan groups on
most glycoconjugates are a combination of at least eleven different monosaccharides. They can be attached to
other biomolecules as branched and unbranched structures. The general structure and function of the glycan
groups is not known, because there is no sugar code identified. This is unfortunately due to many factors. For
one, the monosaccharide addition to proteins and lipids by glycosyltransferase enzymes is not a template-
directed process. Glycan structures have been found to be similar, but not identical, between molecules of the
same protein, owing to stochastic events affected by the cellular environment. It plays strongly in cell signaling
and immunity, with one cell presenting information through a glycoconjugate to another, either by intrinsic
regulation (where the two similar cells recognize each other) or by extrinsic regulation (with the bacteria cells
presenting the glycoconjugate to immune cell in the body, inducingGlycoproteins,
the immune response to attack). It is finally
technically challenging to decipher complex glycan • structures because of limitations in glycan analytical
Sugar,link,to,protein:,OHlinked,or,NHlinked,
methods and instrument sensitivity. There are three typesSER.of glycoconjugates: ASN. (1) glycoprotein, (2)
THR.
proteoglycan, and (3) peptidoglycan. These types can be described in the following table:
major
component)
Linear sugar structure, but
branching is from the
hexosamine,polysaccharide,chains,are,,
covalently,linked,through,oligopep7des,, linkage through
(which,contain,both,D,and,L,amino,acids),,
oligopeptides.
28
, Describe glycosyltransferases and how genetic differences in this enzyme result in
Gene7c,differences,in,the,expression,and,
immunological incompatibility.
ac7vity,of,glycosyltransferases,account,for,
immunological,incompa7bility,between, Glycosylation involves making a sugar link to a protein, either O-linked or N-linked. The
individuals,,
protein glycosylation is a highly specific process and requires the activity of enzymes
,
• The,human,ABO,blood,groups,are,
determined,by,gene7c,variants,of,
called glycosyltransferases. Glycosyltransferases remove UDP (uracil diphosphate) from
the,enzyme,α1H3HNH
acetylgalactosaminyltransferase, the glycan group and connects to the protein residue. After the first sugar is connected to
• abaches,either,a,GalNAc,or,Gal,
sugar,residue,to,the,H,an7gen,
the protein, glycan groups can be added to create a branch or linear structure. Genetic
(glycan),present,on,glycoproteins,
and,glycolipids,on,red,blood,cells,,
differences in the expression and activity of glycosyltransferases can account for
• If,the,glycosyltransferase,enzyme,is, immunological incompatibility between individuals. Determination of the blood type has
absent,or,nonfunc7onal,,then,the,H,
an7gen,glycan,group,is,not,
modified:,O,type,blood,,,
to do with what glycosyltransferase enzymes are present. Immunological incompatibility
can lead to donor-receptor complications in transplants and blood transfusion due to
tissue rejection. The human ABO blood groups are determined by genetic variants of the enzyme α1-3-N-
acetylgalactosaminyltransferase. It attaches either a GaINAc or GAI sugar residue to the H antigen (glycan)
present on glycoproteins and glycolipids on red blood cells. If the glycosyltransferase enzyme is absent or
nonfunctional, then the H antigen glycan group is not modified, which presents Type O blood. Type A blood has
anti-B antibodies and Type B has anti-A antibodies. Glycosyltransferase Forma7on,of,the,bacteria,cell,wall,
enzyme A and B can also co-exist, yielding Type AB blood. Pentaglycine,chain,abacks,the,pep7de,
bond,between,two,DHalanine,residues,
antibiotics?
CrossHlink,formed,
Peptidoglycans are the main constituent of bacterial cell walls. The cell walls
consist of hexosamine polysaccharide, which are repeating disaccharide
MurNAC-(β-1,4)-GlcNAc units that can be cleaved by the enzyme lysozyme.
Hexosamine polysaccharide chains are covalently linked through
oligopeptides (which contain both D and L amino acids). Formation of the
bacteria cell wall involves a terminal glycine residue of the pentaglycine bridge and a terminal D-Ala-D-Ala unit.
The pentaglycine chain attacks the peptide bond between the two D-alanine residues, yielding a Gly-D-Ala
Crosslink and a D-Ala. Another reaction that can yield this is also a
transpeptidation reaction, in which there is a nucleophilic attack of the hydroxyl
group of serine on the substrate, making a covalent acyl-enzyme intermediate.
From this information, we can understand the mechanism of certain antibiotics,
such as penicillin. Penicillin is a β-lactam antibiotic that targets peptidoglycan
synthesis through targeting transpeptidase (acting as an inhibitor). Peptides are
linked by transpeptidase. We can note from the structure that penicillin has a
similar conformation to R-D-Ala-D-ala peptide. The normal catalytic mechanism
makes covalent intermediate with penicillin, but enzyme-penicillin derivative
cannot continue. This inhibitor is covalently attached on the enzyme. Thus, one
can infer that penicillin is both a transition-state analog and a suicide substrate.
Ultimately, one can say that penicillin (the first antibiotic discovered) interferes
with the synthesis of the bacterial wall.
29
same for bacteria and various forms of penicillin. The bacteria’s ultimate goal is survival, and it will utilize
strategies to allow itself and its progeny to survive.
bacterium,
bacterium,
lec7n,
Describe how glycan
lec7n,
mimetics can be used as
drugs.
Glycan mimetics can be utilized to a
pharmaceutical advantage to disrupt
glycan-binding interactions between
pathogenic bacteria and host cells.
The strategy is dependent knowledgeIf,the,mechanism,of,bacterial,binding,to,host,cells,is,
If,glycan,groups,on,the,bacterial,cell,surface,mediate, of the mechanism. If glycan groups on the bacterial cell surface mediate
abachment,to,a,host,cell,lec7n,protein,,then,a,lec7n,, mediated,by,a,bacterial,lec7n,protein,,than,a,glycan,,
attachement to a host cell lectin protein, then a lectin array is used to identify compounds that disrupt this
array,is,used,to,iden7fy,compounds,(Drug,B),that,disrupt,
array,is,used,to,iden7fy,compounds,(Drug,2),that,disrupt,
interaction,
this,interac7on., which is shown on the left illustration. On the other hand (as shown as the right illustration), if a
this,interac7on.,
bacterial lectin protein mediates the mechanism of bacterial binding to host cells, than a glycan array is used to
identify compounds that disrupt this interaction.
In summary, the glycan mimetics can disrupt glycan binding between bacteria and host cells by aiming at two
targets: either with the drug binding to the host molecule’s lectin where bacteria would bind or the drug binding
to bacteria’s lectin where it would bind to the host lectin.
30