SUMMARY FOOD MICROBIOLOGY

6.12 The Richmond Report on the Microbiological Safety of Food Foodborne illnes was still an occassional problem in the United States and Western European countries. This happened due to the fact that many factors exist as supports for this continuous outbreaks. These factors were increasing level of reporting and enhanced publicity, technology and its control, changes in lifestyle and habits, hygiene awareness, and international travel. It was analyzed that the major source of gastrointestinal infections which were from food came from poultry and its products. Salmonella and Campylobacter were the main contaminations of chicken carcasses, and Salmonella was also the source of contamination in egg shell. Nowadays, food industries depended only on microbiological assay. However, the Committee believed that it was also necessary to utilize the HACCP in all food industries. This is very important because the consumption level of poultry and its products had increased so greatly. Other than this, one of the major problem also came from the lack of knowledge and training that the workers had. After this incident, a wide usage of HACCP increased. Thus, the rate of foodborne illness caused by Salmonella decreased, even though those which were caused by Campylobacter stayed the same. In addition, the source of contamination altered from

poultry and its products to vegetables, sprouting seeds, and leafy herbs. The action taken was that it was warned that immunocompromised people should avoid consuming these products. QUESTION: 1. What were the factors that caused the increasing level of foodborned diseases? These factors were increasing level of reporting and enhanced publicity, technology and its control, changes in lifestyle and habits, hygiene awareness, and international travel. 2. Is there any way to improve the quality of microbioligical assay?

-To improve common microbiological assay which is used as safety regulation for food industries is to improve the knowledge and understanding of the workers that deal with this area. They should have at least basic knowledge and effective training which in the passage

above may also become a problem if they lack of it. Other than this, the important thing is to keep a hygiene area where the process of producing the food products take place. 6.13 Water-borne Diseases Our body comprised of 85% water. Thus, it is clear that water is so important for our body. But infact, drinking contaminated water can harm us, results in water borne disease caused by ingested pathogenic bacteria. Besides that, it is crucial to know that water is not just for consumption, but also used for washing clothes, bathing, and also washing and preparing food whereby mortality usually caused by faecal contamination of drinking water. Some examples of water borne diseases include cholera (caused by Vibrio cholerae)and typhoid fever (caused by Salmonella Typhi) which can be transmitted through both water and food, and bacillary dysentery (caused by Shigella dysenteriae which is known as animal reservoir of water borne disease). In addition, milder gastrointestinal infections can also be transferred through contaminated water. The disease is called travellers diarrhoea as this illness was suffered by the foreign visitors. The cause of the disease was found to be the nonpathogenic bacteria, strains of E. coli. Hence, a European who travel to South America can suffer from what has been called Montezumas revenge. Besides bacteria, the other microorganism that can cause water-borne disease is protozoa, which include Crytosporodium parvum, Giardia intestinalis and Entamoeba histolica, particularly when they are in the form of cyst (statethat can withstand extreme condition). In some developed countries, the source of the contamination of water is from the leakage of the water pipes. Furthermore, the repairment of the broken pipe can result in further contamination, especially where heavy precipitation is found. In addition, one of the biggest outbreaks associated with contaminated water that cause gastrointestinal illness was the contamination of Crytosporodium parvum. This outbreak was occured in the twin cities of Minneapolis in USA. One of the important things related to water-borne disease is to test the faecal contamination of water. The bacteria that are used for testing include faecal coliforms, E. coli, thermo-tolerant and other coliform bacteria, streptococci, coliphages, and spores of sulphate reducing bacteria. Among those bacteria, E. coli is more specific than the rest, while the coliphages and the spores are able to survive forn longer time. However, some research of faecal contamination in water treatment conducted in Scotland from 1995 to 1999 was failed which occured at small treatment works. Other than that, the a similar survey conducted at Ireland on 2004, only 84% of public water supplies were free od faecal contamination.

As Salmonella Typhi is generally transmitted through water, the way to overcome the contamination of this bacteria is by chlorination, which is an effective water treatment at a concentration of 0.6 ppm free chlorine, which can also kill animal viruses. Besides that, WHO states that the level of faecal coliforms in water is regulated in drinking water regulations. Furthermore, contaminated irrigation water can also be the cause of water-borne disease, associated with the internal contamination of leafy herbs and vegetables by E. coli. Besides that, water also responsible for the contamination of tins of corned beef cooled in River Plate, raddish dprouts in Japan and North American salmon drips that contaminate the cooling cans. To overcome the problem of contaminated water, most countries depended on chlorination of water. If this action was not taken, E. coli 015:H7 will casue major contaminations. The benefits of using chlorination at 0.6 ppm free chlorine in drinking water are the removal of vegetative bacterial cells and viruses, Other than chlorination, bottled water is another example to overcome the problem. However, the cost of using bottled water was so expensive. So many countries around the world used bottled water. However, in contrary, bottled water could be a support to microbial growth and viable microorganisms were still present. Carbonated water can contain as much as 104 organisms in ml-1, while water contained a hundred times more. In 1974, there happened an outbreak in Portugal where water supplies were contaminated by cholera through faeces. Thus, the effect was contamination in shellfish, other foods, and bottled water. In Philadelphia, the rate of water-borne disease increased from only 2,000 in every year from 1880-1890 until 10,000 in 1906. When filtration was introduced, there was a decrease to 2,000 by 1914. And finally, when chlorination was introduced, the rate decreased rapidly to 200 in 1926. There are still no answers to what could happen because of global warming. Nowadays, there are already shortages of water supply due to natural disasters. It is believed that later on, salt water wil contaminate fresh water due to the rising level of sea water. This will definitely cause in rapid decrease of water supply which wil get worse day by day and may cause water to be a scarce commodity.

Question 1: Besides bacteria, what microorganism could contamined water and cause water bourne disease? Mention the examples!

- The other microorganism that can cause water-borne disease is protozoa, which include Crytosporodium parvum, Giardia intestinalis and Entamoeba histolica, particularly when they are in the form of cyst (statethat can withstand extreme condition).

Question 2: How to overcome the contamination of water by Salmonella Typhi? - As Salmonella Typhi is generally transmitted through water, the way to overcome the contamination of this bacteria is by chlorination, which is an effective water treatment at a concentration of 0.6 ppm free chlorine, which can also kill animal viruses.

6.15 Microbiological Sampling Plans 6.15.1 Introduction Food manufacturer should make sure that the product has good microbiological safety and quality, however this needs destructive sampling of a proportion of the product. A sample should be selected for testing and the results from the extrapolated to the whole batch. To determine the success of sample extrapolation, the entire batch depends on statistical probability which is: 1. the distribution of a contaminant throughout the batch of food product 2. the similarity of samples taken from the batch that will be contaminated The higher the number of samples had taken from the entire batch, the greater the similarity that one of samples will be contaminated. There are three patterns of microorganisms or toxins distribution throughout a food product: 1. Regular distribution Every contaminant unit (cell or toxin molecule) in one batch of product is equidistant in space from others. Example: Each 1 mL sample taken from a hypothetical 1 L batch of product containing a population of 1000 cells would harbor exactly one cell. Statistical summary: Mean (x) :1 Variance (s2) : s2 < x 2. Random distribution The distribution of each contaminant unit throughout the batch of product has no exact pattern. Some of the units may be close to each other, but some are distant. Example:

Each 1 mL sample taken from 1 L batch might contain any number of units between 0 and 1000, although the greater similarity is for only moderate numbers in each sample. Statistical summary: Mean (x) :1 Variance (s2) : s2 = x (greater than regular distribution) 3. Contagious distribution The presence of contaminant units is in the form of discrete clumps with large (uncontaminated) distances between them. Example: If 1 mL sample is taken from 1 L batch, only little amount will give positive result of contamination. On the contrary, if only small number of samples is taken, then a large number of contaminant units will give positive result. Statistical summary: Mean (x)
2

:1

Variance (s ) : s2 > x (greater than random distribution) The purpose of microbiological sampling is to estimate precisely the presence and levels of organisms and toxins within a batch of product, therefore it is important to collect the most representative samples possible to allow reasonable estimation. ICMSF ( The International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods) has stated some microbiological requirements that is necessary to be fulfilled while designing a sampling plan: 1. A statement of the type of food to be assessed because different food will harbour difference microbial species. 2. A statement of the microorganisms or their toxins responsible for spoilage and health hazard in a given product. 3. Whether there are any suitable microbiological indicators for the microorganisms. 4. The size and number of samples to be collected from batch or particular points along the processing line 5. A detailed statement of the methods to be used to detect the organisms or toxins 6. The suitable microbiological limits for the food product 6.15.2 Two-class attributes sampling plans This plan has a simple limit to determine whether the product passes or fails. Generally, the qualitative assay should be conducted. Conversely, a two-class attributes plan may specify a microbial count limit must not be exceeded. 6.15.3 Three-class attributes sampling plans

The limit of this plan is divided into three groups: acceptable, unacceptable, and marginally acceptable. 6.15.4 Sampling Plan Stringency The stringency of the test is the influence of contaminated batch in samples is being rejected. The more sample tested, the more stringent it is. On the contrary, the more tolerant of these the tester is, the lower the likelihood of finding sufficient faulty samples to trigger rejection of the whole batch. 6.15.5 Sampling Plan Applications Two-class and three-class attributes sampling plans can be applied well in the past processing. However, nowadays, these sampling plans cannot be used since there are a wide variety of food product and each of product requires more stringent sampling plan to reduce the microbial activity. Hence, ICMSF has proposed a series of different sampling plans upon each product. 6.15.6 Operating characteristics curves When a particular number of samples is collected from a batch of product with varying levels of contamination, the probability of acceting the batch will be inversely proportional to the level of contamination, which can be represented by the sine curve. The increase in number of samples n tested will be more likely that given level of contamination will be detected and the batch rejected.

6.15.7 Variables acceptance sampling This is another potential sampling plan, which can be applied for a product of known history. The formula used to determine the number of samples that would harbor counts greater than the found counts V in a batch is:

The formula above can be used to determine the acceptability of a batch of food product if V is set as a safety limit, same as M in three-class attributes sampling plan, and K is set as the number of samples with counts in excess of V that will be tolerated. K1 is the minimum probability of rejecting a batch with unacceptably high counts. K2 represents the minimum probability of accepting a batch with counts lower than v. The overall formula to express the relationship between k1, k2, v and x is

1. What is the purpose of sampling plan? To estimate precisely the presence and levels of organisms and toxins within a batch of product. 2. What is difference between attributes sampling plans and variable acceptance plans? Attributes sampling plans are more appropriatefor use when the distribution of microorganisms within a batch of product is not clearly understood. In contrast, variables acceptance plans are more appropriate for use in situations where the distribution of organisms within a batch is understood. 6.16 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points can be said as much a production philosophy as it is a manufacturing process needed in a large number of countries around the world. Intentionally, HACCP system was aimed to design a quality management program for food which removes any potential health hazard from the beginning. The systematic analysis of product is required in devising HACCP program for a food product. The program of hazard itself is implemented and devised by a HACCP team that works according to the seven guiding principles laid down by Codex Alimentarius Commissions. The first step in HACCP is to organize an expert team that covers the major discipline in production process in which all members should be experienced and expert in mastering their own field in order to achieve the goal of HACCP itself. Furthermore, the HACCP will be assessed by HACCP team by following the seven codex principles in determining all of potential hazards of food. The analysis will also asses the severity and level of risks related to each hazard. Then, the identification of CCP with the process is conducted is using the CCP

decision tree. After that, the CCP criteria should be established to exert control over microbiological hazard and other assessments. The define criteria is required to ensure the control is exerted and the standard protocols must be introduced to all staff in the event of a failure at a CCP. It is a requirement for manufacturers to keep the records from all CCP monitoring to help to solve the problems in future. Then, the manufacturer has to verify routinely that the HACCP program operates effectively for the product and all monitoring equipments are functioning correctly within tolerance. The HACCP team will then alter the formulation of food product if there is any potential hazard associated with each product. Reassessing both product and process are required to ensure the safety standard are maintained. Therefore, it is important to differentiate between strains of same species using molecular methods since small changes in ingredients can have major influence on the risk and severity of possible hazard. 1. What are the seven principles of Codex? a) Hazard analysis. b) Identification of critical control points (CCPs). c) Establishment of CCP criteria. d) Monitoring procedures for CCPs. e) Protocols for CCP deviations. f) Record keeping. g) Verification. 2. What will the HACCP team do if they find a potential health hazard in certain product? By altering the formulation of product in anyway then reassess both the product and process to ensure the safety standards are maintained.