Introduction of computer Let us begin with the word compute. It means to calculate.

We all are familiar with calculations in our day to day life. We apply mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc. and many other formulae for calculations. Simpler calculations take less time. But complex calculations take much longer time. Another factor is accuracy in calculations. So man explored with the idea to develop a machine which can perform this type of arithmetic calculation faster and with full accuracy. This gave birth to a device or machine called computer. The computer we see today is quite different from the one made in the beginning. The number of applications of a computer has increased, the speed and accuracy of calculation has increased. You must appreciate the impact of computers in our day to day life. Reservation of tickets in Air Lines and Railways, payment of telephone and electricity bills, deposits and withdrawals of money from banks, business data processing, medical diagnosis, weather forecasting, etc. are some of the areas where computer has become extremely useful. However, there is one limitation of the computer. Human beings do calculations on their own. But computer is a dumb machine and it has to be given proper instructions to carry out its calculation. This is why we should know how a computer works Computer is an electronic device. As mentioned in the introduction it can do arithmetic calculations faster. But as you will see later it does much more than that. It can be compared to a magic box, which serves different purpose to different people. For a common man computer is simply a calculator, which works automatic and quite fast. For a person who knows much about it, computer is a machine capable of solving problems and manipulating data. It accepts data, processes the data by doing some mathematical and logical operations and gives us the desired output. Therefore, we may define computer as a device that transforms data. Data can be anything like marks obtained by you in various subjects. It can also be name, age, sex, weight, height, etc. of all the students in your class or income, savings, investments, etc., of a country. Computer can be defined in terms of its functions. It can i) accept data ii) store data, iii) process data as desired, and iv) retrieve the stored data as and when required and v) print the result in desired format. You will know more about these functions as you go through the later lessons. Characteristics of computer
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As we all know computer is an electronic device which stores, reads and processes the data or information or produce the meaningful results/output. Computer is a powerful machine that assists us in our daily life. what makes computer unique than humans is its specific characteristics, which can be enumerated as Speed, Storage , Accuracy , Ability to operate automatically , diligence , Scientific approach and versatility. Speed A computer is a very high speed data processing machine capable of operating at electronic speeds. Most instruction in a computer is carried out in less than a million of a second. Speed of a computer can be specified in terms of number of instructions executed per second. Storage One of man's failing is perhaps his inability to remember and "store" large volumes of information in his brain. The computer is capable of overriding this deficiency as it can store. Accuracy and Reliability In spite of high speed, the computers are quite accurate and reliable in their calculations. The accuracy of operation of a computer is always 100%. Computer is only a machine and does not make error on its own. it is thus reliable. Automatic Once the process has been initiated, computer is quite capable of functioning automatically. It does not require a prompt from an operator at each stage of the process. Diligence/Endurance Man suffers from physical and mental fatigue, lack of concentration and laziness which do not permit him to carry on his task at the same level of speed and accuracy through the entire day. The computer , on the other hand is capable of operating at exactly the same level of speed and accuracy even if it has to carry out the most voluminous and complex operations for a long period of time. Scientific Approach The entire approach to solving problems is highly scientific, objective and sequentially carried out, leaving no room for emotional and subjective evaluations made by man, which are sources of potential error and unjustified results. Versatility
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Computer is becoming popular, because of its versatility i.e, it can be applied and used a variety of application; it can be used for general purpose simple calculations; At the same time the computer can be developed and employed in a special purpose application. Decision making: Computer is capable of taking decision while choosing from many options. It can compare 2 states of operands; depending upon the results of comparison it can proceed to initiate actions.

Obedient: Instructions are carried out obediently without any question or enquiries made by the computer. Computer is not an intelligent machine but a programmable black box which has no common sense. Computer simply listen your instruction and carry out them obediently without any questions. The Limitation of Computer The computer can outperform human beings in speed, memory and accuracy but still the computer has limitations. There are following limitations of a computer. Programmed by human: Though computer is programmed to work efficiently, fast and accurately but it is programmed by human beings to do so. Without a program, computer is nothing. A program is a set of instructions. Computer only follows these instructions. If the instructions are not accurate the working of computer will not accurate. Thinking: The computer can not think itself. The concept of artificial intelligence shows that the computer can think. But still this concept is dependent on set of instructions provided by the human beings. Self Care: A Computer can not care itself like a human. A computer is dependent still to human beings for this purpose. Retrieval of memory: A computer can retrieve data very fast but this technique is linear. A human being's mind does not follow this rule. A human mind can think randomly which a computer machine can not.
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Feelings: One of the main limits in the computer is of feeling. A computer can not feel about some like a human. A computer can not meet human in respect of relations. Human can feel, think and caring but a computer machine itself can not. A computer can not take place of human because computer is always dependent of human.

The Impact of Computers in Society Computers are commonly used items in many areas. It is an important thing to people, especially the people who run organizations, industry, etc. Almost anything you know is run or made by computers. Cars and jets were designed on computers, traffic signals are run by computers, most medical equipment use computers and space exploration was started with computers. Most of the jobs today require the use of computers. These 'mechanical brains' made a huge impact on our society. It would be hard if we didn't have the computer around. Let's visualize for a minute. Let's visualize a world without computers. People in the medical field wouldn't have found a lot of cures to diseases, since most cures were found with the help of computers. Movies like Jurassic Park, Toy Story, A Bug's Life or Godzilla would never have been made without computers because they used computer graphics and animation in them. Pharmacies would have a hard time keeping track with what medications to give to patience. Counting votes would be impossible without computers and most importantly, space exploration wouldn't be possible without the help of computers. It's a pretty tough life without computers. Some may not agree and say, "Well, we don't need computers to live on." They maybe right but mostly, they are wrong. Computers help in curing diseases, make entertainment a lot better, keep track of important records, etc. Without computers, all this wouldn't be possible. The following are the some areas where computer are widely used. Everyone knows that this is the age of computer and vast majority of people are using computer. Development of science and technology has direct effect on our daily life as well as in our social life. Computer technology has made communication possible from one part of the world to the other in seconds. They can see the transactions in one part of the world while staying in the other part. Computer development is one of the greatest scientific achievements of the 20 Th centuries. Computers are used in various fields as well as in teaching and learning. Some of the major computer application fields are listed below. Business or Organization:

Computers impacted many items in today's society. One area the computer impacted on is the business area. Business uses computers for keeping track of accounts, money, or items that they need. You may notice business people using computers a lot, especially the laptop computers, portable computers that can be taken to your work area. You may see people use things like piecharts and graphs when they present information to other business people in meetings. Most of those charts were made by computers. The business field uses the computers a lot for their companies and organizations. Entertainment/ Games: Another area computers impacted on is the entertainment area. Most of the people out there like science fiction or action movies, especially the ones with the neat looking effects. Well, those graphics were mostly made by computers. Most of the movies today use computer graphics to make things more realistic but not real. Computer graphics are mostly used on spaceships, aliens, monsters, and special effects. To the left is a picture from the movie "Godzilla." Godzilla was created by computer animation, texturing, and graphics to make him more realistic then the older version when they used a man in a costume to play Godzilla. This wasn't the only movie made with computers. Movies like Jurassic Park, Wing Commander, Starship Troopers, Star Wars SE, and the latest Star Trek Movies used computers to make them look more interesting and realistic. There are even movies completely made by computers like Toy Story and A Bugs' Life. Not only movies used computer animations and graphics. Games on the latest game consoles like the PC, Play station and Nintendo 64 used the computers to make the coolest games ever. Of course all of you heard of the game Final Fantasy VII. It was the first Final Fantasy game to have a 3D environment and neat computer animation. It was a big money-making seller. Games now and days use computer graphics and animations to make the coolest games. Computer games also have their share. Wing Commander Prophecy, Shogo and all the other new 3D games were made by really cool computer graphics. It would be really boring without all this wouldn't you think? That's how computers impacted today's entertainment. Education: Education was impacted by computers as well. Computers help out students in a lot of today's projects and essays. If a student were to do an essay on the planet Saturn, they could look in an electronic encyclopedia in the computer or they could look up their topic on the internet. They could also type their essays and reports on what's called a word-processing program. This program allows you to type anything out from a school essay to business papers. You can make your paper look very neat by adding images and neat looking text to impress your teacher. Now and days, typing out essays and reports are mandatory, especially in High School. Computers help students in any way they need, researching, typing, searching, etc. Teachers use computers as well. They use computers to keep track of grades, type out instruction for their students, and to let students use the computer for school purposes.
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Medical or Hospital: An important field computers impacted on is the medical field. The computers helped the hospitals out very much. In pharmacies, the pharmacists use computers to keep a record of what medication to give to a patient and the amount they need. Most computers in the hospital are used to keep data of patience and their status. Computers also keep track of equipment placement and status as well. Scientists need the help of computers to find cures for diseases that need cures like cancer and STDs. Without the computers help, cures for a lot of diseases wouldnt have been found. Computer helped the medical area a lot and we are grateful for that since they keep track of our health. Other areas the computer impacted on are space exploration and designs of transportation. Office automation: Computers are omnipresent in the workplace. Word processorscomputer software packages that simplify the creation and modification of textual documentshave largely replaced the typewriter. Electronic mail has made it easy to transmit textual messages (possibly containing embedded picture and sound files) worldwide, using computers, cellular telephones, and specially equipped televisions via telephone, satellite, and cable television networks. Office automation has become the term for linking workstations, printers, database systems, and other tools by means of a local area network (LAN). An eventual goal of office automation has been termed the paperless office. Although such changes ultimately make office work much more efficient, they have not been without cost in purchasing and frequently upgrading the necessary hardware and software and in training workers to use the new technology. Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM): CIM is a relatively new technology arising from the application of many computer science sub disciplines to support the manufacturing enterprise. The technology of CIM emphasizes that all aspects of manufacturing should be not only computerized as much as possible but also linked into an integrated whole via a computer communication network. For example, the design engineers workstation should be linked into the overall system so that design specifications and manufacturing instructions may be sent automatically to the shop floor. The inventory databases should be linked in as well, so product inventories may be incremented automatically and supply inventories decremented as manufacturing proceeds. An automated inspection system (or a manual inspection station supplied with online terminal entry) should be linked to a quality-control system that maintains a database of quality
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information and alerts the manager if quality is deteriorating and possibly even provides a diagnosis as to the source of any problems that arise. Automatically tracking the flow of products from station to station on the factory floor allows an analysis program to identify bottlenecks and recommend replacement of faulty equipment. In short, CIM has the potential to enable manufacturers to build cheaper, higher quality products and thus improve their competitiveness. Implementing CIM is initially costly, of course, and progress in carrying out this technology has been slowed not only by its cost but also by the lack of standardized interfaces between the various CIM components and by the slow acceptance of standardized communication protocols to support integration. Although the ideal of CIM is perhaps just beyond reach at the present time, manufacturers are now able to improve their operations by, for example, linking robot controllers to mainframes for easy and correct downloading of revised robot instructions. Also available are elaborate software packages that simplify the building of databases for such applications as inventories, personnel statistics, and quality control and that incorporate tools for data analysis and decision support.

Communication: Making a telephone call no longer should conjure up visions of operators connecting cables by hand or even of electrical signals causing relays to click into place and effect connections during dialing. The telephone system now is just a multilevel computer network with software switches in the network nodes to route calls to their destinations. The main advantage is that calls get through much more quickly and reliably than they did in the past. If one node through which a cross-country call would normally be routed is very busy, an alternative routing can be substituted. A disadvantage is the potential for dramatic and widespread failures; for example (as has happened), a poorly designed routing and flow-control protocol can cause calls to cycle indefinitely among nodes without reaching their destinations until some drastic action is taken by a system administrator. Banking The banking business has been revolutionized by computer technology. Deposits and withdrawals are instantly logged into a customers account, which is perhaps stored on a remote computer. Computer-generated monthly statements are unlikely to contain any errors unless they arise during manual entry of check amounts. The technology of electronic funds transfer, supported by computer networking, allows the amount of a grocery bill to be immediately deducted from the customers bank account and transferred to
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that of the grocery store. Similarly, networking allows individuals to obtain cash instantly and almost worldwide by simply stepping up to an automated teller machine (ATM) and providing the proper card and personal identification number (popularly known as a PIN). The downside of this technology is the potential for security problems. Intruders can see packets traveling on a network (e.g., being transported via a satellite link) and can perhaps interpret them (if not carefully encrypted) to obtain confidential information on financial transactions. Network access to personal accounts has the potential to let intruders not only see how much money an individual has but also to transfer some of it elsewhere. Business Enterprises: Computer technology has had a significant impact on retail stores. All but the smallest shops have replaced the old-fashioned cash register with a terminal linked to a computer system. Some terminals require that the clerk type in the code for the item, but most checkout counters include a bar-code scanner, a device that directly reads into the computer the Universal Product Code (UPC) printed on each package. Cash-register receipts can then include brief descriptions of the items purchased (by fetching them from the computer database), and the purchase information is also relayed back to the computer to cause an immediate adjustment in the inventory data. The inventory system can easily alert the manager when the supply of some item drops below a specified threshold. In the case of retail chains linked by networks, the order for a new supply of an item may be automatically generated and sent electronically to the supply warehouse. In a less extensively automated arrangement, the manager can send in the order electronically by a dial-up link to the suppliers computer. These developments have made shopping much more convenient. The checkout process is faster, checkout lines are shorter, and the desired item is more likely to be in stock. In addition, cashregister receipts contain much more information than a simple list of item prices; many receipts now include discount coupons based on the specific items purchased by the shopper. If there is a downside, it is the need for shoppers to adjust psychologically to not seeing prices on the packages and to the feeling that perhaps the computer is overcharging (as indeed can happen when advertised sale prices are somehow not entered into the system). Since the mid-1990s one of the most rapidly growing retail sectors, known as electronic commerce, or e-commerce, involves the use of the Internet and proprietary networks to facilitate business-to-business, consumer, and auction sales of everything imaginablefrom computers and electronics to books, recordings, automobiles, and real estate.
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Automotive industry Computer technology has been incorporated into automobiles. Computers are involved (as CAD systems) not only in the design of cars but also in the manufacturing and testing process, perhaps making use of CIM technology. Todays automobiles include numerous computer chips that analyze sensor data and alert the driver to actual and potential malfunctions. For example, the antilock braking system (ABS) is computer controlled. Other computers provide warnings of actual and potential malfunctions. Automobile manufacturers are developing safer, smart airbags and remote tire-pressure monitors. Although increased reliability has been achieved by implementing such computerization, a drawback is that only automotive repair shops with a large investment in high-tech interfaces and diagnostic tools for these computerized systems can handle any but the simplest repairs. Computers have both positive and negative impact in our daily life as well as in our social life. But the gross development of the nation is faster with the application of computers in industries and education. The both positive and negative impacts of computers are listed below.

Positive Impact of Computer The work can be done in very less time. More information can be stored in small space. Multitasking and multiprocessing capabilities of data. Easy to access data. Impartiality. Documents can be kept secret. Error free result. It can be used for various purposes. i.e. It can be used in any type of work. Negative Impact of Computer Highly expensive. Accidents. Data piracy. Increased Unemployment. Huge data and information can be lost sometimes. Fast changing computer technology. Service distribution. Illiteracy of computing and computers. As mentioned on the above list, computers have both positive and negative impact in our society. But the use of computer is increasing day-by-day.

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HISTORY OF COMPUTER History of computer could be traced back to the effort of man to count large numbers. This process of counting of large numbers generated various systems of numeration like Babylonian system of numeration, Greek system of numeration, Roman system of numeration and Indian system of numeration. Out of these the Indian system of numeration has been accepted universally. It is the basis of modern decimal system of numeration (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). Later you will know how the computer solves all calculations based on decimal system. But you will be surprised to know that the computer does not understand the decimal system and uses binary system of numeration for processing. We will briefly discuss some of the path-breaking inventions in the field of computing devices. Calculating Machines It took over generations for early man to build mechanical devices for counting large numbers. The first calculating device called ABACUS was developed by the Egyptian and Chinese people. The word ABACUS means calculating board. It consisted of sticks in horizontal positions on which were inserted sets of pebbles. It has a number of horizontal bars each having ten beads. Horizontal bars represent units, tens, hundreds, etc. Napiers bones English mathematician John Napier built a mechanical device for the purpose of multiplication in 1617 A D. The device was known as Napiers bones. Slide Rule English mathematician Edmund Gunter developed the slide rule. This machine could perform operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It was widely used in Europe in 16th century. Pascal's Adding and Subtract Machine You might have heard the name of Blaise Pascal. He developed a machine at the age of 19 that could add and subtract. The machine consisted of wheels, gears and cylinders. Leibnizs Multiplication and Dividing Machine

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The German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz built around 1673 a mechanical device that could both multiply and divide. Babbages Analytical Engine It was in the year 1823 that a famous English man Charles Babbage built a mechanical machine to do complex mathematical calculations. It was called difference engine. Later he developed a general-purpose calculating machine called analytical engine. You should know that Charles Babbage is called the father of computer. Mechanical and Electrical Calculator In the beginning of 19th century the mechanical calculator was developed to perform all sorts of mathematical calculations. Up to the 1960s it was widely used. Later the rotating part of mechanical calculator was replaced by electric motor. So it was called the electrical calculator. Modern Electronic Calculator The electronic calculator used in 1960 s was run with electron tubes, which was quite bulky. Later it was replaced with transistors and as a result the size of calculators became too small. The modern electronic calculator can compute all kinds of mathematical computations and mathematical functions. It can also be used to store some data permanently. Some calculators have in-built programs to perform some complicated calculations. Fig. 1.3: Vacuum tube, transistor, IC

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Generation of computer
You know that the evolution of computer started from 16th century and resulted in the form that we see today. The present day computer, however, has also undergone rapid change during the last fifty years. This period, during which the evolution of computer took place, can be divided into five distinct phases known as Generations of Computers. Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper and more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices. Read about each generation and the developments that led to the current devices that we use today. First Generation (1941-1956) The first generation computers were developed during the period 1946 to 1956. World War gave rise to numerous developments and started off the computer age. In first generation computers, the operating instructions or programs were specifically built for the task for which computer was manufactured. The Machine language was the only way to tell these machines to perform the operations. There was great difficulty to program these computers and more when there were some malfunctions. First Generation computers used Vacuum tubes and magnetic drum (for data storage). Followings are the major drawbacks of First generation computers. 1. 2. 3. 4. The operating speed was quite slow. Power consumption was very high. It required large space for installation. The programming capability was quite low.

The characteristics of the first generation computers are: They used vacuum tubes as their basic components. They were very large and required a lot of space for installation. They emitted large amount of heat because they used lots of vacuum tubes. Therefore, power condition was essential. They were prone to frequent failure and they were unreliable. Since machine language was used, these computers were difficult to program and use.

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Second Generation Computers (1956-1963) The invention of Transistors marked the start of the second generation. These transistors took place of the vacuum tubes used in the first generation computers. First large scale machines were made using these technologies to meet the requirements of atomic energy laboratories. One of the other benefits to the programming group was that the second generation replaced Machine language with the assembly language. Even though complex in itself Assembly language was much easier than the binary code. Second generation computers also started showing the characteristics of modern day computers with utilities such as printers, disk storage and operating systems. Much financial information was processed using these computers. In Second Generation computers, the instructions (program) could be stored inside the computer's memory. High-level languages such as COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language) and FORTRAN (Formula Translator) were used, and they are still used for some applications now days. The characteristics of the second generation computers are:

Transistors were used in place of vacuum tubes. They were smaller as compared to the first generation computers. The generated less heat and less level to failure. Assembly language was used to program these computers. They required air conditioning.

Third Generation Computers (1964-1971) Although transistors were great deal of improvement over the vacuum tubes, they generated heat and damaged the sensitive areas of the computer. The Integrated Circuit(IC) was invented in 1958 by Jack Kilby. It combined electronic components onto a small silicon disc, made from quartz. More advancement made possible the fittings of even more components on a small chip or a semi conductor. Also in third generation computers, the operating systems allowed the machines to run many different applications. These applications were monitored and coordinated by the computer's memory.

The characteristics of the third generation computers are: These computers used integrated circuits instead of transistors.
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They were smaller in size and cheaper as compared to the second generation computers. They were able to reduce computational time and had low maintenance cost. High level languages were developed. Input/output devices become more sophisticated.

Fourth Generation (1971-1990) Fourth Generation computers are the modern day computers. The Size started to go down with the improvement in the integrated circuits. Very Large Scale (VLSI) and Ultra Large scale (ULSI) ensured that millions of components could be fit into a small chip. It reduced the size and price of the computers at the same time increasing power, efficiency and reliability. "The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, took the integrated circuit one step further by locating all the components of a computer (central processing unit, memory, and input and output controls) on a minuscule chip." Due to the reduction of cost and the availability of the computers power at a small place allowed everyday user to benefit. First came the minicomputers, which offered users different applications, most famous of these the word processors and spreadsheets, which could be used by non-technical users. In 1981, IBM introduced personal computers for home and office use. Computer size kept getting reduced during the years. It went down from Desktop to laptops to Palmtops. Macintosh introduced Graphic User Interface in which the users didnt' have to type instructions but could use Mouse for the purpose. The continued improvement allowed the networking of computers for the sharing of data. Local Area Networks (LAN) and Wide Area Network (WAN) were potential benefits, in that they could be implemented in corporations and everybody could share data over it. Soon the internet and World Wide Web appeared on the computer scene and fermented the Hi-Tech revolution of 90's. The characteristics of the fourth generation computers are: These computers have microprocessor-based system. They are cheapest among all the computer generation. A further refinement of input/ output devices took place. They have large memory and high functional speed.
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Many more high level languages have been introduced such as PASCAL and C language.

Fifth Generation (1991 onwards) The computers of 1990s are said to be Fifth Generation computers. The speed is extremely high in fifth generation computer. Apart from this it can perform parallel processing. The concept of Artificial intelligence has been introduced to allow the computer to take its own decision. It is still in a developmental stage. Fifth generations computers are only in the minds of advance research scientists and being tested out in the laboratories. These computers will be under Artificial Intelligence (AI), they will be able to take commands in an audio visual way and carry out instructions. Many of the operations which require low human intelligence will be performed by these computers. Parallel Processing is coming and showing the possibility that the power of many CPU's can be used side by side, and computers will be more powerful than those under central processing. Advances in Super Conductor technology will greatly improve the speed of information traffic. Future looks bright for the computers. The characteristics of the fifth generation computers are: These computers will use super large-scale integrated chips. They will have artificial intelligence. They will be able to recognize images and graphs. They will have the ability to solve the problems using database information already stored in the computers memory. They will able to use more than one CPU for faster processing speed.

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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Now let us discuss the varieties of computers that we see today. Although they belong to the fifth generation they can be divided into different categories depending upon the size, efficiency, memory and number of users. Broadly they can be divided it to the following categories.
1. On the basis of work principle

2. On the basis of size 3. On the basis of Brand 4. On the basis of Processing speed (Module )

Classification of computers

On the basis of work Analog Computer Digital Computer Hybrid computer

On the basis of size Super Computer Main frame Computer Mini Computer Micro Computer

On the basis of Module Extended Technology Advance Technology Personal System 2

On the basis of Brand IBM IBM Compatible Apple Macintosh

On the basis of work principle: Computers may be made for different purpose since they have been made for different purpose the computer have different functions. The computer are categorizing in following ways: 1. Analog computer 2. Digital computer 3. Hybrid computer
1. Analog Computer:

Analog computers are the computers that measure physical quantities such as pressure and temperature and convert them to numeric values. They are special purpose machines, which perform a particular task and mainly used for scientific and engineering purpose. The main characteristics of these computers are that they are very fast in operation as all the calculations are done in parallel mode. They give approximate results since they deal with quantities that vary continuously. The example of analog devices is thermometer, speedometer of car etc. The analog computers are divided into two types: General purpose computer Specific purpose computer General purpose computer:
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General-purpose implies programmability and adaptability to different applications or the ability to solve many kinds of problems. Most electronic analog computers were general-purpose systems, either real-time analog computers in which the results were obtained without any significant timescale changes, or high-speed repetitive operation computers. Specific purpose computer: Another type of analog computer is the Specific purpose computer, in which the relatively slow speeds of sequential digital increment calculations have been radically boosted through parallel processing. In this type of analog computer it is possible to retain the programming convenience and data storage of the digital computer while approximating the speed, interaction potential and parallel computations of the traditional electronic analogs. The Specific purpose computer typically utilizes several specially designed high-speed processors for the numerical integration functions, the data (or variable) memory distributions, the arithmetic functions, and the decision (logic and control) functions. All variables remain as fixed or floating-point digital data, accessible at all times for computational and operational needs. 2. Digital Computer: A digital computer is an electronic computing machine that uses the binary digits (bits) 0 and 1 to represent all forms of information internally in digital form. Every computer has a set of instructions that define the basic functions it can perform. Sequences of these instructions constitute machine-language programs that can be stored in the computer and used to tailor it to an essentially unlimited number of specialized applications. Calculators are small computers specialized for mathematical computations. General-purpose computers range from pocket-sized personal digital assistants (notepad computers), to medium-sized desktop computers (personal computers and workstations), to large, powerful computers that are shared by many users via a computer network. The vast majority of digital computers now in use are inexpensive, special-purpose microcontrollers that are embedded, often invisibly, in such devices as toys, consumer electronic equipment, and automobiles.
3. Hybrid computers

Hybrid computer is a digital computer that accepts analog signals, converts them to digital and processes them in digital form. This integration is obtained by digital to analog and analog to digital converter. A hybrid computer may use or produce analog data or digital data. It accepts a continuously varying input, which is then converted into a set of discrete values for digital processing. A hybrid computer system setup offers a cost-effective method of performing complex simulations. A hybrid computer capable of real-time solution has been less expensive than any equivalent digital computer. Hybrid
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computers have been necessary for successful system development. An example of a hybrid computer is the computer used in hospitals to measure the heartbeat of the patient. Hybrid Machines are generally used in scientific applications or in controlling industrial processes. On the basis of Size: On the basis of the computer size the computer is categorized into following: 1. 2. 3. 4. Microcomputer Mini computer Mainframe computer Super Computer

1. Microcomputer: Microcomputer is at the lowest end of the computer range in terms of speed and storage capacity. Its CPU is a microprocessor. It is cheap, compact and can easily accommodate on a study table. Micro Computers are used as home computers for small business as well. The first microcomputers were built of 8-bit microprocessor chips. The most common application of personal computers (PC) is in this category. The PC supports a number of input and output devices. An improvement of 8-bit chip is 16-bit and 32-bit chips. Examples of microcomputer are IBM PC, PC-AT, and Apple Macintosh. Microcomputers include desktop, laptop and hand-held models. Desktop: A desktop computer is the most common micro computer. It is designed to be used by one person at a time. It typically consists of a system unit, a monitor, a keyboard, internal hard disk storage and other peripheral devices. Laptop: A laptop provides mobile computing technology. It is batter-operated and hence can be used anytime and any where. It is small enough to fit on the lap of the user. It is equipped with powerful microprocessors, graphic capabilities, adequate memory and a touch pad. Han-held Computer: A hand-held computer is a computer that can conveniently fit on the palm. So, it is also known as a palmtop computer. A stylus, which may contain special electronic circuitry, is used to write on the computer display. It has small cards to store programs and data. It can be connected to printer or a disk drive to generated output or store data. It has a limited memory and is less powerful as compare to desktop computer. 2. Mini Computer:
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It is also called small mainframe computer. This is designed to support more than one user at a time. It possesses large storage capacity and operates at a higher speed. The mini computer is used in multi-user system in which various users can work at the same time. This type of computer is generally used for processing large volume of data in an organization. They are also used as servers in Local Area Networks (LAN).They are capable of supporting simultaneous users. High performance workstations with graphics I/O capability use mini computers. Example of mini computers is IBM 9375 and Motorola 68040.
3. Mainframe Computers:

These types of computers are generally 32-bit microprocessors. They operate at very high speed, have very large storage capacity and can handle the work load of many users. They are generally used in centralized databases. They are also used as controlling nodes in Wide Area Networks (WAN). It consists of a high-end computer processor, with related peripheral devices, capable of supporting large volumes of data processing, high performance on-line transaction processing system and extensive data storage and retrieval. It also allows its user to maintain large information storage at a centralized location and can be able to access and process this data from different computers located at different locations. They are typical used in large business and for scientific purposes. Example of mainframes are DEC, ICL and IBM 3000 series.
4. Supercomputer:

They are the fastest and most expensive machines. They have high processing speed compared to other computers. They have also multiprocessing technique. One of the ways in which supercomputers are built is by interconnecting hundreds of microprocessors. They have a large memory capacity and very high processing speeds for solving scientific and engineering problems. A super computer contains number of CPUs which operate in parallel to make it faster. They are used for massive problems. Supercomputers are mainly being used for whether forecasting, biomedical research, remote sensing, aircraft design and other areas of science and technology. Examples of supercomputers are CRAY YMP, CRAY2, NEC SX-3, CRAY XMP and PARAM from India. On the basis of Brand: There are many personal computer manufactures. They give their own names and model. But actually the computer are classify of the computer brand of the computer is categorized into following: 1. IBM PC ( PC- Personal Computer) 2. IBM Compatible 3. Apple/ Macintosh 1. IBM PC:
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The computers manufactured by IBM (International Business Machine) company are called IBM Computers. The microcomputers of IBM Company are called IBM PC. IBM is one of the leading companies in computer manufacturing. These are reliable, strong and high processing speed. IBM has been well known through most of its recent history as the world's largest computer company and systems integrator. These are quite expensive than others and of original types. IBM manufactures and sells computer hardware and software (with a focus on the latter), and offers infrastructure services, hosting services, and consulting services in areas ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology. It has been nicknamed "Big Blue" for its official corporate color. 2. IBM Compatible: Computer developed on the principles of IBM Computers are called IBM Compatible. It can perform all the tasks than an IBM computer does. Such computers used to be referred to as PC clones, or IBM clones since they almost exactly duplicated all the significant features of the PC architecture, facilitated by various manufacturers' ability to legally reverse engineer the BIOS through clean room design. Columbia Data Products built the first clone of an IBM personal computer through a clean room implementation of its BIOS. Many early IBM PC compatibles used the same computer bus as the original PC and AT models. They are less expensive than original (IBM) computers. IBM computers are nearly 80% in the world and 95% in Nepal. 3. Apple/ Macintosh: The computers manufactured by the Apple Company are called Apple Computers. They are specially used in Desktop Designing. These are originals and quite expensive than IBM and IBM Compatible. The Operating System and other peripherals are completely different than IBM and IBM Compatibles. As a chip maker, IBM has been among the Worldwide Top 20 Semiconductor Sales Leaders in past years. Apple is a prominent hardware and software company best known for its series of personal computers, the iPod and its innovative marketing strategies for its products. Introduced in 1984, the Macintosh was the first widely sold personal computer with a graphical user interface (GUI). That feature and others -- such as an improved floppy drive design and a low-cost hard drive that made data retrieval faster and more reliable -- helped Apple cultivate a reputation for innovation, which the company still enjoys today.

Extended Technology) the first IBM PC with a hard disk, introduced in 1983. It used the same 8088 CPU as the original PC but included a whopping 128KB of RAM and a 10MB hard drive.
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On the basis of Module: The advancement in the technology has enabled us to classify computers on the basis of model. Let us see how IBM compatible computers are classified on the basis model: 1. Extended Technology (XT) 2. Advanced Technology (AT) 3. Personal System-2 (PS/2)
1. Extended Technology (XT):

These are the early personal computers. The main processors of these computers are 8080 or 8086 or 8088 which constituted the CPU of the computer. The speed of the early XT computers was 4.77 MHz. These computers have become outmoded.
2. Advanced Technology (AT):

AT computers arrived with newer microprocessors such as 80286 SX. But newer computers have 80286 SX or 80386 SX or 80486 SX or 80486DX Pentium. These computers are very fast and can even process faster than early minis. In connection with 80286 and 80386 processor a co-processor is used to supplement the processing of complex mathematical operations. This co-processor is 80287 and 80387 respectively. In case of 80486 computers the co-processors are built inside the main processor. Therefore the most advance computer with latest microprocessor is being replaced by new processor. 3. Personal System /2 (PS/2): In early 1990, IBM developed another model of computers called PS/2. PS/2 model computes are much faster than IBM compatible computers. It has different architectural design and most of the laptop computers of IBM Corporation after 1990, are based on PS/2 architecture. This is the latest model development is Pentium. As its original stage of development there was Pentium MMX which evolved into PI, PII and gradually into PIV computers. The PIV processors are the fastest processor at present stage where as early Pentium processors were at the speed of 200 MHz

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COMPUTER ORGANISATION
INTRODUCTION In the previous lesson we discussed about the evolution of computer. In this lesson we will provide you with an overview of the basic design of a computer. You will know how different parts of a computer are organized and how various operations are performed between different parts to do a specific task. As you know from the previous lesson the internal architecture of computer may differ from system to system, but the basic organization remains the same for all computer systems. BASIC COMPUTER OPERATIONS A computer as shown in Fig performs basically five major operations or functions irrespective of their size and make. These are 1) it accepts data or instructions by way of input, 2) it stores data, 3) it can process data as required by the user, 4) it gives results in the form of output, and 5) it controls all operations inside a computer. We discuss below each of these operations. Input: This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system. You should know that computer is an electronic machine like any other machine which takes as inputs raw data and performs some processing giving out processed data. Therefore, the input unit takes data from us to the computer in an organized manner for processing.

Fig Basic computer Operations

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Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage. Data has to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is because the processing speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast that the data has to be provided to CPU with the same speed. Therefore the data is first stored in the storage unit for faster access and processing. This storage unit or the primary storage of the computer system is designed to do the above functionality. It provides space for storing data and instructions. The storage unit performs the following major functions: All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing. Intermediate results of processing are also stored here. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information. Similarly the output produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside the computer before being given to you in human readable form. Again the output is also stored inside the computer for further processing. Control Unit: The manner how instructions are executed and the above operations are performed. Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations in side the computer. FUNCTIONAL UNITS In order to carry out the operations mentioned in the previous section the computer allocates the task between its various functional units. The computer system is divided into three separate units for its operation. They are 1) arithmetic logical unit, 2) control unit, and 3) central processing unit. Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU) After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the primary storage unit. The actual processing of the data and instruction are performed
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by Arithmetic Logical Unit. The major operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and comparison. Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required. After processing the output is returned back to storage unit for further processing or getting stored. Control Unit (CU) The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor seeing that things are done in proper fashion. The control unit determines the sequence in which computer programs and instructions are executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the main memory, interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the computer to execute them. It also acts as a switch board operator when several users access the computer simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates the activities of computers peripheral equipment as they perform the input and output. Therefore it is the manager of all operations mentioned in the previous section. Central Processing Unit (CPU) The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central processing unit. You may call CPU as the brain of any computer system. It is just like brain that takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs different parts of the computer functions by activating and controlling the operations. MEMORY SYSTEM IN A COMPUTER There are two kinds of computer memory: primary and secondary. Primary memory is accessible directly by the processing unit. RAM is an example of primary memory. As soon as the computer is switched off the contents of the primary memory is lost. You can store and retrieve data much faster with primary memory compared to secondary memory. Secondary memory such as floppy disks, magnetic disk, etc., is located outside the computer. Primary memory is more expensive than secondary memory. Because of this the size of primary memory is less than that of secondary memory. We will discuss about secondary memory later on. Computer memory is used to store two things: i) instructions to execute a program and ii) data. When the computer is doing any job, the data that have to be processed are stored in the primary memory. This data may come from an input device like keyboard or from a secondary storage device like a floppy disk. As program or the set of instructions is kept in primary memory, the computer is able to follow instantly the set of instructions. For example, when you book
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ticket from railway reservation counter, the computer has to follow the same steps: take the request, check the availability of seats, calculate fare and wait for money to be paid, store the reservation and get the ticket printed out. The programme containing these steps is kept in memory of the computer and is followed for each request. But inside the computer, the steps followed are quite different from what we see on the monitor or screen. In computers memory both programs and data are stored in the binary form. You have already been introduced with decimal number system that is the numbers 1 to 9 and 0. The binary system has only two values 0 and 1. These are called bits. As human beings we all understand decimal system but the computer can only understand binary system. It is because a large number of integrated circuits inside the computer can be considered as switches, which can be made ON, or OFF. If a switch is ON it is considered 1 and if it is OFF it is 0. A number of switches in different states will give you a message like this: 110101....10. So the computer takes input in the form of 0 and 1 and gives output in the form 0 and 1 only. Is it not absurd if the computer gives outputs as 0s & 1s only? But you do not have to worry about. Every number in binary system can be converted to decimal system and vice versa; for example, 1010 meaning decimal 10. Therefore it is the computer that takes information or data in decimal form from you, convert it in to binary form, process it producing output in binary form and again convert the output to decimal form. The primary memory as you know in the computer is in the form of ICs (Integrated Circuits). These circuits are called Random Access Memory (RAM). Each of RAMs locations stores one byte of information. (One byte is equal to 8 bits). A bit is an acronym for binary digit, which stands for one binary piece of information. This can be either 0 or 1. You will know more about RAM later. The Primary or internal storage section is made up of several small storage locations (ICs) called cells. Each of these cells can store a fixed number of bits called word length. Each cell has a unique number assigned to it called the address of the cell and it is used to identify the cells. The address starts at 0 and goes up to (N-1). You should know that the memory is like a large cabinet containing as many drawers as there are addresses on memory. Each drawer contains a word and the address is written on outside of the drawer.
Capacity of Primary Memory You know that each cell of memory contains one character or 1 byte of data. So the capacity is defined in terms of byte or words. Thus 64 kilobyte (KB) memory is capable of storing 64 1024 = 32,768 bytes. (1 kilobyte is 1024 bytes). A memory size ranges from few kilobytes in small systems to several thousand kilobytes in large mainframe and super computer. In your personal computer you will find memory capacity in the range of 64 KB, 4 MB, 8 MB and even 16 MB (MB = Million bytes). 26

The following terms related to memory of a computer are discussed below: Random Access Memory (RAM): The primary storage is referred to as random access memory (RAM) because it is possible to randomly select and use any location of the memory directly store and retrieve data. It takes same time to any address of the memory as the first address. It is also called read/write memory. The storage of data and instructions inside the primary storage is temporary. It disappears from RAM as soon as the power to the computer is switched off. The memories, which loose their content on failure of power supply, are known as volatile memories .So now we can say that RAM is volatile memory. Read Only Memory (ROM): There is another memory in computer, which is called Read Only Memory (ROM). Again it is the ICs inside the PC that form the ROM. The storage of program and data in the ROM is permanent. The ROM stores some standard processing programs supplied by the manufacturers to operate the personal computer. The ROM can only be read by the CPU but it cannot be changed. The basic input/output program is stored in the ROM that examines and initializes various equipment attached to the PC when the switch to made ON. The memories, which do not loose their content on failure of power supply, are known as non-volatile memories. ROM is non-volatile memory. There are various types of ROM PROM: There is another type of primary memory in computer, which is called Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM). You know that it is not possible to modify or erase programs stored in ROM, but it is possible for you to store your program in PROM chip. Once the program are written it cannot be changed and remain intact even if power is switched off. Therefore programs or instructions written in PROM or ROM cannot be erased or changed. EPROM: This stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, which over come the problem of PROM & ROM. EPROM chip can be programmed time and again by erasing the information stored earlier in it. Information stored in EPROM exposing the chip for some time ultraviolet light and it erases chip is reprogrammed using a special programming facility. When the EPROM is in use information can only be read. Cache Memory: The speed of CPU is extremely high compared to the access time of main memory. Therefore the performance of CPU decreases due to the slow speed of main memory. To decrease the mismatch in operating speed, a small memory chip is attached between CPU and Main memory whose access time is very close to the processing speed of CPU. It is called CACHE memory. CACHE memories are accessed much faster than conventional RAM. It is used to store programs or data currently being executed or temporary data frequently used by the CPU. So each memory makes main memory 27

to be faster and larger than it really is. It is also very expensive to have bigger size of cache memory and its size is normally kept small. Registers: The CPU processes data and instructions with high speed; there is also movement of data between various units of computer. It is necessary to transfer the processed data with high speed. So the computer uses a number of special memory units called registers. They are not part of the main memory but they store data or information temporarily and pass it on as directed by the control unit.

SECONDARY STORAGE You are now clear that the operating speed of primary memory or main memory should be as fast as possible to cope up with the CPU speed. These high-speed storage devices are very expensive and hence the cost per bit of storage is also very high. Again the storage capacity of the main memory is also very limited. Often it is necessary to store hundreds of millions of bytes of data for the CPU to process. Therefore additional memory is required in all the computer systems. This memory is called auxiliary memory or secondary storage. In this type of memory the cost per bit of storage is low. However, the operating speed is slower than that of the primary storage. Huge volume of data are stored here on permanent basis and transferred to the primary storage as and when required. Most widely used secondary storage devices are magnetic tapes and magnetic disk. Magnetic Tape: Magnetic tapes are used for large computers like mainframe computers where large volume of data is stored for a longer time. In PC also you can use tapes in the form of cassettes. The cost of storing data in tapes is inexpensive. Tapes consist of magnetic materials that store data permanently. It can be 12.5 mm to 25 mm wide plastic film-type and 500 meter to 1200 meter long which is coated with magnetic material. The deck is connected to the central processor and information is fed into or read from the tape through the processor. It is similarity to cassette tape recorder.

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Fig Magnetic Tape Advantages of Magnetic Tape: Compact: A 10-inch diameter reel of tape is 2400 feet long and is able to hold 800, 1600 or 6250 characters in each inch of its length. The maximum capacity of such tape is 180 million characters. Thus data are stored much more compactly on tape. Economical: The cost of storing characters is very less as compared to other storage devices. Fast: Copying of data is easier and fast. Long term Storage and Re-usability: Magnetic tapes can be used for long term storage and a tape can be used repeatedly with out loss of data. Magnetic Disk: You might have seen the gramophone record, which is circular like a disk and coated with magnetic material. Magnetic disks used in computer are made on the same principle. It rotates with very high speed inside the computer drive. Data is stored on both the surface of the disk. Magnetic disks are most popular for direct access storage device. Each disk consists of a number of invisible concentric circles called tracks. Information is recorded on tracks of a disk surface in the form of tiny magnetic spots. The presence of a magnetic spot represents one bit and its absence represents zero bit. The information stored in a disk can be read many times without affecting the stored data. So the reading operation is non-destructive. But if you want to write a new data, then the existing data is erased from the disk and new data is recorded.

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Floppy Disk: It is similar to magnetic disk discussed above. They are 5.25 inch or 3.5 inch in diameter. They come in single or double density and recorded on one or both surface of the diskette. The capacity of a 5.25-inch floppy is 1.2 mega bytes whereas for 3.5 inch floppy it is 1.44 mega bytes. It is cheaper than any other storage devices and is portable. The floppy is a low cost device particularly suitable for personal computer system. Optical Disk: With every new application and software there is greater demand for memory capacity. It is the necessity to store large volume of data that has led to the development of optical disk storage medium. Optical disks can be divided into the following categories: Compact Disk/ Read Only Memory (CD-ROM): CD-ROM disks are made of reflective metals. CD-ROM is written during the process of manufacturing by high power laser beam. Here the storage density is very high, storage cost is very low and access time is relatively fast. Each disk is approximately 4 1/2 inches in diameter and can hold over 600 MB of data. As the CD-ROM can be read only we cannot write or make changes into the data contained in it. Write Once, Read Many (WORM): The inconvenience that we can not write any thing in to a CD-ROM is avoided in WORM. A WORM allows the user to write data permanently on to the disk. Once the data is written it can never be erased without physically damaging the disk. Here data can be recorded from keyboard, video scanner, OCR equipment and other devices. The advantage of WORM is that it can store vast amount of data amounting to gigabytes (109 bytes). Any document in a WORM can be accessed very fast, say less than 30 seconds. Erasable Optical Disk: These are optical disks where data can be written, erased and re-written. This also applies a laser beam to write and re-write the data. These disks may be used as alternatives to traditional disks. Erasable optical disks are based on a technology known as magnetic optical (MO). To write a data bit on to the erasable optical disk the MO drive's laser beam heats a tiny, precisely defined point on the disk's surface and magnetizes it. INPUT OUTPUT DEVICES A computer is only useful when it is able to communicate with the external environment. When you work with the computer you feed your data and instructions through some devices to the computer. These devices are called Input devices. Similarly computer after processing gives output through other devices called output devices.
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For a particular application one form of device is more desirable compared to others. We will discuss various types of I/O devices that are used for different types of applications. They are also known as peripheral devices because they surround the CPU and make a communication between computer and the outer world. Input Devices: Input devices are necessary to convert our information or data in to a form which can be understood by the computer. A good input device should provide timely, accurate and useful data to the main memory of the computer for processing followings are the most useful input devices. Keyboard: This is the standard input device attached to all computers. The layout of keyboard is just like the traditional typewriter of the type QWERTY. It also contains some extra command keys and function keys. It contains a total of 101 to 104 keys. You have to press correct combination of keys to input data. The computer can recognize the electrical signals corresponding to the correct key combination and processing is done accordingly. Mouse: Mouse is an input device shown in Fig. 2.7 that is used with your personal computer. It rolls on a small ball and has two or three buttons on the top. When you roll the mouse across a flat surface the screen censors the mouse in the direction of mouse movement. The cursor moves very fast with mouse giving you more freedom to work in any direction. It is easier and faster to move through a mouse. Scanner: The keyboard can input only text through keys provided in it. If we want to input a picture the keyboard cannot do that. Scanner is an optical device that can input any graphical matter and display it back. The common optical scanner devices are Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR), Optical Mark Reader (OMR) and Optical Character Reader (OCR). Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): This is widely used by banks to process large volumes of cheques and drafts. Cheques are put inside the MICR. As they enter the reading unit the cheques pass through the magnetic field which causes the read head to recognize the character of the cheques.
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Optical Mark Reader (OMR): This technique is used when students have appeared in objective type tests and they had to mark their answer by darkening a square or circular space by pencil. These answer sheets are directly fed to a computer for grading where OMR is used. Optical Character Recognition (OCR): This technique unites the direct reading of any printed character. Suppose you have a set of hand written characters on a piece of paper. You put it inside the scanner of the computer. This pattern is compared with a site of patterns stored inside the computer. Whichever pattern is matched is called a character read. Patterns that cannot be identified are rejected. OCRs are expensive though better the MICR. Output Devices Visual Display Unit: The most popular input/output device is the Visual Display Unit (VDU). It is also called the monitor. A Keyboard is used to input data and Monitor is used to display the input data and to receive massages from the computer. A monitor has its own box which is separated from the main computer system and is connected to the computer by cable. In some systems it is compact with the system unit. It can be color or monochrome. Terminals: It is a very popular interactive input-output unit. It can be divided into two types: hard copy terminals and soft copy terminals. A hard copy terminal provides a printout on paper whereas soft copy terminals provide visual copy on monitor. A terminal when connected to a CPU sends instructions directly to the computer. Terminals are also classified as dumb terminals or intelligent terminals depending upon the work situation. Printer: It is an important output device which can be used to get a printed copy of the processed text or result on paper. There are different types of printers that are designed for different types of applications. Depending on their speed and approach of printing, printers are classified as impact and non-impact printers. Impact printers use the familiar typewriter approach of hammering a typeface against the paper and inked ribbon. Dot-matrix printers are of this type. Nonimpact printers do not hit or impact a ribbon to print. They use electro-static chemicals and ink-jet technologies. Laser printers and Ink-jet printers are of this type. This type of printers can produce color printing and elaborate graphics.
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LANGUAGE/SOFTWARE INTRODUCTION In the previous lesson we discussed about the different parts and configurations of computer. It has been mentioned that programs or instructions have to be fed to the computer to do specific task. So it is necessary to provide sequence of instructions so that your work can be done. We can divide the computer components into two major areas, namely, hardware and software. Hardware is the machine itself and its various individual equipment. It includes all mechanical, electronic and magnetic devices such as monitor, printer, electronic circuit, floppy and hard disk. In this lesson we will discuss about the other part, namely, software. WHAT IS SOFTWARE? As you know computer cannot do anything without instructions from the user. In order to do any specific job you have to give a sequence of instructions to the computer. This set of instructions is called a computer program. Software refers to the set of computer programs, procedures that describe the programs, how they are to be used. We can say that it is the collection of programs, which increase the capabilities of the hardware. Software guides the computer at every step where to start and stop during a particular job. The process of software development is called programming. You should keep in mind that software and hardware are complementary to each other. Both have to work together to produce meaningful result. Another important point you should know that producing software is difficult and expensive. SOFTWARE TYPES Computer software is normally classified into two broad categories. Application Software System software Application Software: Application Software is a set of programs to carry out operations for a specific application. For example, payroll is application software for an organization to produce pay slips as an output. Application software is useful for word processing, billing system, accounting, producing statistical report, analysis of numerous data in research, weather forecasting, etc. In later modules you will learn about MS WORD, Lotus 1-2-3 and dBASE III Plus. All these are application software. Another example of application software is programming language. Among the programming languages COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) is more suitable for business application whereas FORTRAN (Formula Translation) is useful for scientific application. We will discuss about languages in next section. 33

System Software: You know that an instruction is a set of programs that has to be fed to the computer for operation of computer system as a whole. When you switch on the computer the programs written in ROM is executed which activates different units of your computer and makes it ready for you to work on it. This set of program can be called system software. Therefore system software may be defined as a set of one or more programs designed to control the operation of computer system. System software are general programs designed for performing tasks such as controlling all operations required to move data into and out of the computer. It communicates with printers, card reader, disk; tapes etc. monitor the use of various hardware like memory, CPU etc. Also system software is essential for the development of applications software. System Software allows application packages to be run on the computer with less time and effort. Remember that it is not possible to run application software without system software. Development of system software is a complex task and it requires extensive knowledge of computer technology. Due to its complexity it is not developed in house. Computer manufactures build and supply this system software with the computer system. DOS, UNIX and WINDOWS are some of the widely used system software. Out of these UNIX is a multi-user operating system whereas DOS and WINDOWS are PC-based. We will discuss in detail about DOS and WINDOWS in the next module. So without system software it is impossible to operate your computer. The following picture is shown in Fig. 3.1 relation between hardware, software and you as a user of computer system. WHAT IS LANGUAGE? You are aware with the term language. It is a system of communication between you and me. Some of the basic natural languages that we are familiar with are English, Hindi, Oriya etc. These are the languages used to communicate among various categories of persons. But how you will communicate with your computer. Your computer will not understand any of these natural languages for transfer of data and instruction. So there are programming languages specially developed so that you could pass your data and instructions to the computer to do specific job. You must have heard names like FORTRAN, BASIC, COBOL etc. These are programming languages. So instructions or programs are written in a particular language based on the type of job. As an example, for scientific application FORTRAN and C languages are used. On the other hand COBOL is used for business applications. Programming Languages There are two major types of programming languages. These are Low Level Languages and High Level Languages. Low Level languages are further divided in to Machine language and Assembly language. 34

Low Level Languages The term low level means closeness to the way in which the machine has been built. Low level languages are machine oriented and require extensive knowledge of computer hardware and its configuration. Machine Language Machine Language is the only language that is directly understood by the computer. It does not needs any translator program. We also call it machine code and it is written as strings of 1's (one) and 0s (zero). When this sequence of codes is fed to the computer, it recognizes the codes and converts it in to electrical signals needed to run it. For example, a program instruction may look like this: 1011000111101 It is not an easy language for you to learn because of its difficult to understand. It is efficient for the computer but very inefficient for programmers. It is considered to the first generation language. It is also difficult to debug the program written in this language. Advantage The only advantage is that program of machine language run very fast because no translation program is required for the CPU. Disadvantages 1. It is very difficult to program in machine language. The programmer has to know details of hardware to write program. 2. The programmer has to remember a lot of codes to write a program which results in program errors. 3. It is difficult to debug the program. (b) Assembly Language It is the first step to improve the programming structure. You should know that computer can handle numbers and letter. Therefore some combination of letters can be used to substitute for number of machine codes. The set of symbols and letters forms the Assembly Language and a translator program is required to translate the Assembly Language to machine language. This translator program is called `Assembler'. It is considered to be a second-generation language.

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Advantages: 1. The symbolic programming of Assembly Language is easier to understand and saves a lot of time and effort of the programmer. 2. It is easier to correct errors and modify program instructions. 3. Assembly Language has the same efficiency of execution as the machine level language. Because this is one-to-one translator between assembly language program and its corresponding machine language program. Disadvantages: 1. One of the major disadvantages is that assembly language is machine dependent. A program written for one computer might not run in other computers with different hardware configuration. HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES You know that assembly language and machine level language require deep knowledge of computer hardware where as in higher language you have to know only the instructions in English words and logic of the problem irrespective of the type of computer you are using. Higher level languages are simple languages that use English and mathematical symbols like +, -, %, / etc. for its program construction. You should know that any higher level language has to be converted to machine language for the computer to understand. Higher level languages are problem-oriented languages because the instructions are suitable for solving a particular problem. For example COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) is mostly suitable for business oriented language where there is very little processing and huge output. There are mathematical oriented languages like FORTRAN (Formula Translation) and BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) where very large processing is required. Thus a problem oriented language designed in such a way that its instruction may be written more like the language of the problem. For example, businessmen use business term and scientists use scientific terms in their respective languages. Advantages of High Level Languages Higher level languages have a major advantage over machine and assembly languages that higher level languages are easy to learn and use. It is because that they are similar to the languages used by us in our day to day life. Compiler 36

It is a program translator that translates the instruction of a higher level language to machine language. It is called compiler because it compiles machine language instructions for every program instructions of higher level language. Thus compiler is a program translator like assembler but more sophisticated. It scans the entire program first and then translates it into machine code. The programs written by the programmer in higher level language is called source program. After this program is converted to machine languages by the compiler it is called object program. Higher Level Language --> (Compile) ---> Program --> Machine Language Program A compiler can translate only those source programs, which have been written, in that language for which the compiler is meant for. For example FORTRAN compiler will not compile source code written in COBOL language. Object program generated by compiler is machine dependent. It means programs compiled for one type of machine will not run in another type. Therefore every type of machine must have its personal compiler for a particular language. Machine independence is achieved by using one higher level language in different machines. Interpreter An interpreter is another type of program translator used for translating higher level language into machine language. It takes one statement of higher level languages, translate it into machine language and immediately execute it. Translation and execution are carried out for each statement. It differs from compiler, which translate the entire source program into machine code and does involve in its execution. The advantage of interpreter compared to compiler is its fast response to changes in source program. It eliminates the need for a separate compilation after changes to each program. Interpreters are easy to write and do not require large memory in computer. The disadvantage of interpreter is that it is time consuming method because each time a statement in a program is executed then it is first translated. Thus compiled machine language program runs much faster than an interpreted program.

Operating Systems An operating system is a complex set of software modules that manages the overall operations of a computer. It is a master control program that acts as a manager, a housekeeper and a traffic cop for the computer system. Depending on the type of computer the operating system performs a number of functions, such as allocating resources, tracking the use of different computer resources, ensuring optimal utilization of various resources, and acting as an interface between the user and the 37

computer. Application programs, such as word processors and spreadsheets, run under the supervision of the operating system. An operating system loads programs, performs and manages input/output operations, manages files, monitors and manages the use of computer memory, allocates resources for various computer functions and resolve conflicts. The operating system loads programs to be executed into primary memory and sends a message to the user when the execution is completed. It also notifies the user of any errors in the system or error that it encounters during program executions. An operating system is to manage files, a file is a place in computer memory where data and instructions are stored. The computer reads creates, deletes, merges and renames files and performs other related tasks with help from the operating system. There are two types of operating system environments and a brief description of each. Multiprogramming: Multiple users can run multiple programs on a single CPU computer at same time. The CPU switches between programs, however at any given time it is executing only one program. Multiprocessing: A multiprocessing system has a number of processors that process data and instructions, unlike systems that have only one CPU. Ideally suited for complex and computationally intensive operations that require processing. Types of Operating system: Within the board family of operating systems, there are generally different categories based on the types of computers they control and the sort of applications they supports. The categories are: Single-user, single task: It is an operating system is designed to manage the computer so that one user cann effectively do one thing at a time. The Palm OS for Palm handheled computer is a good example of modern single-user, single-task operating system. Single-user, multi tasking: It is an operating system support execution of more than one job at a time on a computer. Microsoft's Windows and Apple's MacOS platforms are the examples of single-user, multi-tasking operating system. Multi-User: It is an operating system allows many different users to take advantage of the computer's resources simultaneously. The operating system must make sure that the requirements of the various users are balanced and that each of the programs they are using has sufficient and separate resources so that a problem with one user doesn't affect the entire community of users. Unix and MVS are example of multi-user operating system. Utility Program: 38

Utility Programs are among the most popular types of system support software. It performs routine tasks, such as formatting disks, copying files from a disk, sorting files and editing files, as well as other important housekeeping functions. Many operating system have utility programs built directly into the operating system itself. Application Software: Application software is designed to perform people-related tasks such as payroll, inventory and sales analysis. There are two types of applications, such as payroll and so on and dedicated software (designed for specific application, such as the space shuttle). Application software can manipulate text, numbers, graphics or a combination of these depending on the work for which it was designed. Applications software thus includes word processors, spreadsheets, database management, inventory and payroll programs and many other applications. Application software may be written by a large software house which distributes its products widely and addresses a general class of problems or may be written by an individual and address a particular problem. There are two types of applications software: Customized or Tailored software Package software Customized or Tailored software: Customized or Tailored software is the software designed to meet the specific requirements of an organization or individual. Tailored software is written on demand of the individual's need and serve only singled organization. It is written in high level languages such as Visual basic and Visual C++. Some of the example of tailored software are payroll package, inventory package and library information system. Package software: Package software is generalized set of programs that allow the computer to perform a specific data processing job for the user. These programs are user friendly and designed for use in more than one environment. Packaged software may be purchased from software vendors. Some of the most popular package software are word processing, graphics package etc.

Number system
The number system plays an important role in computer calculations. The arithmetic calculations are performed with decimal number system in our daily life but the decimal number system is not suitable for digital computers as the manipulation of decimal switches could become quite complex. In the base 10 (decimal) number 39

system, one of the 10 values: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 is used for each digit of a number. The most natural system for representing numbers in a computer is base 2, in which data is represented as a collection of 1s and 0s where '1' marks the state of presence and '0' marks the state of absence. There are other number systems, which are useful in the study of computer has base 8 which is the third power of two and hexadecimal number system has base 16 which is the fourth power of two. Binary number system: A system of numbers consisting of only two digits, 0 and 1 is called binary number system. This is ideal for representing patterns of bits, with 0 expressing a bit that is turned off and 1 expressing a bit that is turned on. It has base 2. Thus 0s and 1s can be arranged in various combinations to represented all the numbers, letters and symbols that can entered into the computer. Decimal number system: A system numbers having base 10 is called decimal number system. It utilizes the symbols of the numbers from 0 to 9. It is also called denary number system. The value that the digits represent depends on the digits represent depends on the weight or position they hold. Octal number system: A system of numbers having base 8 is called octal number system. Octal number system utilizes the digits from 0 to 7. The positional weight is based on power of 8. The octal system is used in computing as simple means of expressing binary quantities. Hexadecimal number system: A system of numbers having base 16 is called hexadecimal number system. The symbol used in this system are the decimal digits which generally represented as A,B,C,D, E and F. the positional weight is based on the power of 16. Bits, Nibble, Byte: A combination of bits is used to store instructions and data in the computer memory. They are called nibbles or bytes or word depending on the number of bits they have. Nibble: Nibble is group of 4 bits Byte: byte is a combination of 8 bits. A byte can represent a single character, such as a letter, a digit or a punctuation mark. Amount of computer memory and storage are usually given in kilobyte, megabyte, gigabyte, terabyte, petabyte etc.

Microsoft Windows: It is the most widely used operating system for desktop and laptops computers. It is a GUI-based operating system produced by US-based Microsoft, the world's largest software company. The windows operating system developed by Microsoft, expands on the DOS operating system; user can activate programs from windows using icons (or symbols). An icon is a picture on the screen that represents an action or application that the computer can implement. Windows is 40

a graphical user interface, that uses the point and click method to execute different commands, such as the file commands open, close, delete and move. In windows each applications appears in its own window. Windows is a highly inegated environment, in which different application have the same "look and feel", so users familiar with one application can easily work in other applications. It provides the following advantages: It is easier for a new user to lean and use the computer. It allows the user to work on a number of applications simultaneously. It controls the different parts of your computer system, such as printer and monitor, and enables them to work together. It provides ways to organize and manages files stored on your computer. It provides Graphical User Interface, in which most of the functions are performed with the help of mouse.

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