HTR 77:3-4 (1984) 277-99

THE FORM OF THE SERMON IN HELLENISTIC JUDAISM AND EARLY CHRISTIANITY Lawrence Wills Cambridge, Massachusetts Form criticism has enjoyed great success in providing tangible insights into the social life and liturgical practices of Hellenistic Judaism and early Christianity, but until now there has not been forthcoming a clear idea of what Jewish and Christian preaching was like before the middle of the second century CE Scholars are generally agreed that we have little, if any, direct evidence of sermons from this period. The sermons in Acts would seem to be excellent sources, but as Alexander MacDonald has pointed out,1 these are almost all missionary sermons or speeches to outsiders, and are therefore of little use in determining the nature of sermons addressed to coreligionists in the synagogue or church. Morton Smith attempted to isolate sermons in the synoptic gospels, but there he admits that the passages adducedlargely collections of sayingsmay not constitute the actual form of oral preaching, but instead reflect a consistent pattern of literary sermon reports.2 As for Jewish sermons, the midrashic collections were edited later than the period in question, and it is generally unwise to extrapolate backward from these texts.3 Recent attempts to compare rabbinic homiletical forms with NT texts have been strongly criticized.4
Christian Worship in the Primitive Church (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1934) 85-86. The fascinating controversy over the age and reliability of the sermon reports in Acts will be ignored here. 2 Tannaitic Parallels to the Gospels (SBLMS 6; Philadelphia: Society of Biblical Literature, 1951) 84-114, esp. 88. 3 On the homiletic midrashim, see Joseph Heinemann, "Preaching (in the Talmudic Period)," EncJud 13 (1971) 994-98, and literature cited there. 4 E.g., Peder Borgen, Bread from Heaven (Leiden: Brill, 1965); J. W. Bowker, "Speeches in Acts: A Study in Proem and Yellamedenu Form," NTS 14 (1967) 96-111; and Smith, Tannaitic Parallels. These studies have been criticized by Karl Paul Donfried, The Setting of Second Clement in Early Christianity (Leiden: Brill, 1974) 19-48; and W. D. Davies, The Setting of the Sermon on the Mount (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977) 5-9. It should be noted that Borgen's method is less open to the charge of anachronism since he compares John to Philo as well as to Rabbinic sources.
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The search for indirect sources has yielded only limited results. Rudolf Bultmann, Nils Dahl, and Ulrich Wilckens have postulated various isolated motifs of early Christian preaching,5 but here we might ask, following MacDonald, whether in most of these cases missionary preaching is really meant. Certain documents are also sometimes described as "homiletical," such as the Epistle of Jeremiah or Hebrews,6 but there has been a justified reaction in recent years against the unfounded use of the terms "sermon" and "homily." Helmut Koester, for instance, questions the common categorization of Hebrews as a sermon, on the grounds that the genre has not been defined.7 Karl Paul Donfried also rejects the form-critical designations of sermon and homily as hopelessly vague and speculative: "We know virtually nothing about the contours of such a genre in the first century A.D." And, "the term 'homily' is so vague and ambiguous that it should be withdrawn until its literarily generic legitimacy has been demonstrated."8 Although Donfried's skepticism has been appropriate up to now, I hope to demonstrate that one common form of the Hellenistic Jewish and early Christian sermon can be reconstructed in a precise way.
"WORD OF EXHORTATION" AS THE FORM OF THE SERMON: ACTS 13:14-41

The first example to be considered is admittedly a missionary sermon, but it takes its narrative setting as a typical synagogue homily. When Paul attends the synagogue service at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:13-41), upon completion of the reading of the law and prophets, he is invited by the leaders of the synagogue to deliver a "word of
Rudolf Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament (2 vols.; New York: Scribner's, 1951-55) 1. 99, 105-6; Nils Dahl, "Form-Critical Observations on Early Christian Preaching,'' in idem, Jesus in the Memory of the Early Church (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1976) 30-36; and Ulrich Wilckens, Die Missionsreden der Apostelgeschichte (3d ed.; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1974) 72-81. Bo Reicke's attempt to classify all the purported fragments of early Christian preaching, though interesting, is too broad and speculative to provide definitive form-critical categories ("A Synopsis of Early Christian Preaching,'' in Anton Fridrichsen, ed., Root of the Vine: Essays in Biblical Theology [Westminster: Dacre, 1953] 128-60). 6 On the Epistle of Jeremiah, see Robert Pfeiffer, History of New Testament Times (New York: Harper, 1949) 248. For Hebrews, see Werner Georg Kummel, Introduction to the Niew Testament (London: SCM, 1975) 398. 7 Introduction to the New Testament, vol. 2: History and Literature of Ancient Christianity (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1982) 273. 8 Donfried, Second Clement, 26.
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exhortation" ( ) to the congregation. Paul responds by addressing them in a homily which can be divided formally into three parts. The first part begins with a recounting of salvation history from the Exodus and the Conquest through Jesus and the proclamation of the good news (13:16b-33a). It continues with several scriptural quota tions and a comparison of the raised messiah to David (vss 33b-37). All of this taken together can be considered "exempla," authoritative evidence adduced to commend the points that follow. At 13:38-39 Paul draws a conclusion which, as a result of what has gone before, car ries the weight of a demonstrated truth: "Let it be known to you there fore ( ovv ) that through this man forgiveness of sins is proclaimed to you." The particle ovv marks the quasi-logical step implied here. A final exhortation follows (vss 40-41) which, although somewhat indirect, nevertheless carries an unmistakable hor tatory tone: "Beware, therefore ( ovv), lest there come upon you what is said in the prophets, 'Behold, you scoffers . . . and per ish.' " The particle ovv appears in the final exhortation as well. Paul's "word of exhortation" to the synagogue exhibits an identifiable threepart pattern which can be found in many early Christian and Hellenistic Jewish writings. It is significant that most of these same writings are often considered to be "homiletical." The pattern generally consists of (1) an indicative or exemplary sec tion (hereafter referred to as "exempla"), in the form of scriptural quotations, authoritative examples from past or present, or reasoned exposition of theological points; (2) a conclusion, based on the exempla and indicating their significance for those addressed (often expressed with a participle and ovv, , , or some such particle or con junction); and (3) an exhortation (usually expressed with an imperative 9 or hortatory subjunctive, often accompanied by ovv). From the numerous instances isolated below, it is clear that the form is quite flexible and can be applied in a variety of ways. For instance, in 1 Cle ment, we often find at the beginning of this pattern a "call to consider" the exempla that follow, in the form of an imperative or hortatory sub junctive such as "let us consider" (, 24.1, 37.2), "let us reckon" (, 38.3), or "let us bring forth examples"
According to Morton Smith {Tannaitic Parallels, 98-101, esp. 100), the synoptic "sermons" sometimes show a pattern not unlike this, but they lack such a neat formulaic division. The relation between synoptic sermons and the pattern I suggest here is vague at best. On the use of ovv in NT paraenesis, see the short notice by Wolfgang Nauck, "Das ^-paraeneticum," ZAW49 (1958) 134-35.
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( , 55.1). Another interesting aspect of this form is that it can either stand alone as in Acts 13:13-41 above, or be used repeatedly in cyclical fashion as building blocks of a longer ser mon, such as 1 Clement and Hebrews 1-4, 8-12 (see below). The progression, then, from exempla to conclusion to exhortation carried a cumulative force that would have been well adapted to the oral sermon of the Hellenistic synagogue and Christian church. I have tentatively applied the name "word of exhortation" to this form as a result of the use of that term here. Hebrews, which makes constant use of this pattern, is also called a "word of exhortation" ( , 13:22), and in a description of the liturgy for the ordination of a bishop, the Apostolic Constitutions calls the address "words of exhortation" ( , 8.5). 10 It seems quite likely that the term took on a fixed meaning as the sermon of the wor ship service in early Christianity.
EPISTLE TO THE HEBREWS

Whereas in Acts 13:14-41 the word of exhortation form comprises the entire address, Hebrews appears to follow the pattern mentioned above in which the exempla/conclusion/exhortation schema is repeated several times in cyclical fashion.11 The term "word of exhortation" can evidently be used in either case, as Heb 13:22 indicates. It is not possi ble to analyze every passage of Hebrews neatly into the word of exhor tation pattern, but here it will suffice to show that the author utilizes the form and adapts it to a more sophisticated overall structure.
Other similar usages of the term - should also be noted. It is used in 1 Mace 10:24, evidently as "persuasive words," and at 2 Mace 7:24 and 15:11 as "words of encouragement." Cf. also 1 Mace 12:9. These passages may indicate that the term is already a fixed expression in the second century BCE, even if the meaning is somewhat general. Cf. also Acts 2:40 below. 11 Of the various structuring principles of Hebrews that have been offered by scholars, some emphasize divisions by content, others by formal considerations, such as paraenetic passages. My proposed outline has more in common with the latter group. Of the many content divisions in print, see esp. Albert Vanhoye, La structure littraire de TEptre aux Hbreux (StudNeot 1; Paris: Descle de Brouwer, 1963), and Koester, Introduction, 2. 274-76. Formai divisions are found in Th. Haering, "Gedankengang und Grundgedanken des Hebraerbriefs," ZNW 18 (1917) 153-63; Wolfgang Nauck, "Zum Aufbau des Hebraerbriefs," in Walther Eltester, ed., Judentum, Urchristentum, Kirche, Festschrift fur Joachim Jeremas (BZNW 26; Berlin: Topelmann, 1960) 199-206; and George MacRae, "A Kingdom that Cannot Be Shaken: The Heavenly Jerusalem in the Letter to the Hebrews," Tantur Yearbook (1979-80) 30-31. George MacRae offered many helpful suggestions during the writing of this article for which I am very grateful.
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The first cycle of the word of exhortation, following the introduction in 1:1-4, is presented very clearly. Seven scriptural passages in a row are quoted as exempla (vss 5-13), each intended to show the exalta tion of Christ over the angels. Verse 14 draws a conclusion explicitly, and interprets the significance of the exempla for the hearers: "Are they not all ministering spirits sent forth to serve, for the sake of those who are to obtain salvation?" The exhortation follows in 2:1: "There fore we must pay the closer attention ( ) to what we have heard, lest we drift away from it." Since this exhortation refers to what has been heard, it picks up the reference in 1:1-2 of God speaking through the prophets and through the son, and thus the exhortation on one hand is the culmination of the exempla and the conclusion, and on the other hand may be seen as looking ahead to 2:3 ("confirmed for us by those who heard"). The exposition resumes after the exhortation with "for" (, 2:5), which is very common in this position in Hebrews, 1 Clement, and elsewhere.12 The new cycle of the word of exhortation begins with exempla consisting of scriptural quotations (2:6-8a, 12-13) and theo logical exposition largely based on these quotations (2:8b-11). As stated above, the exempla section often consists of exposition which carries an authoritative weight roughly comparable to the quotation of scripture. A conclusion is drawn at vss 14-18, and 3:1 constitutes an exhortation. The conclusion and exhortation do not stand out as sharp ly in this cycle, and 3:1 functions also as the introduction to the next major section. However, vss 14-18 relate the exempla to the hearers' situation (a common function of the conclusion), and the "high priest" theme of 3:1 is already mentioned in 2:17, indicating that the exhorta tion once again refers both backward and forward. The next cycle begins in 3:7, with exempla extending down to 3:18. The structural elements are clear: the conclusion is 3:19 and the exhor tation follows at 4:1, again picking up both what precedes and what fol lows: "Therefore, . . . let us fear lest any of you be judged to have
failed to reach it" ( ovv . . . ) -

). Although the literal sense of "let us fear" is not an exhorta tion, the clear force of it is paraenetic, that is, "do not fall short!" The overall structure of 3:7-4:1 clearly reflects an exempla/conclu sion/exhortation arrangement, tied together thematically by the con cepts of "hardening one's heart" and "entering the rest."13 The
MacRae (Kingdom, 31) notes this tendency in Hebrews. The only difficulty here is the presence of two imperatives at 3:12-13, in the middle of the exempla section. It is possible that we have here two loosely structured cycles of
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exposition resumes with , and 4:2 acts as a transition between the preceding cycle and the exempla which follow in vss 3-8. Verses 9-10 are the conclusion: "So then (apa), there remains a sabbath rest for the people of God." 1 4 The exhortation is found in vs 11 and points mainly backward, strengthening the previous exhortation in 4:1, "Let us therefore strive ( ovv) to enter that rest." The fol lowing verses, down to 4:16, contain several exhortations, and it may be that here also a short word of exhortation cycle is found, with exem pla at 4:12-13, conclusion at vs 14a, and exhortation at vss 14b-16. Once again, the exhortations refer both backward to 3:1 and forward to the following chapter, providing a recognizable link between the separate parts of the sermon. From 5:1 to the end of chap. 7 we find a long theological discussion which does not make use of the word of exhortation form (unless 5:11-14 and 6:1 are taken as conclusion and exhortation of a further cycle). The pattern reemerges at 8:1, where the introduction of the theme of the new "high priest" of the "true tabernacle" gives rise to a long exempla section consisting of quotations and exposition, continu ing down to 10:18. A conclusion is explicitly drawn in 10:19-21 relat ing to the same theme, and several exhortations are found in vss 22-25. Now all of the cycles of the word of exhortation found in 3:7-4:16, taken together, may have an overall structuring pattern which also corresponds to the structuring of the large cycle in 8:1-10:25:15 Exempla introduction scripture exegetical argument Conclusion Exhortation 3:1-6 3:7-11 3:12-4:13 4:14a 4:14b-16 8:1-6 8:7-13 9:1-10:18 10:19-21 10:22-25

the word of exhortation in a row, with the first ending at 3:12-13. This would account for the apparent alteration of Ps 95:10 by the addition of "therefore" (), which could have the effect in an oral sermonic context of transforming the last part of the scriptural quotation into a conclusion. 14 It could be argued that vs 9 is a second apodosis for the conditional sentence that begins in vs 8; in this case vss 8-10 should stand together as the conclusion. See BAG, 103, and cf. 1 Cor 15:17-18. 15 This larger pattern was suggested by a consultant of this journal.

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In each case the conclusion is introduced by "since then we have" ( ovv, cf. 12:1 and 2 Cor 7:1 below). Here the author has expanded the word of exhortation form into a larger structuring princi ple. From 10:26-33 we find theological exposition used as exempla, with a somewhat undefined conclusion at vs 34 and an exhortation at vs 35. A clearer cycle begins in chap. 11, where exempla of faith are listed in 11:4-38, the conclusion given in 12:1a, and the exhortations in 12:1b3. The cycle begins anew at 12:4 with exempla down to vs 10, consisting of quotations and exposition on the theme of discipline ( , cf. 1 Clement 56). Verse 11, the conclusion, comments on the meaning of discipline for the Christian, and vss 12-16 exhort the audi ence to endurance. Other cycles can perhaps be discerned in the fol lowing passages (listed by exempla/conclusion/exhortation): 12:18-21/ 12:22-24/12:25a; 12:25b-27/12:28a/12:28b;. and 13:10-11/13:12/ 13:13. That Hebrews makes use of the word of exhortation form seems clear, although the artful composer has modified it, creating a very complex sermonic text.
1 CLEMENT

The letter of Clement of Rome to the Corinthian church is a real letter, 16 and not the record of a delivered sermon, but it nevertheless demonstrates better than any other writing the use of the word of exhortation form. It was perhaps not contrary to the author's intention that the letter was read often in the church service at Corinth in the 17 second century. With this in mind I turn to the analysis of the docu ment, but rather than analyze the entirety of 1 Clement, which by my count contains about thirty instances of the word of exhortation pat tern, I will focus on a few sections which show a high concentration of the form in question. Clement's letter begins by describing the former good reputation of the Corinthian church, in contrast to the state of strife which had arisen (chaps. 1-3). At 4.1 a long quotation is taken from Genesis 4 con cerning the strife between Cain and Abel, and this is continued with a long list of biblical figures who demonstrate the destructive power of jealousy in their lives. In chap. 5 Clement explicitly moves from exam ples of old to the period of the church, where we are told that Peter
16 17

Koester, Introduction, 2. 287. According to Dionysius, bishop of Corinth, quoted by Eusebius Hist, eccl 2.23.11.

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and Paul suffered from the jealousy of others, as did many anonymous Christians, both men and women (6.1-3). The exempla section, then, consists of figures drawn from Jewish and Christian history. The two sentences at 6.4-7.1 are the conclusion, the latter serving mainly to apply the exempla both to the recipients' situation and to the senders': "Jealousy and strife have overthrown great cities, and rooted up mighty nations. We are not only writing these things to you, beloved, for your admonition, but also to remind ourselves." The exhortation follows (7.2): "Wherefore, let us put aside ( ) empty and vain cares, and let us come to the . . . rule of our tradition." Here, how ever, the exhortation refers more to what is coming than it does to the exempla and conclusion, a phenomenon also noted in Hebrews. We shall see that the first three cycles have exhortations that relate to the material that follows them. The order of exempla/conclusion/exhortation in repeating cycles is usually maintained, but the relations of the parts is not so much logical as rhetorical, or, as I said above, "quasilogical." The listener is inclined to expect the elements couched in a certain rhythmic and measured order, but the exact logical relations between the parts are not dictated absolutely. At 7.5 we find a "call to consider" those exempla that will follow: "Let us review all the generations, and let us learn that in generation after generation the Master has given a place of repentance to those who will turn to him." Then follows a listing of biblical figures who repented (7.6-7) and scriptural quotations on the same subject (8.2-4). At 8.5 we find a clearly stated conclusion: "Thus desiring to give to all ( ovv . . . . . . ) his beloved a share in repentance, he established it by his almighty will," which is followed by a series of exhortations in the form of hortatory subjunc tives (9.1): "Wherefore let us obey; . . . let us fall before him; . . . let us turn." A new call to consider exempla occurs at 9.2: "Let us fix our gaze on those who have rendered perfect service ( )." Note that the exhortation and the call to consider exem pla both consist of hortatory subjunctives, providing an effective and seamless transition between sections. Biblical figures are then brought forward who represent "perfect service," in part by means of quota tions (9.3-12.7). At 12.8 there is a conclusion that derives its impor tance from the previous example of Rahab, and by extension all the previous exempla of "perfect service": "You see, beloved, that the woman is an instance not only of faith but also of prophecy." The exhortation is at 13.1a: "Let us therefore be humble-minded" ( ovv). Here too the exhortation looks forward to what follows in 13.lb-14.2.

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In many, however, if not most of the cycles of the word of exhorta tion form that we find in 1 Clement, the exhortation refers plainly back ward, or in some cases in both directions. For instance, at 37.2 a cycle is begun with a call to consider, which introduces new exempla: "Let us consider () those who serve our generals." The sub mission typical of the military calls to the author's mind the metaphor of submission of body parts to each other in 37.5. This verse ends with a summary statement that functions as a conclusion, although it is not explicitly drawn out: "but all work together and are united in a com mon subjection to preserve the whole body ( )." The exhortation in 38.1 clearly refers back to this metaphor: "Let, there fore, our whole body ( ) be preserved in Christ Jesus." Several exhortations follow down to 38.2. A new call to consider exempla occurs at 38.3a, with a short exposi tion in 38.3b as exempla, a clearly drawn conclusion in 38.4a, and an exhortation in 38.4b which also relates backward. Chapter 39 intro duces new exemplaseveral quotations from Job. A conclusion is stated in 40.1a: "Since these things are manifest to us ( ovv)." The exhortation, however, that "we ought to do in good order" what is commanded (40.1b), must be seen as an outcome of the con clusion, and as referring to the following exempla concerning proper observance of sacrifices. Generally speaking, the exhortations that refer forward in 1 Clement tend to be found in the first third of the docu ment, and those that refer backward in the final two-thirds. Almost all of the letter of Clement can be analyzed in this way. Although it is not absolutely regular or complete in every case, well over half of the exhortations in the document fit neatly into this pat tern. There are three main exceptions to this rule, beginning with places where several exhortations are found at the end of a cycle, such as 21.5-8, 9.1, and 38.1-2 (the last two described above). This, how ever, can be seen as merely a periodic variation on the expected pat tern, which raises the level of the paraenesis to a temporary crescendo, only to return to the typical pattern. In the second place, there are sec tions where several short, defective cycles are encountered in quick succession, as in 13.2-15.1, 30.2-31.1, and 34.2-7. The effect of these is similar to the first group of exceptions. Finally there is the doctrinal section of 42.1-44.6, which deals with the apostolic succes sion of bishops' and deacons' authority, and can perhaps be compared with the doctrinal section of Hebrews 6-7 where we also found a tem porary cessation of the repeating pattern.

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OTHER SPEECHES IN ACTS

Although it was stated above that the missionary sermons of Acts could not be used to establish the sermon form as preached in the early church, it is possible, now that this form has been hypothetically out lined, to return to the Acts speeches for comparison. Such an analysis reveals that several of them correspond to the word of exhortation pat tern. In Peter's sermon in Solomon's Portico (3:12-26), he begins with a series of questions and then expounds briefly on the authority of Jesus and his rejection by the Jews. 18 Verse 18 concludes this section: "But what God foretold by the mouth of the prophets, that his Christ should suffer, he thus fulfilled." The exhortation follows in vs 19: "Repent therefore." The speech continues with more exempla but is inter rupted by the arrival of Jewish authorities (4:1). Peter's Pentecost sermon (2:14-40) takes this same form. In response to the accusations of drunkenness against those who have spo ken in tongues, Peter quotes Joel 2:28-32, and then introduces the same two themes that we saw in 3:12-26: the rejection of Jesus by the Jews and Jesus' miracles as proof of his messiahship (vss 22-24). The exempla continue with more scriptural quotations (vss 25-28), a com parison between David and Jesus (cf. Acts 13:36-37), another quota tion at vss 34-35, and a conclusion for these exempla at vs 36: "Let all the house of Israel therefore know assuredly ( ovv ) that God has made him both Lord and Christ, this Jesus whom you crucified." Now the exhortation, which we would expect to follow, has been interrupted at vs 37 by the introduction of a very effective literary devicethe listeners' stunned response to what has been said. "Now when they heard this they were cut to the heart, and said to Peter and the rest of the disciples, 'Brethren, what shall we do?' " This serves to heighten our perception of the impact this sermon has had on Peter's audience, as well as to delay dramatically what is to follow. Peter's exhortation is then given in vs 38: "And Peter said to them, 'Repent, and be baptized every one of you.'" In this case a clear instance of the word of exhortation is adapted to the literary medium by the inclusion of a description of the audience's response. It is interesting that none of the words of exhortation in Acts extend into repeating cycles of exempla/conclusion/exhortation, but here it is said (vs 40) that Peter "testified with many other words () and
As seen in 13:13-41, this theme is an integral part of salvation history for the author of Acts.
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exhorted () them," thus implying that the address as con ceived would have been longer. In Paul's speech on the Areopagus, we find an interesting variation. The exempla section consists mostly of a theological disquisition (17:24-27), but also uses quotations from pagan authorities (vs 28). 1 9 The conclusion in vs 29a is quite short, but clearly functions to emphasize the significance of what has been said: "Since, then, we are God's offspring" ( ovv ). The exhortation in vs 29b is mild, but perhaps represents what the author felt was appropriate for a speech before educated pagans:20 "we ought not to think that the Deity is like gold or silver." Paul's speech at Miletus to the elders of the church at Ephesus (20:17-35) also falls into this pattern. First he recounts his activity among them and the sincerity of his mission, which can be taken as exempla (vss 18-25). Verses 26-27 function as the conclusion in that they shift the onus of accountability from Paul to the elders: "There fore I testify to you this day that I am innocent of the blood of all of you, for I did not shrink from declaring to you the whole counsel of God." Then the exhortation, vs 28, completes the transfer of author ity: "Take heed to yourselves and to all the flock . . . to care for the church of God." A second exhortation in vs 31 follows the pattern seen in Hebrews and in 1 Clement of several exhortations at the end of some cycles of the word of exhortation. Two short speeches should also be considered. The speech of the town clerk to the mob at Ephesus (19:35-40) exhibits this form, which perhaps calls into question the supposition that the form was limited to Jewish and Christian sermons. This question will be raised again below. For now it is sufficient to note that all the elements of the word of exhortation are present here, albeit in concentrated form. Verse 35 provides the one exemplum: Ephesus is the site of the sacred stone. The conclusion and exhortation are in vs 36: "Seeing then that these things cannot be contradicted, you ought to be quiet and do nothing rash." The short instructions that the elders in Jerusalem give to Paul (21:20-25) also resemble the word of exhortation, but here without any liturgical, missionary, or even public context. Verses 20-21
19 The first is attributed to Epimenides by F. F. Bruce (The Acts of the Apostles [2d ed.; London: Marshall, 1954] 338), but Ernst Haenchen disagrees {The Acts of the Apostles [Philadelphia: Westminster, 1971] 524). The second is from Aratus. 20 The call to repent that follows is likewise put in the form of an indirect report of God's proclamation. See below for Aristobulus's similar use of the same quotation from Aratus.

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recount the facts of the situation, vs 22 summarizes the problem: "What then is to be done? They will certainly hear that you have come," and vs 23 gives the exhortation: "Do therefore what we tell you."
2 CORINTHIANS 6:14-7:1

This non-Pauline addition to 2 Corinthians follows the word of exhortation form closely, and perhaps best illustrates the application of this form as a single, self-contained unit, in contrast to the repeating, cyclical use. Many aspects of its structure and possible provenance have been analyzed thoroughly by Hans Dieter Betz and Joseph Fitzmyer,21 so here I will only make several comments relevant to this discussion. In reference to the theme laid out in 6:14, biblical quota tions are brought forth as exempla, vss 16-18. The conclusion is stated in 7:1a: "Since we have these promises, beloved" ( ovv , -), and the exhortation follows in 7:1b: "let us cleanse ourselves." By all indications the fragment was a short homily that had become a part of the community traditions of the editor of 2 Corinthians.
1 CORINTHIANS 10:1-14 AND OTHER PASSAGES IN PAUL'S LETTERS

First Corinthians 10:1-14 has raised many problems for exegetes, mainly because of the abrupt introduction of a kind of exegesis unusual for Paul, namely, allegorical interpretation of scripture.22 Rather than retrace previous efforts to analyze this passage, I will merely address the problem of its use of the word of exhortation. The introduction in 10:1a is common in Paul's letters, and so does not indicate sermonic influence. Verses l b - 5 , however, readily qualify as exempla, being an exposition on scripture. Verse 6, the conclusion, derives the applica tion of these exempla: "Now these things are warnings for us, not to desire evil as they did." Verse 7 is the first of a series of exhortations:
Hans Dieter Betz, "2 Cor 6:14-7:1-Anti-Pauline Fragment?" JBL 92 (1973) 88-108; Joseph Fitzmyer, "Qumran and the Interpolated Paragraph in 2 Cor 6,14-7,1," CBQ 23 (1961) 271-80. 22 See Hans Conzelmann, 1 Corinthians (Hermeneia; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1975) 165, and C. K. Barrett, A Commentary on the First Epistle to the Corinthians (London: Black, 1968) 220-21. Ulrich Luz has argued on grounds independent of mine (Das Geschichtsverstandms des Paulus [Mnchen: Kaiser, 1968] 118-19, 122-23) that the passage is based on an earlier midrash; Conzelmann agrees and Barrett allows this possibility.
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"Do not be idolators as some of them were." This exhortation and each of those that follows it is accompanied by an example from the Exodus narrative of some group that failed to comply with the exhorta tion and was punished. One example will suffice: "We must not put the Lord to the test, as some of them did and were destroyed by ser pents" (vs 9). The result is that we now have a new set of exempla, as the conclusion, vs 11, implies: "Now these things happened to them as a warning, but they were written down for our instruction, upon whom the end of the ages has come." Verse 12 then exhorts: "Therefore let any one who thinks that he stands take heed lest he fall." It is quite likely that a third cycle begins here, with the exposition in vs 13a as exemplum, vs 13b as conclusion, and vs 14 as exhortation. If the cycle continues, with vss 15-18 as exempla, vss 19-20a as conclusion, and vss 20b-21 as exhortation, it is less clear. In this passage, then, Paul may be adapting an older sermon, or intentionally imitating sermonic style; either way, the word of exhortation has influenced the composi tion of this passage. Although this form is not used often by Paul, it does occur in several other letters of his (listed here by exempla/conclusion/exhortation): 1 Cor 15:51-55/15:56-57/15:58; Rom 14:10-11/14:12/14:13; Gal 4:23-30/4:31/5:1; 1 Thess 4:13-17a/4:17b/4:18; and 1 Thess 5:1-4/ 5:5/5:6. In this last cycle there appears to be a continuation into a new cycle: 5:7/5:8a/5:8b. The possibility of a further cycle in vss 9-11 is less likely.23
1 AND 2 PETER

The two pseudonymous letters of Peter seem to reflect the influence of the word of exhortation form, although difficulties remain in the analysis at a number of points. In 1 Pet 1-2 there appear to be several small cycles that are closely interrelated; 1:10-11/1:12/1:13-15, l:24-25a/l:25b/2:l-5, and perhaps 1:18-20/1:21/1:22-23 can be
Another passage which may reflect our pattern is 2 Cor 3:7-4:1. According to Dieter Georgi (Die Gegner des Paulus im 2. Korintherbrief [WMANT 11; NeukirchenVluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1964] 258-82), 2 Cor 3:7-18 is based on a midrash of Exodus 34, which Paul has essentially 'inverted'' and satirized. The midrash could have been in the form of a word of exhortation, because hints of it can be detected. The first person plural indicatives differentiate it from my proposed pattern, but it is interesting to note that in each case a change to a hortatory subjunctive is all that is needed to arrive at a fairly regular repeating cycle of exempla/conclusion/exhortation. If, as Georgi sug gests, Paul in 3:7-18 is undercutting the intention of an older midrash, this might have led him to emphasize indicatives where the audience would have expected exhortations.
23

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analyzed in this way. The conclusions at 1:12, 21, and 25b serve espe cially to relate the exempla to the hearers' (or recipients') situation, a function of the conclusion noted above especially in Hebrews. How ever, vss 17-21 are all one sentence, which poses a problem for an analysis that must divide this sentence into three separate structural elementsthe exhortation of one cycle and the exempla and conclusion of the next. The difficulty perhaps results from the influence of this oral form on a literarily composed document. There are other problems as well with the succeeding chapters. It is possible that a cycle begins with exempla in 2:6-8, conclusion at 2:9-10, and exhortations beginning in 2:11 and continuing down to 3:17. This is much too long a list of exhortations, however, to be based on only three verses of exempla, even though in 1 Clement we noted some extended exhortation sections. But it is possible that the long section should be broken up into smaller cycles: 2:21-24/2:25/ 3:1-4, 3:5-6a/3:6b/3:7-9, and 3:10-12/3:13-14a/3:14b-17. In each case the conclusion again relates the exempla to the hearers' situation. This arrangement is not completely satisfactory either, however, since the exhortations in 3:1 and 3:7 are not directly related to the exempla and conclusions before them, but as is typical in such household codes, introduce sections addressing each member of the household. Evi dently the household code form has been assimilated here to some extent to the word of exhortation pattern. 24 A new cycle begins at 3:18, with exempla consisting of theological exposition, possibly based on a community hymn. The conclusion and exhortation are at 4:1a and 4:lb-3. The last cycle in 1 Peter begins at 4:4, with the conclusion at 4:7a standing as a statement on present con ditions: "The end of all things is at hand." The exhortation section essentially runs from here to the end of the letter. Note that in 1 Peter Christian history has provided exempla in some cases, for example, 4:4-6, as it has also in 1 Clement, and that either christological exposi tions or hymns have been treated as exempla also, such as 1:18-21 and 3:18-22. In 2 Peter the word of exhortation pattern can perhaps be discerned in the first few verses: 1:3-4/(?)/l:5-7 and 1:8/1:9/1:10-11. The exhortation in 1:5 gives the sense of being based on a conclusion, despite the fact that none appears to be at hand: "For this very rea son" ( ). But however that may be, the bulk of the
24 A comparison with the household codes in Eph 5:22-6:9 and Col 3:18-4:1 shows that 1 Peter has inserted a good deal more expository material between exhortations than either of the others, and has a stricter separation of indicative and imperative.

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epistle is taken up not with cycles of the word of exhortation, but with several expository sections,25 the first of which is signaled at 1:12-13, where it is stated that the author wants to stir up () the recip ients by way of reminder ( ). Following this we find appeals to the authority of Peter's apostolic standing (1:14-18) and to the biblical prophets (1:9-21), and in chap. 2 an ad hominem attack on Gnostic heretics. Again in 3:1 the function of the epistle is described as stirring up () by reminder ( ) which with 1:12-13 serves as an inclusio for a central dogmatic section. The expo sition at 3:3-10 regarding the coming of the end constitutes exempla of a new word of exhortation. Verse 11a is the conclusion and vss l i b - 1 2 are the exhortation. A new cycle follows at 3:13/3:14a/ 3:14b-15a and perhaps also at 3:15b-16/3:17a/3:17b-18a, although the latter case involves the divisions of the single sentence which runs through vss 14-16. As in 1 Peter, this may reflect the appropriation of an oral form into a written composition. The standard word of exhorta tion pattern, obscured in 1 Peter by the emphasis on long hortatory sections, has been subordinated in 2 Peter to a central church order section.
OTHER USES IN EARLY CHRISTIAN WRITINGS

The word of exhortation is clearly used in the letters of Ignatius of Antioch. I will analyze his letter to the Ephesians only, although it can also be found in Magnesians, Trallians, and Philadelphians. Ignatius generally uses various expositions of church order material as exempla. At Eph. 1.2 this is implied in his account of the meeting with the representative of the Ephesians, Bishop Onesimus. The conclusion at 1.3a makes this more explicit, and 1.3b is the exhortation. The passage ending at 2.2 may be analogous to the preceding case in both form and intent, but 2.2a as a conclusion is somewhat ambiguous. Similarly 3.1 -2a posits martyrdom as one basis of Ignatius's authority; this is the exempla section, for which 3.2b is the conclusion and 4.1-2 are exhor tations. The next cycle has exempla at 5.1-2, conclusion at 5.3a, and exhortation at 5.3b. Other cycles have conclusions and exhortations at 7.2 and 8.1, 9.2 and 10.1, 15.3a and b, 17.1a and b.

With certain modifications, I follow the structural divisions of Ernst Kasemann, "An Apologia for Primitive Christian Eschatology," Essays on New Testament Themes (Phila delphia: Fortress, 1964) 178, 185-94.

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Most scholars agree that the Epistle of Barnabas contains many older sources edited together. 26 The present shape of the whole, however, is structured in general by the word of exhortation. Cycles can be seen in the following passages (listed by exempla/conclusion/exhortation), but not always clearly organized, especially in the earlier instances: 1.6-7a/1.7b/1.7c; 1.8(?)/2.1a/2.1b-3; 2.4-6(?)/2.7-8(?)/2.9-10; 3.1-5/3.6/4.1-2; 4.3-8/4.9a/4.9b-14;5.4-6.18a/6.18b-19/7.1-2. 27 Following these cycles we find the longest continuous set of exempla of any document here studied, running from 7.3-16.10. It is peppered with various "calls to consider," evidently to ensure that the audience is not lost along the way. We note, for instance, "learn fully" (9.7), "but let us inquire" (11.1, 16.6), "see who it is" (13.6), and " I will speak with you concerning . . . and show" (16.1). Now, assuming the Two Ways doctrine of chaps. 18-20 is not original to the text, 2 8 there are two possibilities. Either chaps. 7-16 do not have a conclusion or exhortation, and the exposition up to chap. 16 is the focus, or chap. 17 is the conclusion for 7.3-16:10, and 21.1 is the exhortation which orig inally followed immediately afterward. If the latter is the case, then chaps. 18-20 must have been added to the text after chap. 21. The objection that 21.1 refers to the Two Ways doctrine and must have been written to accompany 18-20 is not compelling. The Two Ways doctrine is presumed elsewhere in Barnabas, such as at 1.4, 2.9, 4.10, 5.4, and 12.10.29 Thus it is quite possible that chap. 21 at one time fol lowed immediately after chap. 17 and provided an exhortation in a word of exhortation cycle. It is interesting to note that Barnabas, Ignatius Ephesians, Hebrews, 2 Peter, and 1 Clement all break up the continuous cycle of exempla/conclusion/exhortation at one point with a long exempla sec tion or an important doctrinal exposition (Barnabas 7-16, Ign. Eph. 17.2-20.2, Hebrews 6-10, 2 Pet 1:12-3:2, 1 Clement42-44).30
26 See Koester, Introduction, 2. 277-78, and Robert Kraft, Barnabas and the Didache, in Robert M. Grant, ed., The Apostolic Fathers (5 vols.; New York: Nelson, 1965) 3. 1-3, 19-22. 27 In this last instance, the mild imperative in 6.18b is more a command to perceive (, while the exhortation at 7.1 is stronger, calling on the hearer to choose to understand (voev). See Kraft, Barnabas, 3. 24-25. 28 Ibid., 5-6, 134-36. 29 Ibid., 5. 30 On Barnabas and Hebrews, see Koester, Introduction, 2. 277-78 and 273-74. Besides the early Christian works treated in this section, several others could also be considered. The word of exhortation can be found in 2 Clement (e.g., 12.2-13.1, 13.2-14.1) and Polycarp's letter to the Philippians (e.g., 9.1-10.1), but both are so overburdened with exhortations that the pattern seems to break down. The sermon of John in the Acts

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Hortatory sermons can be found in the Hebrew Bible, reflecting a variety of structures (e.g., Jer 7:1-8:3, Ezekiel 20, Deuteronomy passim, and 1 and 2 Chronicles passim),31 but rarely do we find anything resembling the word of exhortation. In 2 Chr 15:2-7, isolated by Gerhard von Rad as a sermon,32 we see the same ordering of indicatives and imperatives, but there is no clearly defined conclusion. In the speeches regarding the establishment of the covenant there is sometimes an ordering of elements that is similar to the exempla/conclusion/exhortation division. We may note in this regard the establishment of the covenant at Deuteronomy 29-30, which corresponds to Klaus Baltzer's three-part outline of the covenant formulary: antecedent history (MT 29:2-8), statement of covenant (29:9-15), and blessings and curses (30:16-18). 33 At the end of the blessings and curses we see what could perhaps be taken as a conclusion and exhortation (30:19): "I call heaven and earth to witness against you this day, that I have set before you life and death, blessing and curse; therefore choose life." At Joshua 24 a similar division can be made between the recitation of the acts of God (vss 2-13) and an exhortation (vs 14), but again without a clearly defined conclusion, unless vs 13 is so considered. Neither of these passages is a clear attestation of the word of exhortation, however, and the existence of any general structure for the sermons in the Hebrew Bible, much less the word of exhortation in particular, cannot be shown. By the Hellenistic period, however, there are a number of documents which use the word of exhortation. From these it can be reasonably hypothesized that it became the form of the sermon in the Hellenistic synagogue.34 I begin with two attestations in the LXX. The first
of John (87-105) reflects the word of exhortation clearly. 31 See Otto Eissfeldt, The Old Testament (New York: Harper & Row, 1965) 12, 15-17, and the literature cited there, esp. Gerhard von Rad, "The Levitical Sermon in / and II Chronicles,'" in The Problem of the Hexateuch and Other Essays (New York. McGraw-Hill, 1966) 267-80. 32 Von Rad, "Levitical Sermon," 270. 33 The Covenant Formulary (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1972) 34-36. Baltzer's anaylsis of Joshua 24 appears on pp. 19-27. The temptation to see a relation between the three-part covenant form and the word of exhortation should be avoided, despite the fact that the influence of the former can be found in many of the documents anaylzed here. The covenant formulary and its successors constitute a theological topos, while the word of exhortation is an oral rhetorical pattern that is not related to any one theme. 34 Hartwig Thyen's study of the Hellenistic synagogue sermon, Der Stil der JudischHellenistischen Homilie (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1955) is valuable in point-

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is in the old LXX version of Susanna,35 where we find at the end of the narrative a homiletical application.36 The story of Susanna has become the exempla, and added to this are a conclusion (vs 63a) and an exhor tation (vs 63b): "For this reason the young men are beloved of Jacob by reason of their sincerity. And as for us, let us watch over young men." The second is the Epistle of Jeremiah, the body of which ridi cules the worship of idols in much the same way as Ps 115:4-8, Is 40:19, and Wisdom of Solomon 13-15. The many instances of idolatry are seen as exempla, for near the end in vs 68 we find a conclusion and an exhortation: "So we have no evidence whatever ( ovv ) that they are gods; therefore () do not fear them." The text resumes with yap. Other instances in Jewish literature of the Hellenistic and Roman periods include the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, in which the word of exhortation can be found often.37 I will indicate a few of the attestations from the words of several of the patriarchs. Testament of Reuben 5:1-5 forms a logical division within the Patriarch's warning on women, and begins with an introductory statement. Exposition con cerning women's supposed craftiness and how that was revealed to Reuben by an angel constitute exempla (5:2-3). At 5:4 he concludes: "For a woman cannot force a man openly, but by a harlot's bearing she beguiles him," and at 5:5 he exhorts: "Flee, therefore ( ovv), fornication, my children." In T.Levi 2:6-3:8 we have visions as exem pla; the conclusion lies at 3:9-10: "When, therefore ( ovv), the Lord looketh upon us, all of us are shaken. . . . But the sons of men, having no perception of these things, sin and provoke the Most High." He exhorts in 4:1: "Now, therefore, know (vvv ovv ) that
ing out parallels with the Cynic-Stoic diatribe, but does not deal with the structuring pat tern proposed here. Recently Stanley Stowers has argued (The Diatribe and Paul's Letter to the Romans [SBLDS 57; Chico: Scholars, 1981] 175-84) that the Sitz-im-Leben of the diatribe is school teaching and not preaching. 35 The Theodotionic version has replaced the old LXX version of Susanna in most edi tions. Both are printed in Alfred Rahlfs edition (Stuttgart: Wurttembergische Bibelan stalt, 1935) the old LXX version above the Theodotionic one. The translation used here is from APOT/ 36 This was suggested by Professor John Strugnell in lectures at Harvard Divinity School, spring 1983. 3/ John J. Collinses book Between Athens and Jerusalem (New York: Crossroad, 1983) was published after this article had been written. In his analysis of homiletical patterns in Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs he outlines one pattern (158-59) which is identical to the word of exhortation. I completely endorse his view, although he does not relate this pattern to other literature as I have tried to do here. Collins also warns (159) against explaining this homiletical pattern in terms of the covenant form.

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the Lord shall execute judgment upon the sons of men." The end of Testament of Levi similarly uses this pattern, stating a conclusion which calls to mind the entire revelation as exempla (19:1a): "And now ( vvv), my children, ye have heard all." The exhortation is likewise comprehensive (19:1b): "choose, therefore ( ovv), for your selves either the light or the darkness, either the law of the Lord or the works of Beliar." The Testament of Naphtali uses two cycles of the word of exhortation form together. At 8:1 the author concludes what has gone before, and at 8:2 gives the exhortation; at 8:9 and 8:10 he does the same. At Jos. 10:1 and 2 we find the conclusion and the exhortation for one of the major sections of the writing,38 and 17:1 and 2 perform a similar function. In T. Benj. 2:5 and 3:1, 4:1a and b, 6:7 and 7:1, 7:5 and 8:1, and 10:2 and 3 are found conclusions and exhortations of repeating cycles of the word of exhortation form. Although many other instances of the pattern could be brought forward from Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, these will demonstrate its presence in the writings. Aristobulus also utilizes this form in his discussion of the Greek phi losophers' and poets' indebtedness to Moses.39 After demonstrating the major philosophers' relation to Moses, he quotes the Sacred Legend of Orpheus at some length, and also Aratus's Phaenomena.40 The conclu sion and exhortation follow in 666d: It is clearly shown, I think (/ ), that all things are pervaded by the power of God. . . . These quotations, there fore, which I have brought forward are not inappropriate to the questions before us. For all philosophers agree that we ought to hold pious opinions concerning God, and to this especially our sys tem gives excellent exhortation. In Jewish War, when Josephus goes up to the wall of Jerusalem to urge the Jews within to surrender, he marshals exempla from ancient and contemporary history to show that God is now on the Romans' side (5.362-400) and has abandoned the Jews on account of their sins (401-14). At 415 Josephus concludes: "Yet a way of salvation is still
38 See James Charlesworth, The Pseudepigrapha and Modern Research with a Supplement (Chico: Scholars, 1981) 142-43, 211-20. 39 Eusebius Praep. ev. 13.12, 664c-667a. My translation is that of Edwin Gifford, Preparation for the Gospel (2 vols.; Grand Rapids: Baker, 1981). 40 Quoted also in Acts 17:28 in the exempla of a word of exhortation treated above. The exhortations in these two words of exhortation are quite similar also. See Haenchen, Acts, 525.

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left you,41 if you will, and the Deity is easily reconciled to such as con fess and repent." The exhortation follows: "fling away your weap ons." Likewise the speech of Eleazar to the Jews holding Masada: he takes up his second attempt to convince them to kill themselves (Bell. 7.341-79), utilizing a wide variety of arguments, and gives a conclu sion and an exhortation at 380. "But seeing that (' ) we have been beguiled by a not ignoble hope . . . and now that hope has van ished . . . let us hasten to die honorably." A number of Jewish writings,42 then, betray the influence of the word of exhortation, but surprisingly, the sermons preserved in rabbinic literature bear no resemblance to this form.43 A split in the traditions evidently occurred after the first century CE.
GREEK RHETORICAL BACKGROUND

The background of the word of exhortation evidently lies in Greek rhetoric, where we find evidence of speeches with a similar structure. Interestingly, however, although Greek and Roman rhetoricians in dulged in minute analysis of almost every conceivable aspect of the art of speaking, they nowhere to my knowledge explicitly described the pattern called here the word of exhortation. Speeches were divided into three functional types: forensic (dikanikon) for arguments at a court of law, deliberative (sumbouleutikon) for arguments of policy, usually before a governing body, and epideictic (epideiktikon) for public, usu ally honorary, speeches. 44 The parts into which these speeches are usu ally dividedprologue, narration, proof, and epilogue for the forensic speechdo not correspond to what we have seen above, 45 nor should we expect popular Jewish and Christian writings to conform in all respects to the canons of Aristotle, Cicero, and Quintilian. There are, however, crucial similarities between some of the speeches preserved in Greek literature and the word of exhortation.
Cf. Heb 2:9, another conclusion in a word of exhortation. In addition to those examined above, 4 Mace 16:16-22 should be considered, as well as speeches from Josephus's Antiquities, e.g., 2.140-51. 43 See the literature cited in nn. 3 and 4. 44 Aristotle Rhetonca 1.3, Pseudo-Cicero Ad Herennium 1.2, and Quintilian 3.3-4. 45 Haering 0'Gedankengang,'' 153-63) analyzes Hebrews into a similar four-part rhe torical schema, but not convincingly. Cf. the attempts to do the same regarding some of Paul's letters by Hans Dieter Betz, "The Literary Composition and Function of Paul's Letter to the Galatians," 5 21 (1974-75) 353-79, and F. Forrester Church, "Rhetor ical Structure and Design in Paul's Letter to Philemon," HTR 71 (1978) 17-33.
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The pattern of exempla/conclusion/exhortation can be tentatively traced to the innovations in Greek oratory in the fifth century BCE. The speeches in Herodotus do not take this exact form, even though many derive an imperative from a list of indicatives, using (equals Attic ovv).46 The speeches in Thucydides, on the other hand, often show a structure similar to what we have seen in Jewish and Christian writings, especially in the so-called "military harangues," the hortatory addresses of the generals to their troops.47 The first of these, 2.11, well illustrates the similarities. The first two exhortations come early on, without extensive exposition or conclusion, but there follows a longer discus sion on the proper psychology of war ^nd an analysis of the advantages and strategies of the opponents. At the end of the speech we find a conclusion and exhortation: Considering, therefore, the power of the state against which we are marching, and the greatness of the reputation which . . . we shall win or lose for our ancestors and ourselves, remember . . . to regard discipline and vigilance as of the first importance, and to obey . . . the orders transmitted to you. In addition to the military harangues, many of the speeches of the civil ian leaders should be noted, including 1.86, 1.120-24, 1.140-44, 3.9-14, 3.42-48, 4.17-20, among others. One finds a speech in Plato's Menexenus (236d-248e) which bears on the discussion. Although ostensibly Socrates' report of a speech by the famous woman rhetorician Aspasia, it stands in Plato's corpus as something of an anomaly. It is a model of an epideictic speech by one 48 who spurned the art of rhetoric. But regardless of Plato's attitude toward it, it probably represents common rhetorical conventions, and here there is, following a memorial tribute to the dead of the Persian War, a conclusion and an exhortation at 246a-c. The speech within a speech that followsthe report of the words of the soldiers to their childrencontains exhortations but resembles the testament form more than the word of exhortation, containing as it does the death-scene words of parents to their children and blessings and curses. But shortly
See, e.g., 8.140 and the various speeches in 9 42-48. See esp. W. F. Harding, The Speeches of Thucydides (Lawrence, KS: Coronado, 1973) 177-79, and Richard C. Jebb, "The Speeches of Thucydides," in Harding's book, 264-66. It is assumed here that literary speeches reflect to a great extent oratorical con ventions. See George Kennedy, The Art of Persuasion in Greece (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963) 47-48. 48 Kennedy, Persuasion, 158-64.
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after this speech within a speech, the main speech is brought to a close at 248e with a conclusion and exhortation: This, O ye children and parents of the dead, is the message which they bid us deliver to you . . . (and) in their name I beseech you, the children, to imitate your fathers, and you, parents, to be of good cheer. Thus both the deliberative speeches of Thucydides and the epideictic speech of Plato use the same organizing structure, in part, as the word of exhortation. Donfried suggests that similarities in terms and intention between 2 Clement and Aristotle's description of the deliberative speech indicate that the former derives from the latter.49 He remains justifiably cautious, however, about how and to what extent this influence was transmitted: It is obviously difficult to specify the exact source of this influence other than to say that it was through a particular rhetorical trajectory prevailing in Greco-Roman Hellenism which was accessible and meaningful to the author of 2 Clement. (36) The same can be said for the word of exhortation in general, but if what I have tried to show here is accepted as convincing, we can perhaps go further and note the actual compositional techniques that have passed over from Greek rhetoric into Jewish and Christian oratory.
SUMMARY OF RESULTS

As a result of this investigation it is now possible to outline a common form of the Hellenistic Jewish and early Christian sermon. This form, sometimes referred to in Christian writings as the "word of exhortation," was characterized by a three-part division into authoritative exempla, conclusion, and exhortation. Sermons were either composed of one set of exempla, conclusion, and exhortation, or could be extended indefinitely by the repetition of the cycle. This flexible sermon form was conducive to the working out of the intimate relation of indicative to imperative, using the authoritative elements of the tradition. The form was also well-suited for oral delivery, as can be seen in
Donfried, Second Clement, 35-36.

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its ordered presentation of exempla, usually listed in an explicit way, the use of the conclusion to repeat and emphasize the significance of the exemplaagain usually explicitlyand the coupling of the conclusion with the exhortation, which gave the goal and motive of the action enjoined. But beyond this central observation there still remain several related issues. The question of origins is given a proposed solution. The parallels in the Hebrew Bible seemed sufficiently vague to reject the use of this form that early in Israel, though one interesting instance, Deuteronomy 29-30, was found. To explain the similarity here we need only remember that effective oratorical patterns can crop up anywhere, but in pre-Hellenistic times this pattern does not seem to have acquired any currency. The Greek rhetorical parallels, on the other hand, proved much more suggestive. Jews and Christians could have learned something of Greek rhetoric in the Hellenistic schools, although I have found no explicit mention of just this division into exempla, conclusion, and exhortation. A question arises, however, as to whether many of the Jewish and Christian attestations could be better explained as the use of Greek historiographical conventions, rather than the appropriation of an oral sermon form. In some cases this is possible, for instance, Josephus, 4 Mace 16, Acts, even Acts of John. But the cases where this is not possible constitute the core of this analysis: LXX Susanna, Epistle of Jeremiah, Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, Hebrews, 1 Peter, 1 Clement, and others. Here the assumption that a sermonic form lies behind the texts becomes compelling. Also, since the speeches in Greek literature do not repeat the three-part pattern, it is most likely that where we find repeating cycles we have even stronger evidence of specifically sermonic material, and not simply a literary adaptation of Greek rhetorical forms. When approached in this way, a large number of Hellenistic Jewish and early Christian writings come to light which can accurately be called sermons or sermon influenced.

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