WORLD

BANK

TECHNICA'L

PAPER

NO.

422

I44sI

Energy Series

Work in progress discussion for public

WTP422 March 1999

Energy from Biomass

and Review of Combustion A4 Technologies Gasification

', LgX.vao~~~~~

PeterQuaak

HarrieKnoef
Hubert Stassen

Recent World Bank Technical Papers

No. 352 No. 353 No. 354 No. 355 No. 356 No. 357 No. 358 Allison and Ringold, Labor Markets in Transition in Central and Eastern Europe, 1989-1995 Ingco, Mitchell, and McCalla, GlobalFood Supply Prospects, A Background Paper Preparedfor the World Food Summit, Rome, November 1996 Subramanian, Jagannathan, and Meinzen-Dick, User Organizationsfor Sustainable Water Services Lambert, Srivastava, and Vietmeyer, Medicinal Plants: Rescuing a GlobalHeritage Aryeetey, Hettige, Nissanke, and Steel, Financial Market Fragmentation and Reforms in Sub-Saharan Africa Adamolekun, de Lusignan, and Atomate, editors, Civil Service Reform in Francophone Africa: Proceedings of a Workshop Abidjan, January 23-26, 1996 Ayres, Busia, Dinar, Hirji, Lintner, McCalla, and Robelus, Integrated Lake and Reservoir Management: World Bank Approach and Experience Laporte and Ringold, Trends in Education Access and Financing during the Transition in Central and Eastern Europe. Foley, Floor, Madon, Lawali, Montagne, and Tounao, The Niger Household Energy Project: Promoting Rural Fuelwood Markets and VillageManagement of Natural Woodlands Pratt, Le Gall, and de Haan, Investing in Pastoralism: Sustainable Natural Resource Use in Arid Africa and the Middle East Carvalho and White, Combining the Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches to Poverty Measurement and Analysis: The Practice and the Potential Colletta and Reinhold, Review of Early Childhood Policy and Programs in Sub-Saharan Africa Pohl, Anderson, Claessens, and Djankov, Privatization and Restructuring in Central and Eastern Europe: Evidence and Policy Options Costa-Pierce, From Farmers to Fishers: Developing Reservoir Aquaculturefor People Displaced by Dams Dejene, Shishira, Yanda, and Johnsen, Land Degradation in Tanzania: Perceptionfrom the Village Essama-Nssah, Analyse d'une repartition du niveau de vie Cleaver and Schreiber, Inverser la spriale:Les interactions entre la population, I'agriculture et l'environnement en Afrique subsaharienne Onursal and Gautam, Vehicular Air Pollution: Experiencesfrom Seven Latin American Urban Centers Jones, Sector Investment Programs in Africa: Issues and Experiences Francis, Milimo, Njobvo, and Tembo, Listening to Farmers: Participatory Assessment of Policy Reform in Zambia's Agriculture Sector Tsunokawa and Hoban, Roads and the Environment: A Handbook

No. 360 Salman, The Legal Frameworkfor Water Users' Associations: A Comparative Study No. 361 No. 362

No. 364 Josling, Agricultural Trade Policies in the Andean Group: Issues and Options No. 365 No. 366 No. 367 No. 368 No. 369 No. 370 No. 371 No. 372 No. 373 No. 374 No. 375 No. 376

No. 377 Walsh and Shah, Clean Fuelsfor Asia: Technical Options for Moving toward Unleaded Gasoline and Low-Sulfur Diesel No. 378 Shah and Nagpal, eds., Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia: Kathmandu Valley Report No. 379 Shah and Nagpal, eds., Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia: Jakarta Report No. 380 No. 382 No. 383 No. 384 No. 385 No. 386 No. 387 Shah and Nagpal, eds., Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia: Metro Manila Report Barker, Tenenbaum, and Woolf, Governance and Regulation of Power Pools and System Operators: An International Comparison Goldman, Ergas, Ralph, and Felker, TechnologyInstitutions and Policies: Their Role in Developing TechnologicalCapability in Industry Kojima and Okada, Catching Up to Leadership: The Role of TechnologySupport Institutions in Japan's Casting Sector Rowat, Lubrano, and Porrata, Competition Policy and MERCOSUR Dinar and Subramanian, Water Pricing Experiences:An International Perspective Oskarsson, Berglund, Seling, Snellman, Stenback, and Fritz, A Planner's Guidefor Selecting Clean-Coal Technologies Power Plants for No. 381 Shah and Nagpal, eds., Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia: Greater Mumbai Report

No. 388 Sanjayan, Shen, and Jansen, Experiences with Integrated-Conservation Development Projects in Asia (List continues on the inside back cover)

WORLD BANK TECHNICAL

PAPER NO. 422

EnergySeries

Energy from Biomass

A Reviewof Combustion and Gasification Technologies

PeterQuaak HarrieKnoef HubertStassen

The WorldBank Washington, D.C.

Copyright K 1999 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433,U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing March 1999 Technical Papers are published to communicate the results of the Bank's work to the development community with the least possible delay. The typescript of this paper therefore has not been prepared in accordance with the procedures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility for errors. Some sources cited in this paper may be informal documents that are not readily available. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility for any consequence of their use. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this volume do not imply on the part of the World Bank Group any judgment on the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. The material in this publication is copyrighted. The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission promptly. Permission to photocopy items for internal or personal use, for the internal or personal use of specific clients, or for educational classroom use is granted by the World Bank, provided that the appropriate fee is paid directly to Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, U.S.A.,telephone 978-750-8400, 978-7504470. Please contact the Copyright Clearance Center fax before photocopying items. For permission to reprint individual articles or chapters, please fax your request with complete information to the Republication Department, Copyright Clearance Center, fax 978-750-4470. All other queries on rights and licenses should be addressed to the World Bank at the address above or faxed to 202-522-2422. ISSN:0253-7494 Peter Quaak, Harrie Knoef, and Hubert Stassen work for the Biomass Technology Group, Enschede, the Netherlands. Libraryof Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Quaak, Peter. Energy from biomass: a review of combustion and gasification technologies / Peter Quaak, Harrie Knoef, Hubert Stassen. p. cm. - (World Bank technical paper; 422. Energy series) ISBN 0-8213 4335-1 1. Biomass energy. I. Knoef, Harrie. II. Stassen, Hubert E., 1942- . III. Title. IV.Series. TP339.Q23 1998 662'.88-dc2l 98-31271 CLP

ENERGY SERIES No. 240 Ahmed, Renewable EnergyTechnologies: Reviewof the Status and Costsof S electedTechnologies A No. 242 Barnes, Openshaw, Smith, and van der Plas, WhatMakesPeopleCookwith ImprovedBiomassStoves?A Comparative International Reviewof Stove Programs No. 243 Menke and Fazzari, ImprovingElectricPowerUtility Efficiency: Issuesand Recommendations No. 244 Liebenthal, Mathur, and Wade, SolarEnergy: Lessonsfromthe Pacific IslandExperence No. 271 Ahmed, Technological Development PollutionAbatement: Study of How Enterprises FindingAlternativesto and A are Chlorofluorocarbons No. 278 Wijetillekeand Karunaratne, Air QualityManagement: Considerationsfor Developing Countries No. 279 Anderson and Ahmed, The CaseforSolarEnergyInvestments No. 286 Tavoulareas and Charpentier, CleanCoalTechnologiesfor Developing Countries No. 296 Stassen, Small-Scale BiomassGasifiersfor Heat and Power: Global A Review No. 304 Foley, Photovoltaic Applicationsin RuralAreasof the Developing World No. 308 Adamson and others, EnergyUse,Air Pollution,and Environmental Policyin Krakow: EconomicIncentivesReally Can Help? No. 325 Bacon,Besant-Jones,and Heidarian, EstimatingConstructionCostsand Schedules: Experience with PowerGeneration Projectsin Developing Countries No. 362 Foley,Floor, Madon, Lawali, Montagne, and Tounao, TheNiger Household EnergyProject: PromotingRural FuelwoodMarketsand IrllageManagement Natural Woodlands. of No. 421 Bom, Foster, Dijkstra, and Tummers, Evaporative Air-Conditioning: Applications Environmentally for Friendly Cooling

Contents
Foreword .x..... Abstract .. . . . .. xiii xv xvi xvii

Acknowledgments......................... Abbreviationsand Acronyms......................... Units and Prefixes......................... I. 2. Introduction .1 Biomass as a Fuel Typesand Sourcesof Biomass ThermalPropertiesof Biomass MoistureContent Ash Content.3 Volatile Matter Content ElementalComposition Heating.Value.3 BulkDensity.4 FuelCharacteristics BiomassCharacteristics Relatedto the Environment Contaminants NitrogenContent Volatile Hydrocarbons .2 .2 .2 .2 .3 .3 .4 .4 .4 .5 .5

3.

Combustion Systems and the Steam Cycle .7 Principles.7 The Furnace.7 Utilizationof the ThermalEnergyContainedin the Flue Gas FurnaceTypes .10 Fixed.Bed.Systems.10 RecentDevelopments Fixed-Bed in Systemsof Lessthan 5 MW. .12 Flue-GasCondensation .13 Fluidized-Bed Systems .13 Emissionsfrom Fluidized-Bed Systems .15 EmissionsReduction.15 Process-Integrated Measures .................. SecondaryMeasuresto ReduceEmissions .16 The SteamCycle .18

.8

15

Energy from Biomns

Componentsof the SteamCycle ......................................................... SteamBoilers ......................................................... SteamEngines ......................................................... SteamTurbines......................................................... Condensers ......................................................... WaterTreatment......................................................... Optimizingof SteamCycles ......................................................... Application SteamCyde ......................................................... of CombinedHeat and Power......................................................... 4.

20 20 21 21 22 22 23 24 25

GasificationSystems......................................................... 26 Introduction ......................................................... 26 FixedBedGasifiers......................................................... 27 Updraftor CountercurrentGasifiers......................................................... 27 Downdraftor CocurrentGasifiers ......................................................... 28 Cross-DraftGasifiers......................................................... 28 Open-CoreGasifier......................................................... 28 Comparisonof Fixed-Bed Gasifiers ......................................................... 29 Developments Fixed-Bed in Gasifiers ......................................................... 29 Technicaland OperationalProblemswith Fixed-Bed Gasifiers ..................................................... 31 Fluidized-Bed Gasifiers ......................................................... 31 Principles ......................................................... 31 Pressurized Fluidized-Bed Gasification ......................................................... 32 Comparisonof Fixed-Bed Fluidized-Bed and Gasifiers .............................. ........................... 33 GasTreatment ......................................................... 33 Tar Removal......................................................... 33 Dust Removal ......................................................... 34 GasEngines......................................................... 34 GasTurbines......................................................... 35 Combined-Cycle STIGand STEG......................................................... 38 Heat Generation......................................................... 39 Combustion Versus Gasification .......................................... . ............. 40 HeatApplications......................................................... 40 Retrofittingof Fossil-Fuel-Fired Furnaces......................................................... 40 Installationof a Prefurnace......................................................... 40 Installationof a Gasifier......................................................... 41 Conversionof Furnaces......................................................... 41 PowerApplications ......................................................... 41 Conceptsin the 1 MW Range......................................................... 42 Comparisonof Gasification the Steam-Cycle and Conceptin the 1 MWdRange............. ........... 43 Conceptsin the 5 MW Range......................................................... 47 Comparisonof Gasification Steam-Cycle and Conceptsin the 5 MW, Range............... .............. 47 Sensitivity Analysis......................................................... 48 Conclusions ......................................................... 52

5.

6.

vi

Energyfrom Biomass

References ......................................................................... Annex 1: Formulas for Quantification of Biomass Properties ....................................................... Moisture Content ......................................................................... Ash Content ......... ................................................................ Heating Values.........................................................................

54 56 56 56 57

Annex 2: Stoichiometric Air Requirements in the Combustion Process ..............

......................... 58

Amount of Air to Be Supplied to the Combustion Process .................................................................. 58 Primary Air ......................................................................... 58 Secondary Air ......................................................................... 58 Combustion Products ......................................................................... 59

Annex 3: Conversion of Heat into Power .................................

........................................ 60 61

Annex 4: Theory of Gasification .........................................................................

Annex 5: Financial Analysis of 1 MWeiSystems ......................................................................... 63 Annex 6: Financial Analysis of 5 MWei Systems ......................................................................... 71 Figures 2.1 BiomassComposition.......................................................................... 2 2.2 Calorific Valueof Biomass(Lowerand HigherHeatingValue)as a Functionof MoistureContent ...4 3.1 BasicProcessFlowfor BiomassCombustion .......................................................................... 7 3.2 Adiabatic FlameTemperatureas a Functionof BiomassMoistureContent and Excess Air Factor (X)......................................................................... 8 3.3 Adiabatic FlameTemperatureas a Functionof BiomassAshContent,MoistureContent, and Excess Factor......................................................................... Air 9 3.4 CalculatedBoilerEfficiency (basedon HHV) as a Functionof BiomassMoistureContent (StackTemperature,200C) ......................................................................... 10 3.5 A Sloping-Grate CombustionSystem......................................................................... 11 3.6 SuspensionBurnerfor Pulverized Coal ......................................................................... 11 3.7 Spreader-Stoker Systemwith an IntegratedWaterTubeBoiler....................................... 1.....................I 1 3.8 CombustionSystemwith Underscrew FeedingSystem ......................................................................... 12 3.9 CyclonicCombustionSystem......................................................................... 13 3.10 CigarBurner .......................................................................... 14 3.11 Fluidized-Bed CombustionSystem......................................................................... 14 3.12 StagedCombustionSystem ......................................................................... 16 3.13 "Hose Filter"Typeof BagFilter......................................................................... 17 3.14 Electrostatic Precipitator......................................................................... 17 3.15 The Principleof Scrubbing......................................................................... 17 3.16 Exampleof a ScrubbingPlant......................................................................... 18 3.17 Exampleof a Multi-Cylone ......................................................................... 18 3.18 EnergyTransformations a SteamCycle......................................................................... in 20 3.19 Schematicof a SteamSystem......................................................................... 20

vii

Energy fromBiomass

3.20 An Inclined-Grate Combustor with a Connected Three-Draft Firetube Boiler .............. .................... 21 3.21 Water-Tube Boiler ................................................................. 21 3.22 Isentropic EfficiencyVersus Capacity for Small-ScaleTurbines ........................................................... 22 3.23 Cycle with Steam Reheating After the First Turbine ........................................ ......................... 23 3.24 Cycle with Feed Water and Air Preheaters ................................................................. 24 4.1 Updraft or Countercurrent Fixed-Bed Gasifier ......................... ........................................ 27 4.2 Downdraft or Cocurrent Fixed-Bed Gasifier .................... ............................................. 28 4.4 Open-Core Gasifier ................................................................. 29 4.3 Cross-Draft Fixed-Bed Gasifier................................................................. 29 4.5 Downdraft Gasifier with V-Shaped Throat and Internal Heat Exchange...................... ....................... 29 4.6 Small-Diameter Gasifier................................................................. 30 4.7 Gasifier with Tar Collection ................................................................. 30 4.8 Delacotte Gasifier ................................................................. 30 4.9 Fluidized-Bed Gasifier ................................................................. 32 4.10 Tar Accumulation on Valveand ValveStem ................................................................. 34 4.11 T-Type Mixing System for Mixing Producer Gas with Combustion Air ....................... ....................... 35 4.12 Basic Gas Turbine (A) and Two-Shaft (B) Configurations ................................................................. 36 4.13 Gas Turbine with Exhaust Gas Heat Recovery................................................................. 36 4.14 Gas Turbine with Heat Recovery,Intercooling, and Reheat .................................................................37 5.1 SensitivityAnalysis of Concepts in the 1 MWeRange ..................................................... ............ 46 5.2 SensitivityAnalysis of Concepts in the 5 MW, Range ...................................................... ........... 50 Tables 2.1 Elementary Composition of Typical Biomass as Derived from Ultimate Analyses ............. .................. 3 2.2 Typical Characteristics of Different Biomass Fuel Types Presently Used Commercially for Energy Generation ................................................................. 5 2.3 Sulfur and Chloride Content of Some Biomass Materials .................................................................. 6 3.1 Comparison of Fixed-Bed Combustion Systems........................... ...................................... 13 3.2 Advantages,Drawbacks, and Energy Use of Flue-Gas Treatment Systems .................... ...................... 19 4.1 Characteristics of Different Types of Gasifiers................................................................. 31 4.2 Typical Characteristics of Fixed-Bed and Fluidized-Bed Gasifiers............................................ ........... 33 4.3 Specifications for Use of Producer Gas in Engines .................................... ............................. 35 4.4 Gas Turbines Suitable for Low-CalorificGases................................................................. 37 4.5 Quality Requirements for Gas Turbine Fuel Gas ........................... ...................................... 38 5.1 Gasifier/Engine Concept in 1 MWeRange with Indicative Capacities ............................ ..................... 42 5.2 Steam-Cycle Concept in 1 MWe Range with Indicative Capacities ......................................................43 5.3 Characteristic Data of Gasifier/Engine and Steam-CycleConcept ....................................................... 44 5.4 Operational Aspects of Gasifier/Engine and Steam Cyde ................................................................... 45 5.5 Electricity Production Costs: Steam versus Gasifier (Range: < 1 MWJ) ........................ ...................... 45 5.6 Electricity Production Costs: Steam versus Gasifier for SmallApplications Based on CHP Concepts (Range: < 1MW1l) ......................... ....................................... 45 5.7 Steam Cycle Concept, 5 MW , with Indicative Capacities ................................................................ 48 5.8 Gasifier/STEGConcept with Indicative Capacities ................................ ................................ 48 5.9 Characteristic Data of Gasifier/STEGand Steam-CycleConcepts in the 5 MWe Range ........... .......... 49 5.10 Electricity Production Costs Based on CHP Concepts in the 5 MWd Range .................. ..................... 49 ................................ 49 5.11 Electricity Production Costs in the 5 MWeiRange ................................ 62 A4.1 Composition of Gas From Commercial Wood and Charcoal Gasifiers ............................................... 63 A5.1 Steam Cycle (Appr. 1 MWe;Power generation/vacuum condenser) .....................................................

viii

Energyfrom Biomass

A5.2 A5.3 A5.4 A6.1 A6.2 A6.3 A6.4

Steam Cycle (Appr. 1 MW; CHP atm condenser) .................................................. Gasifier/Engine (Appr. 1 MWe;Power generation) .................................................. Gasifier/Engine (Appr. 1 MWe;CHP) .................................................. Steam Cycle (Appr. 5 MW,; Power generation/vacuum condenser) .................................................. Steam Cycle (Appr. 5 MWe;CHP) .................................................. Gasifier and STEG (Appr. 5 MWe;Power generation STEG) .......................... ........................ Gasifier and STEG (Appr. 5 MWe;CHP STEG) ..................................................

65 67 69 71 73 75 77

ix

Foreword
Energy, essentialfor development,is oftenin short supplyin countrieswith the greatestbiomassresources. However, biomassis a renewableenergyresourcewhosepotentialhas not been fullyexploited. Thereare severaleconomicbenefitsin developing countriesto the use of biomassresources.The scarcityof hard currencyin the indebtedcountries obligesthem to look for indigenous,cost-effective substitutes fuel that reducethe needfor fuelimports.Conversionof crop residuesinto energyincreases valueof agriculthe tural output.Thecostsof gettingrid of municipalwastes not negligible are mountingin themegacities are and of the developing worldwhere land resourcesare constrained. Abenefitof usingbiomassin placeof fossilfuelsis that CO emissionsare cut as a result.Thisis becausethe 2 biomassactsas a carbonsink when it is growing.Replacing fossilfuelswith sustainablebiomassfuelis thus one option that countriesmaywishto considerin restrainingCO emissions. 2 The use of biomassresiduesas an energyresourcefacesimpedimentsto larger-scale deployment.Seasonal availability high costsof handling are reasonsin someplacesas are the costsof competingfuels. and Another reason,and whythis report waswritten, is that informationon modern technologies convert that biomassto usefulenergyhas not been sufficiently widelydisseminated.This report thereforereviewsthe state of the art ofbiomasscombustionand gasification systems, alongwith their advantagesand drawbacks. Bydisseminating informationmorewidely, reportcan helpbring about a surgein investmentin the this the use of thesetechnologies thus enabledeveloping and countriesto exploittheir biomassresources better and help closethe gap betweentheir energyneeds and their energysupply. JamesBond Director Energy, Mining and Telecommunications Department

xi

Abstract
Biomassmaterialshavepropertiesthat differfrom those of conventionalsolid fuels such as coal.A major difference the high content ofvolatilematterin biomassmaterials(up to 80percent),whereascoalhasless is than 20 percent (anthracitecoal sometimesevenhas a negligible volatilecontent).The designof a combustion or gasificationsystemdepends heavilyon the specificbiomass material-its morphology,moisture content,and mixof contaminants.Thelast determineswhich flue-gas cleaningsystemswillbe applied. Combustionsystemsbased on steam cyclesare technicallymature and commerciallyavailable.Eventhe most advancedconcepts(basedon fluidized-bed combustion)are technically proven. Gasification systemsare commercially available.However, small-scale applicationsneed much supervision and sufferfrom frequent interruptions. Current developmentof gasificationsystemsis directedtoward increasingtheir performanceand reliability. Advancedintegratedgasification combinedheat and powerconceptsare promisingbut still not demand onstrated.Ademonstrationplant has been built but is not yet in fiiul operation. Comparisonshavebeen made betweengasifier/engine steam-cycle and conceptswith capacitiesof 1 MWe. Production costsfor the gasifier/engine capacitiesfor the consideredbase are lowerthan that of the steam cycle.However, some uncertaintyis involvedin assumptionsof the base case,and sensitivityanalyses show that changein those assumptionsis largerthan the difference costsbetweenthe two concepts. in Therefore, on cannot concludein generalthat on conceptis more attractivethan the other. Rather,feasibility studies must be performedin each caseto determinewhich systemis most suitable.

xii

Acknowledgments
BTGpreparedthis report withinthe frameworkof the ESMAP programmeof the WorldBank.The authors wouldliketo thankWlllemFloorand his colleagues the WorldBankfor their support and for providing of valuablecommentson the draft report.Thanksalso go to the following colleagues BTGwho haveassisted of in gatheringinformation:WolterPrins,RolandSiemons,ReneVenendaal, v.d. Heuvel,JohnVos,Bert Eric Wagenaar, v.d.Beld,and HansJurgenKoele. arealso gratefulto Mrs. MarjaBakker her secretarial Bert We for assistance. dr.ir.W.P.M. Swaay Twente Prof. van of University Prof.dr.ir.A.A.C.M. and Beenackers Groningen of University acknowledged their advice.Finally, authorswouldliketo thankthe NetherlandsOrgaare for the nizationfor Energyand Environment, Novem,for guidingthe ideaof this projectin the initialstages.

xv

Abbreviations Acronyms and

General
CEE Central and Eastern European Countries

Technical terms
AC CHP LHV HHV MC Ti X (p t} ash content (of biomass) combined heat and power lower heating value higher heating value moisture content (of biomass) efficiency excessair factor mass flow phi

Subscripts
boil boiler comb combustion d daf e, el gen th w wt on a dry basis on a dry and ash-free basis electric generator thermal on a wet basis on basis of weight

xvi

UnitsandPrefixes
Length
m meter

Temperature
OC degreesCelsius

Area
m2 square meter

Prefixes
m c k M G mili (10-3) centi (10-2) kilo (103 ) Mega (106) Giga (109)

Volume
1 m3 liter cubic meter

Weight
g

gram kilogram tonne (1,000kg)

T Tera(1012) norN before m3 (with gas volume), indicates norm condition of a gas (i.e.,1 bar, 0C)

kg t

Time
d h s yr day hour second year

Energy
J kWh joule (newton-meter) kilowatt-hour(3,600,000 or 3.6 MJ) J

Power
W Watt (=J/s)

xvfii

1.Introduction
Use of wood and other forms of biomassas fuels for generatingelectricityand heat has become a focusof renewed interestin manyparts of theworld. Biomassis an indigenous,often cheap, and above allrenewable Theincreasingavailability biofuel. of mass, combined with the recent developmentof technologies use it efficiently with lowlevels to and of emissions, promiseto makebiomassan increasinglyattractivefuel option. Althoughbiomassis beingusedin industrialapplications in Centraland Eastern Europeand in developing countries, the systems in operation are oftenold,inefficient, poorlymaintained,resultand ing in wasteand pollution.Yetbiomass,in contrast to fossilfuels,has a unique potentialfor makinga positiveenvironmentalimpact. That is, in a plan for sustainablebiomass production and use, the carbon dioxide(CO ) emitted wouldbe absorbed 2 by the growthof new biomass. Biomass can be burned without emitting large amounts of nitrogen oxides(NO,). Moreover,because the sulfur content of biomass is very low, emissionsof sulfur dioxide (SO ) will alsobe low, 2 especially comparedwith the emissionsfrom coalfired combustion.In addition, using biomassas a fuelwould mobilizepreviouslybothersomeor environmentallydetrimental resources (such as agricultural residues and residues from the woodworking industries). This publicationprovidesinformationon the state of the art of biomasscombustionand gasification systemsand spells out the advantagesand drawbacksof each.Its ultimate purpose is to encourage investorsand industriesto adopt efficientequipment and operational methods that will enable them to take advantageof hitherto underutilized biomassfuels.

2. Biomass a Fuel as
An assessment of the use of biomass as a fuel requires a basic understanding of the types and sources of suitable biomass and of their basic composition, characteristics, and performance.

Thermal Properties of Biomass

Each type of biomass has specific properties that determine its performance as a fuel in combustion or gasification devices or both. The most important properties relating to the thermal conversion

Types and Sourcesof Biomass

One of the most important biomass fuels is wood. Of course, trees may be collected from forests and simply logged into appropriate sizes for direct use as fuel. But wood is often too valuable to burn, and woodworking industries are able to make better use of trees by processing them into construction materials. True residues such as bark, sawdust, and misshapen or odd-sized pieces are frequently more economic to use as fuel.After serving as a construction material, however, wood may become available as "demolition wood" and can be used as a fuel at that time. In industrial countries, this type of wood is considered waste and therefore available at low or even bargain prices. Unfortunately, this wood may contain contaminants from paints and plastics or pieces of iron. Many agricultural residues can be used as fuels. They include straw from grains; husks from rice, coconuts, or coffee; stalks from maize or cotton; and bagasse from sugar cane. In addition, forestry and landscape conservation activitiesgenerate biomass such as thinnings and verge grass. Using these biomass residues as fuels may solve the environmental problem of how to dispose of them. Moreover,the potential for using residues as a source of

of biomassare as follows:
* * * * * * Moisture content Ash content Volatile matter content Elemental composition Heating value Bulk density

In the available literature, different indicators are often used to quantify the properties listed above, causing confusion. Hence, the definition of these indicators and the relationships between them are emphasized here. In defining the properties of biomass, it is important to note that it consists of water, ash, and ash-free matter (Figure 2.1), and that the proportion of each is critical in evaluating the suitability of biomass as a fuel.

Figure2.1: Biomass Composition

ae
Wet Ash basis

Dry and

energymaycreatenewincentives growcropsthat to
are now only marginally profitable. Cultivation of biomass specificallyfor direct use as a fuel-known as energycropping-may create new incentives for the agricultural sector, particularly in countries that suffer from overproduction of crops. Future energy-cropping activities may involve cultivation of fast-growingwood speciessuch as poplar, willow, or miscanthus in moderate climates, and sugar cane or sweet sorghum or other suitable species in tropical areas.

matst-ere

Dyand bais

Source:BTG (1995).

Moisture Content
The moisture content of biomass is the quantity of water in the material, expressed as a percentage of the material's weight. This weight can be referred

Energy fromBiomass

to on a wet basis, on a dry basis, and on a dry-andash-freebasis. If the moisture content is determined on a "wet"basis, the water's weight is expressed as a percentage of the sum of the weight of the water, ash, and dryand-ash-free matter. Similarly,when calculating the moisture content on a "dry" basis (however contradictory that may seem), the water's weight is expressed as a percentage of the weight of the ash and dry-and-ash-free matter. Finally,the moisture content can be expressed as a percentage of the "dryand-ash-free" matter content. In that last case, the water's weight is related to the weight of the dry biomass.Because the moisture content affectsthe value of biomass as a fuel,the basis on which the moisture content is measured must alwaysbe mentioned. This is particularly important because biomass materials exhibit a wide range of moisture content (on a wet basis), ranging from less than 10 percent for cereal grain straw up to 50 to 70 percent for forest residues.

tion. For example, melted ash may cause problems in both combustion and gasificationreactors. These problems may vary from clogged ash-removal caused by slaggingash to severeoperating problems in fluidized-bed systems.

Volatile Matter Content

Volatilematter refers to the part of the biomass that is released when the biomass is heated (up to 4000 to 500C). During this heating process the biomass decomposes into volatile gases and solid char. Biomass typically has a high volatile matter content (up to 80 percent), whereas coal has a low volatile matter content (less than 20 percent) or, in the case of anthracite coal, a negligible one.

Elemental Composition
The composition of the ash-free organic component of biomass is relativelyuniform. The major components are carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. Most biomass also contains a small proportion of nitrogen. Table2.1 presents the averagerange of percentages.

Ash Content
The inorganic component (ash content) can be expressed in the same way as the moisture contenton a wet, dry, or dry-and-ash-free basis. In general, the ash content is expressed on a dry basis. The inherent ash value-an integral part of the plant structure, which consists of a wide range of elements-represents less than 0.5 percent in wood, 5 to 10 percent in diverse agricultural crop materials, and up to 30 to 40 percent in rice husks and milfoil. The total ash content in the biomass and the chemical composition of the ash are both important. The composition of the ash affects its behavior under the high temperatures of combustion and gasifica-

Heating Value
The heating value of a fuel is an indication of the energy chemically bound in the fuel with reference to a standardized environment. The standardization involvesthe temperature, state of water (vapor or liquid), andthe combustion products (CO2, H20, etc.). These standard conditions are widelyavailablein the literature on the measurement of heating values. The energy chemically bound in the fuel is given by the heating value of the fuel in energy (J) per amount of matter (kg). This energy cannot be measured directly, but only with respect to a reference state. Reference states may differ, so a number of different heating values exist. The best known are

Table 2.1:ElementaryComposition TypicalBiomass Derivedfrom Ultimate Analyses of as

Element
Carbon
Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Sulfur

Symbol
C
H 0 N S

Weightpercent (dry and ash-free basis)

44-51
5.5-6.7 41-50 0.12-0.60 0.0-0.2

Source:BTG (1987). Thermochemical conversion of biomass to energy, UNIDO, Vienna.

Energy fromBiomass

the lower heatingvalue (LHV)and higherheating value (HHV).For the LHV,the referencestate of water is its gaseousstate; for the HHV,the referencestate of wateris its liquid state. Biomassalwayscontains some water,which is releasedasvaporupon heating.This impliesthat some of the heat liberatedduring the chemicalreactions isabsorbedbythe evaporationprocess. this reaFor son, the net heating value (LHV)decreasesas the moisture content of the biomass increases (even apart from the fact that a higher moisturecontent itselfimpliesa lower content of combustiblematter,whichon a wetbasisalsodecreases net heatthe ing valueper kilogram of biomass). Figure2.2 illustrates the relationshipbetween calorificvalue (LHVand HHV) and moisturecontent. Figure2.2:CslorlflcVaiue of Bblmas (Lower and Higher Heating Value)asa Function MoistureContent of
20,000 -

In practice,heatingvaluesare givenon wet, dry,or dry-and-ash-freebasis. For all biomass types the value of HHV on a dry-and-ash-free basis (HHVdaf)is in the order of 20,400kJ/kg( 15percent) (BTG1995a).Annex 1 provides formulasto calculatethe biomassfuelproperties on this basis.

BulkDensity
Bulkdensityrefersto theweightof materialper unit of volume.Forbiomassthis is commonlyexpressed on an oven-dry-weight basis(moisturecontent;MC = 0 percent)or an as-isbasis,with a corresponding indication of moisture content (MCW). Similarto biomassmoisturecontents,biomassbulk densities show extremevariation,from lows of 150 to 200 3 kg/m for cerealgrain strawsand shavingsto highs 3 of 600to 900 kg/m for solid wood. Together, heatingvalueand bulk densitydetermine the energy density-that is, the potential energy availableper unit volumeof the biomass.In general, biomass energy densities are approximately one-tenth that of fossilfuelssuch as petroleumor
high-quality coal.

g 15,X00 r
.2

'

-.
;;2"*.

10,000

Fuel Characteristics
;; *.
,Although .

-5,000 0

20

40

60

so

100

Moisture content (%/6)

-

similar with regard to higher heating values, biomass fuels have large differenceswith respect to physical (moisture content and bulk density), chemical (volatile matter content and ash content), and morphological (size and size distribution) characteristics.These fuel characteristicsaffectthe choice of conversion technology: "easy' fuels such as charcoal or wood blocks can be made to work in a large

Note

varietyof equipment,whereas"difficult" fuelssuch LHVLower heatingvalue; HHV=higherheatingvalue. as ricehusksor bagasse for veryspecific call and often expensivetechnological solutions, either in conversion equipment or in fuel preparation facilities. Some biomasstypes that presently are used commerciallyfor energygeneration, together with their natural moisture content (MCW), content (ACd),and ash resulting LHVs, are listed in Table 2.2.

LHV

------

HHV

At a moisture content of approximately 87 percent (wet basis) the LHV would be zero. In practice, the maximum allowable moisture content must be 55 percent (wet basis) to ignite the fuel and extract energy from it.

The only effect of moisture content on HHV is

the lower content of combustible matter per kilogram of biomass fuel. The heat of evaporation is recovered completely by condensation of the water vapor when the flue gases are brought into the reference state belonging to HHV.

Biomass Characteristics Relatedto the Environment

Contaminants
Fresh-biomass-materials contain very few components that can cause environmental problems. Sulfurrandchlorine, however,maybe present in small amounts, and may contribute to the formation of

Enrg fromBlomass

acidrainwhentheyareconvertedintoSO2 and HC1 during combustion.Table2.3 indicatesthe content of sulfurand chlorineof somebiomassmaterials. Nitrogen Content Nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2 , collectivelyreferredto as NOX) contributeto the formation also of acidrain.Twotypes ofNO. formationtakeplace during combustion:ThermalNO.formation takes 0 place at temperatures above 950 C from the nitrogen containedin the combustion air. FuelNO. formation occurs at lower temperatures from the nitrogen contained in the fuel. In general, the

quantitiesof NO, formedcan be limited by using lower combustion temperaturesand stagedcombustion (technologiesthat are discussedlater). Volatile Hydrocarbons In combustion and gasificationprocesses,volatile hydrocarbons, referredto collectively CxHr,are as formed.These components can be burned when they are containedover time in a hot combustion zone.In well-designedcombustionsystems,emissionsof CxHy very low.However, poorly deare in signedcombustiondevices openfires, or CxH emissionsmaybe considerable.

Table 2.2: TypicalCharactedaicsof Dliferent BonmasFuelTypesPresentyUsed Commercally for EnergyGnenaton Type

Bagasse Cocoahusks Coconutshells Coffeehusks Cottonresidues Stalks Gin trash Maize Cobs Stalks

LHVw (kJ/kg)
7,700-8,000 13,000-16,000 18,000 16,000 16,000 14,000 13,000-15,000 5,000 11,000 15,000 15,000 9,000-15,000 14,000 12,000 8,400-17,000 25,000-32,000

MCw (%)
40-60 7-9 8 10 10-20 9 10-20 63 40 15 15 13-15 9 10 10-60 1-10

ACd (%)
1.7-3.8 7-14 4 0.6 0.1 12 2 3-7 5

Palm-oil residues
Fruit stems Fibers Shells Debris Peat Ricehusks Straw Wood Charcoal Source Author.

1-20 19 4.4 0.25-1.7 0.5-6

Energy fromBiomass

Table 2.3:Sulfurand ChlorideContent of SomeBiomass Materials

(Weight Percent DryBasis) on

BiomassMaterial Maize Wood Bark Straw Grass

Source: Schmidt others,1993. and

Sulfur 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.07 0.18

Chlorine 1.48 0.01 0.02 0.49 0.88

3. Combustion Systems the SteamCycle and

Combustion is the most direct process for converting biomass into usable energy, and it is used in many applications.Ignition of biomass materials requires high temperatures (at least 550'C; TNO 1992), so the most difficult aspect of the combustion process is to start it. Once ignition has taken place, however, assuming sufficient air supply is guaranteed, combustion will proceed. In fact, it may be difficult to stop the process before complete combustion of the material has taken place. Despite its apparent simplicity, combustion is a complex process from a technological point of view. High reaction rates and high heat release and many reactants and reaction schemes are involved. Fundamental research has provided some insight into the chemical reactions governing the combustion process, and recent applications of the basic principles have led to new technologies designed to is characterized by small blue flames or glowing of the char pieces. In order to analyze the combustion process a (conceptual) division is made between the furnace (the place where the fuel is burned) and the heat exchanger(the place where the heat from the flue gas is exchanged for a process medium or energy carrier, such as water, steam, or air). In practice, some radiant heat exchange always takes place between the furnace and heat exchanger, but for simplicity, it is assumed in this conceptualization that all heat is transported by the flue gases (Figure 3.1).

Figure3.1:BasicProcess Flowfor Biomass

Combustion
Flue gas

meet current emissionand efficiency standards.

The principles of combustion, available furnaces and systems, and recent developments in furnace and related technologies are described in what follows. In addition, the final part of the chapter treats steam cycles,which are applied to produce power from combustion of biomass.
Fuel Ar

Fumace

Boiler

Thermal energy

Principles
In the combustion process, the following stagescan be distinguished: * Drying. This phase involves evaporation of the contained water. * Pyrolysisand reduction. This is the thermal decomposition of the fuel into volatile gases and solid char. * Combustionof the volatilegasesabovethefuel bed. The volatile gasesproduced by pyrolysis and reduction burn above the fuel bed, showing yellow flames. * Combustion of the char in the fuel bed. The solid char is combusted on the grate, and its burning

Source:Authors.

The Furnace
In the combustion process, which takes place in the furnace, chemical-bound energy in the fuel is converted into thermal energy, which becomes available in the form of hot flue gas. This hot flue gas is thus the useful output of the furnace. The energy contained in the fuel that is not transferred to the flue gas (in the form of thermal energy) is lost. Such losses derive from the followingfactors:

Energy Biomass from

* Heat losses to the environment (by heat transmission through the furnace walls). * Release of hot ash (the thermal energy stored in the ash thus is not used). * Unburned particles in the ash (the chemical energy in these particles is not released). * Unburned pyrolysis gases and carbon monoxide (CO) in the flue gas (these still contain chemical energy). The efficiency of the furnace (or the combustion process) can be defined as follows: Equation I
Y
flcomb -

Figure3.2: AdiabaticFlameTemperature asa Function Biomass of Moisture Content and Excess Factor(X) Air
(AssumedAsh Content /0 Percent)

0
X

2,000

E
E
(D

C
0 0-

-s_

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

thermal energy available in thefluegas

Mc,
0.1
-

chemicalenergy in the suppliedfuel

-0.4

0.2 -------0.5

0.3

. .

Based on the LHV of the biomass as received (on a wet basis-LHVW), typical combustion efficiencies range from 65 percent in poorly designed furnaces up to 99 percent in well-insulated, sophisticated combustion systems. The combustion efficiencyis mainly determined by the completeness of the combustion processand the heat loss from the furnace. The completeness of combustion means the extent to which the combustible particles of the fuel are burned. This is an important indicator for combustion quality. For best results, more than the theoretically minimal amount of air is required. The excess air factor, lambda (X), indicates the ratio between the real air supply and the air that is theoretically needed for combustion. At stoichiometric combustion(X = 1) supplied air is just sufficient to burn all combustible particles. The higher the value of lambda, the lower the temperature of the flue gas leaving the furnace. For the efficiency of the heat exchanger (discussed in the next paragraph), it is important that the flue-gas temperatures are as high as possible. Theoretically, the highest flue-gas temperatures will be obtained using X = 1. But, in practice, values of X > 1 are always applied. In Figure 3.2, the theoretical furnace temperature at complete combustion, without

Note:Assumedash content, 10percent. 1 excess factor. air MC,, = moisturecontent,wet basis. Source: Authors.

any heat losses and heat transfer by radiation (the adiabaticflame temperature),is calculated as a function of lambda and the moisture content of the fuel. The value of lambda has a dominant influence on the adiabatic flame temperature. The influence of the moisture content is also present, but it is less sensitive (roughly by a factor of 4) in the considered ranges of both moisture content and lambda. The influence of the ash content can be neglected, as demonstrated in Figure 3.3. The optimal value for lambda depends on the furnace, the type of fuel, and the applied firing system. Typical values for wood in well-designed systems range from 1.6 < X < 2.5. In poor designs, the value for lambda may be as high as 4 to 5. (The stoichiometric amount of air and the calculation of LHV can be measured according to the formulas presented in Annex 2.)

Utilizaton ofthe ThermalEnergy Contained the Flue in Gas

The conceptual heat exchanger from Figure 3.1 may be a boiler, a process heater, or any heat exchanger that switches thermal energy from the flue gas to

Energy Biomass from

Figure 3.3: Adiabatic Flame Temperature as a Function of BiomassAsh Content,

Typicalboiler efficienciesbased on LHV range from 60 to 95 percent, and 50 to 90 percent based on HHV

MoistureContent,and Excess Air

2,000-

efficiencies.
The main losses of the boiler are in the hot flue gas exiting from the stack. Without specially designed

EL

9^*

* i

MC, 10%

Mc. 0%flue
8:

1,000 oo
E _

....
Mc,,=40%

.o
.0 .0 11.5

,0 2.0

,.0
2.5 3.0

5 3.5

heat gas cannot be too low since it contains water exchangers, the temperature of the departing vapor,NO., HCI,SO2, and (if the fuelcontainssulfur) some tar components. If the flue gasin the boiler is cooled too much, water vapor will condense, absorbing HCI, S02, and NO. In such cases,the latter two compounds form acid components such as
4.0 4.5

H 2 SO3 and H 2 NO 4 , whereas the first compound

be-

x
Ash Content

ACd =1%

ACd= 20%

Note:1 = excessair factor. MC.,= moisture content, wetbasis. ACd= ash content, dry basis.

comes an acid. In this way unneeded acid solutions are created in the condensate that may severely corrode the boiler. Therefore, the flue-gas temperature in the outlet is in practice always kept higher than 1200C (between 1200and 2000C and in poor designs even higher). The allowed boiler-outlet temperature
for a particular case can be calculated from the ex-

Source: Authors.

the process medium (e.g., water, steam, or air). The useful output of the heat exchanger is in the heated medium. Because manyapplications of thermalheat are for heating water or producing steam, the heat exchanger will next be considered as a boiler. Such considerations, however, can be made analogously for any other type of heat exchanger installed after a furnace. Energy losses from the boiler result from the flue gas that still contains thermal energy being released to the environment by the stack. (The stack of the plant is the vertical pipe from which the flue gases are released. The stack requires some height to assure mixing of the flue gases with the ambient air and to prevent harm to people at or near to the plant.) Losses also come from heat transmission through the insulation of the heat exchanger. The efficiencyof the boiler (or the heat exchanging process) is shown in the following equation: Equation 2 thermalenergyavailable the waterorsteam in

act fuel composition (determined by a final chemical analysis) and the applied excessair (X). The difference between the flue-gas inlet and outlet temperatures determines the fraction of the heat contained in the flue gases that is transferred to water or steam. Consequently, the higher the boiler inlet temperature of the flue gases (which results in a large temperature difference between inlet and outlet), the greater the energy transferred to the water or the steam, and the higher the boiler efficiency. Figure 3.4 shows the theoretically calculated boiler efficiency (based on HHV) as a function of moisture content and lambda for a stack temperature of 200C. The more excess air, the more sensitive the calculated efficiency is to the stack temperature. Special heat exchangers are discussed in the section on components of the steam cycle. These are applied to cool the flue gases to temperatures below 100C (down to 50C) in order to minimize heat loss through the stack. They are even capable of recovering some condensation heat from water vapor contained in the flue gas. At this point, it is important to note that the efficiency for specific boilers depends not only on the

thermal lo' energyin the entering gas flue

Energy fromBiomass

Figure 3.4: Calculated Boiler Efficiency (based on HHV) as a Function of Biomass Moisture Content (Stack Temperature, 200C) >~
0 5,
8 --

Fixed-bed systems include manual-fed systems, spreader-stoker systems, underscrew systems, through-screw systems, static grates, and inclined grates (which themselves may be static or moving). Fluidized-bed systems are basically of the bubbling or circulatingvarieties.

c80
o 70
60 -

Both fixed-bedsystemsand fluidized-bedsystems

are discussed below.

Fixed-grate systems were for many years the most _______________________________common devices for combustion of biomass. In its 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 simplest form, a fixed-grate system consists of a grate in a combustion room (thereby forming the furnace). Primary air, for combustion of the char Mc, (the material that remains after pyrolysis, the re10% -20% -30% lease of the volatile fuel gases from the biomass), is - - - 40% --50% supplied under the grate. Secondary air, for combustion of the volatile gasesthemselves, is supplied Note: Based on higher heating value (HHV). Stack temperaabove the grate. Combustion of the char on the grate
so
-. . 40 -

_._

Systems Fixed-Bed

ture is 2000 C. I = excess air factor. Source:Authors.

stack temperature but also on the flue-gas inlet temperature (determined by lambda and moisture content of the fuel). When comparing boiler efficiencies,one should always check to see that the data in question refer to the same process conditions. Otherwise,it is impossibleto compare the performances of the boilers. In most applications, the furnace and boiler are closelyintegrated, and, in practice, such installations are referred to jointly as the boiler. The efficiency of such combined devices is the average of the combustion (or furnace) efficiency (as described in equation 1) and the boiler efficiency (as described in equation 2).

provides heat for the continuing pyrolysis of newly added fuel above the char. Typicalcombustion temperatures in fixed-grate systems range from 850 to 1,400C. Traditionally, ash is removed manually from fixed-bed systems, although automatic ash removal systems are now available. Fixed-bed biomass combustion systems look like fixed-bed combustion systems for coal, but the actual furnace designs are different. In particular, the comparatively high content of volatile matter in biomass requires large combustion rooms above the grate in biomass-fired furnaces. For the same reason, biomass furnaces require a higher proportion of secondary to primary air than do coal-fired furnaces. The inclined grate was originally developed during the 1920s and 1930s for coal combustion systems. The fuel is supplied at the top and moves downward during the combustion process. The ash is removed at the bottom. During the 1940s,the first moving or sloping grates were introduced. In this type of furnace, the residence time of the pieces of fuel is more or less fixed by the speed at which the grate elements move.

Furnace Types
Combustion systems are of either fixed-bed or fluidized-bed varieties. Fixed-bed technologies date from the firststeam systems;fluidized-bedtechnologies, in contrast, have only become availableduring the last 25 years.Fixed-bed systemsare basicallydistinguished by the types of grates and the way the fuel is supplied to or transported through the furnace.

I0

Energy fromBiomass

Consequently, the maximum size of the fuel pieces is limited. With uniform fuel, specific combustion capacity (heat release per square meter of grate) could be increased significantly, allowing for more compact construction. In more sophisticated versions, different stages of the combustion process take place in different zones, allowing for better control and acceptance of fuel that is generallywetter than in the simple versions (see Figure 3.5).

Figure3.6:Suspension Burnerfor PulverizedCoal

tarat burer
Airduct Ash scraper e inlet

Moving inclined grates are often used in (municipal) waste incineration systems.
Ash
t ^

~~~~~~~~~Air Inlet
outlet valve

Figure

3.5: A Sloping-Grate Combustion

Ash discharge' Source: TNO (1992).

System
Hogluel
Tefiary 2

Screw \ iI alr feeder 1 | t;

JiBd / ^
2 1 l,

h/

For relatively small operations, special feeding systems, including screw feeders and spreader stokers,

have been developed. With spreader stokers, which

Secondary
rarmey aeir admitted under entire grate, except
...

ai . I ograte
3sp

resemble suspension burning, fuel particles are fed into the furnace above the reaction zone. Combustion takes place partly during the time that the par-

dumpsectlon

tides move in suspension through the gas above the (see Figure 3.7).

Crying Gasificatlon and zone bumingzone Fixed, bared-tube

slopinggrate

Final burnout zone

Figure3.7:Spreader-Stoker Systemwith
an Integrated Water Tube Boiler
SUPER HEATER sresa
OU0T
,

Reciprocating Dump
grate grate I

STEAM DRUM

Source: TNO (1992).

STACK

A further increase in specific capacity (per volume reactor) of coal-fired power plants is realized by the firing of pulverized coal in a suspension burner (Figure 3.6). With this type of burner, an oil-type combustion flame is obtained. This type of suspension burner has also been developed for biomass. According to TNO (1992), one drawback of this burner might be its need for a high air excess rate and, therefore, its relatively low efficiency. Whether

FUELW CNVER
FUEL

MULTIPLE

AIR

/HET
FUELCHUTE._
FUEL _

s ASRU HA

O VERFIRE AETER
t Ai -1

F.

FA

this statement can be applied to each biomass suspension burner is unclear.

Source:TNO (1992).

11

Energyfrom Biomass

Screw-feeder systems are developed for small- to medium-sized fuel particles. The underscrew system is meant for fuel sizes in the range of 40 x 30 x 15 mm (length x width x height). The fuel is pushed up in the center of the combustion zone and ash is removed from the sides, manually or automatically (Figure 3.8). The through-screw system is meant for larger fuel pieces (approximate length of 100 mm and diameter of 50 mm). The fuel is burned while being screw-fed through the combustion zone. The remaining ash is dropped into the ash deposit. This type of system is especiallysuitable for dealing with fuels that have a high ash content. Table 3.1 compares the fixed-bed systems. RecentDevelopments Fixed-Bed in Systems of

on dividing overall combustion into relevant stages: pyrolysis of the biomass, combustion of the pyrolysis gases, and combustion of the char. With regard to enhancing combustion, some special techniques have been developed for more or less dedicated applications. For example, cyclonic combustionsystemsare suitable for burning particulate waste wood and agricultural residues, typically of regular size and shape and relatively low moisture content. The systems comprise a cylindrical chamber into which the combustion air is introduced. The cyclonic combustion air mixes the suspended particulates, allowing efficient combustion. The hot combustion gases pass from the cylindrical chamber through the boiler or other heat removal devices. The flue gas is cleansed of ash before passing through an exhaust stack and into the atmosphere (Figure 3.9). A second example can be found in Denmark-the so-calledcigarburnersystem(Figure 3.10),which operates on a large scale to produce heat (for district

Less than5 MW*,

The main developments in combustion systems are aimed at reducing the emissions of NO,, CO, and CHY and at increasing efficiencyby minimizing excess air. The applied techniques are based

Figure3.8:Combustion System with Underscrew Feeding System

A. CROSS-SECTION BOILER

13~~~~~~~~1

2-

S::-10

B. TOP-VIEW BOILER

p9

_IBIZI~D_) _.
-

2. FireValve 3. Primary inlet air D 4.J 1 iI_14 Secondary air inlet 5. Secondary inlets air 6. Fuelgasoutlet 7. Watersupply 8. Waterreturn 9. Ashdoor 10. Sprinkler connection 11. Inspection hatch 12. Explosion valveand connection oil or gas bumer 13. Fuelgascleaning filter 6
14. Ash bucket

~~~~~~~~~~~~1 .Stokerscrew

4 __

-7

Source:TNO (1992).

12

Energy Biomass from

Table 3.1:Comparison Fixed-Bed of Combustion Systems

Maximum moisture content (percent) 50 40 40 40 50 20 50

System Staticgrate Underscrew Throughscrew Movingbed/inclinedgrate Suspensionburning a Spreader-stoker

Fuelsize (mm) < (pl0O 300 x < 40 x 30x 15 > 20 x 20x 10 < qP50 100 x < 300x 100x 50 < 5 x 5x 5 < 40 x 40x 40

Fuel supply manual/automatic automatic automatic automatic automatic automatic automatic

Ash removal manual/automatic manual/automatic manual/automatic automatic automatic manual/automatic manual/automatic

a. Gas fueledignitionburner requiredfor startup purposes. Source.TNO (1992);BTGin-houseinformationfor 'Ashremoval"and "Spreader-stoker."

Figure 3.9: Cyclonic Combustion System

as 50C, which causes some of its water vapor to condense. Because biomass fuels tend to be wet, the flue gases may contain large amounts of water vapor representing a considerable amount of energy. The heat recovered from the flue gas is used in lowtemperature applications such as preheating district heating water. Since the flue-gas condensate tends to be corrosive, special materials such as stainless steel or plastics must be applied. In current designs, the flue-gascooling is combined with flue-gas cleaning using a scrubber, which removes or neutralizes most of the corrosive contaminants in the gas. Additional heat gains from such systems are reported as high as 25 percent, resulting in overall efficiencies (based on LHV) of 105 to 108 percent.

Source:TNO (1992).

Fluidized-Bed Systems
heating) and power (which is supplied to the national grid). In Denmark, research has alsobeen carried out for small- and large-scale combustion of straw that includes grate burning systems, suspension bumers, and fluidized-bed combustion systems (the last two are still at the pilot stage). In a fluidized-bed combustor, the fuel is burned in a hot (typically 7000to 1,000C)bed of sand, limestone, or other noncombustible material that is kept in turbulent suspension by fans. The systems comprise a combustion chamber containing a sand bed that acts as the heat-transfer medium. The bed is fluidized by blowing air through a perforated bottom plate. This forces the sand upward. Depending on the air velocity,a bubblingfluidized bed (BFB) or a circulatingfluidized bed (CFB) is created. In a bubbling fluidized bed (Figure 3.11), the reactor is divided into (a) a zone containing freely moving sand particles supported

Flue-Gas Condensation In Denmark and Finland, flue-gas cooling systems havebeen developed that can be installed before the stack. In these systems, gas is both cooled and cleaned (TNO 1992; Nussbaumer 1991;VTT Energy 1994). Flue gas is cooled to temperatures as low

13

Energy Biomass from

Figure 3. 10: Cigar Burner

2"

i-i

3~~

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Source: TNO (1992).

Straw storage Automatic feed system Fuel supply canal Supply of combustion air Combustion room Ash removing system Heat exchanger/steam production

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Off gas cleaner Chimney Off gas cleaning (flue ash) Hot water outlet for district heating Return water Ash container

Figure3.1 1: Fluidized-Bed Combustion

System
Steam
Biomass feedFlue

particles (except the large, heavy fuel partides) flow upward with the gas stream, are separated from it in the cyclone, then rechanneled into the reactor. The light fuel partides burn during circulation,
whereas the heavy partides burn until they are

aas ;
1~A AAA
\ /Cyc/one _

t
wX
Economizer

light enough to join the circulation stream.

XBecause of the intensive mixing in fluidized beds,

_VCIo
\v.ater 77<

the heat exchange rates are high, and complete combustion can be realized using low excessair factors (1 = 1.2 to 1.4). The furnace and heat exchanger
(boiler) are strongly integrated: the walls of the fur-

Air

y
;
Ash

nace are constructed from tubes in which water is heated or evaporated and bywhich the bed is cooled. Combustion temperatures commonly range from
750 to 950C; a temperature of 850C is often used.

Source: TNO (1992).

The most important features of fluidized-bed combustion are as follows: * Flexibilityto changes in fuel properties, sizes,and shapes. * Acceptance of fuel moisture content up to 60 percent.

by upward-streaming air (giving the impression of a bubbling fluid) and (b) a "freeboard" zone above the fluidized bed. In a circulating fluidized bed, the air velocity is so high that bed and fuel

14

Energy Biomass from

Acceptance of fuel ash content up to 50 percent or even higher. These features make the technology particularly attractive for biomass combustion, and for this application the technology is superior to fixed-bed combustion. Other advantages of the fluidized bed systems over fixed bed systems are as follows: * Compact construction that causes high heat exchange and reaction rates because of intensive mixing in the bed. Low excess-air factor (approximately 1.2 to 1.4), implying low heat losses from flue gases leaving the stack. Because of the high velocities, turbulent mixing in circulating fluidized-bed combustion systems is even more intensive than in bubbling fluidized-bed systems.For heat exchange, circulating-bed systems have all the advantages. The circulating bed is also more flexible than the bubbling bed, since the circulation rate of the bed material can be used as an additional control. To adapt to high-calorific fuels, for example, allowing high heat rates in the heat exchangers will increase circulation. For low-calorific fuels, the opposite is true.

EmissionsReduction
If flue gases from combustion processes contain unwanted polluting contaminants, reduction of emissions can be realized by (a) process-integrated measures that safeguard against the production of contaminants, or (b) secondary, end-of-pipe (postcombustion) technologies to remove contaminants from the flue gas. Process-Integrated Measures Process-integrated measures are addressed to optimize the combustion process and minimize production of unwanted contaminants. At temperatures lower than 850C,incomplete combustion occurs, resulting in the unwanted emissions of CXHy, including tars. If the moisture content of the fuel is higher than 50 percent and the combustion air is not preheated, problems may occur in reaching the required combustion temperature. Drying of the fuel improves combustion performance but may entail additional costs if natural drying (on the field, for example) is not used. The size of the fuel pieces, apart from moisture content, also determines the quality of the combustion process. When the fuel is not uniform in size, it is should be shredded into small, uniformly sized pieces. Shredding, however, implies additional costs that must be weighed against the expected benefits. Continuous operation at designed load levels results in the highest system performance and the fewest emissions (Nussbaumer 1991). Extra emissions occur because of variations in load or frequent startups and shutdowns. If load variations cannot be avoided, proper control of the system is required. Not only should the fuel supply should be controlled, but the primary and secondary air flows must be adjusted properly. Control systems meant for improving combustion conditions in systems that operate under varying loads became available only recently and development work on this topic is still going on. The capacity of a system that must operate under varying loads should not be too large. It is advisable to consider the actual peak capacity requirements to avoid installing systems that will run at less than full load much of the time. If the process

Emissions from Fluidized-Bed Systems

Because of the nature of the fluidized-bed system, the flue gas is intensively mixed with dust and particles. Removal of particles and dust from the flue gases is therefore an essential part of a fluidizedbed system. Circulating fluidized-bed systemshave one or more cyclones that are a standard means for removing the heavy (bed material and fuel)particles from the flue-gas stream. In bubbling fluidized-bed installations, the basic dust removal from the flue gases is performed by cyclones. For the final treatment, bag filters may be used. The stagedair supply and the application of flue-gas recirculation result in low levels of NO, production. NOXcan be reduced by injecting NH3 into the bed. This is similar to the selectivenoncatalytic reduction (SNCR) reaction schemes applied in deNO, systems (seesubsection,SecondaryMeasuresto ReduceEmissions, below).

15

Energy fromBiomass

truly requires a peak capacity that is significantly higher than the average load, installation of a separate peak-load device (running on conventional fuel) should be considered. Measures to improve the combustion process are interrelated and can be summarized as follows (TNO 1992): * Appropriate combustion temperatures (higher than 850C) are advisable.The combustion zone should alsobe physically separated from the heat extraction zone (Nussbaumer 1991). * The residence time of all flue gases (taking into

Figure 3.12: Staged Combustion System

-Y

account the effectsof residencetime distribution) in the combustion zone should be longer than 1.5 seconds. * Control systems that properly adapt the combustion air/fuel ratio during load changes should be used. * Good mixing of fuel and combustion air is essential. Thermal NOXistypically formed in combustion systems at temperatures higher than 1,400C.Since the temperatures attained in most biomass combustion systems range from about 900 to 1,200C,the systems produce only small amounts of NO.. However, nitrogen available in the fuel can be oxidized into NO during the combustion process, and it is this that causes the relatively high NOx emissions from biomass combustion systems. Techniquesto reduce emissions of NO, are currently under development. These techniques are based on staged combustion in physically separated rooms (Nussbaumer 1991, 1994). This enables lowering emissions of CO and CxHymore effectivelythan in conventional systems.An experiment using an electricallyheated reduction chamber has achievedsome reduction of NOX,but whether this can be realized practically (i.e.,without resorting to additional electric heating) is still not satisfactorily proven. The staged combustion process may nonetheless be of interest because of its potential. In it, the total combustion process is divided into two or even three physically separated parts (reactors), shown in Figure 3.12.

Source:TNO (1992).

In the first reactor, the fuel is pyrolized and the remaining char is burned. The heat from the char combustion is used to pyrolize the fuel. The air supply just covers the oxygen need for the combustion of the char (X = 0.5 to 0.8, related to overall combustion air needs). * The formed pyrolysis gases are burned in a second room using excess air, which results in an overall excess air factor of approximately 1.5. With this type of system more complete combustion of the fuel is realized, resulting in low emissions of CO and unburned volatiles. * Reduction of NOXmay be realized by dividing the combustion process of the pyrolysis gases into a second and a third stage. * If a second and a third stage are applied, the second stage acts as a reduction zone (X = mately 0.8 related to the overall combustion air supply) in which the formed NO. is reduced to N2 (and H2 0 and CO), whereas it is in the third stage that the gases are burned completely using excess air (overall X = 1.5) (Nussbaumer 1994; TNO 1992). Secondary Measures to Reduce Emissions A secondary measure is to install a flue-gastreatment systemafter the combustion room (in most casesjust before the stack) to removeunwanted enissions from the flue gas.In the biomass com approxibustion processes,removal of dust is especiallyimportant. The most common systems for dust removal are bag filters, electrostatic precipitators, scrubbers, and mechanical separators such as (multi) cyclones.

16

Energy fromBiomass

A bag filter contains bags of woven textiles, through which flue gases pass. The size of the retained particles is determined by the tightness of the weave of the textiles. Figure 3.13 shows tubular bags, or hoses, which are closed at the bottom. The flue gas flows from the outer to the inner side of the hose, forming a layer of dust on the other side. This is removed by periodically shaking the bags, causing the caked dust to fall into the hopper below. From there the dust is transported to a dust container.

Figure3.14:Electrostatic Precipitator

C:t

Cleaeldgma

Conaminatedgas ASp=ra elecroe , ePrecplatl electrode

S

A
A

C. Isolators D. Sedimeent removal

Figure3.13:"Hose Filter" Type of Bag Filter

Source:. NO (1992).

followsa winding trajectory, passingbetween the elements of the tray. The inertia of the droplets force their movement more or less in a straight line, causing them to be caught by the tray elements. A scrubber (Figures 3.15 and 3.16) is a device in which flue gases are washed by a fluid (water) sprayed in the flue gas stream. The droplets catch particles and are removed from the gas stream by drip trays. The flue-gas stream follows a winding trajectory, passing between the elements of the tray. The inertia of the droplets force their movement more or less in a straight line, causing them to be caught by the tray elements. Multicyclones (Figure 3.17) are devices built from small cyclones to which air is introduced tangentially, causing a "whirlwind." The particles are removed from the gas stream by centrifugal force and collected in hoppers located under the cyclones.The gas stream leaves the cyclones on the upper side.

'IO I.0 /dust

Source: TNO (1992).

Electrostatic precipitators (Figure 3.14) consist of vertical plates and parallel wireslocated between the plates. The wires are called the dischargeelectrodes; the grounded vertical plates are referred to as collection electrodes. wires are put on a high negative The voltage, 20 to 100 kV,typically 40 to 50 kV (El Wakil 1985).Around the wires, negativelycharged gas ions are formed that are forced by the elecelectricfield to move to the collectorplates.On their way to the plates these ions may collide with dust particles, charging them negatively. negativelychargeddust particles The move to the collector dust particles and are removed from the gas stream by drip trays.The flue-gasstream

Figure3.15:The Principleof Scrubbing

t
drIp tray

I
ahing liquid

washlng lqd
prIued alr

..
4 (a) .r

l
(b)

Ltodriptray

Source:TNO (1992).

17

Energy Biomass from

Figure 3.16: Example of a Scrubbing Plant

Multicyclones can resist high temperatures (500C) and are simple to operate, but they are less effective than the other systems. They are often used for pretreatment upstream from the other systems. Table 3.2 compares the different flue-gas
ltreatment systems.

St.k

sewy 8;; w

----- t ;>. X

(77 P25

IAlA m w

ro o
:t /12

Selective and nonselective catalytic reduction systems (SCR and SNCR, respectively) are being considered for reducing NO. and are currently under investigation. For these systems, a reducing agent (NH3 ) is needed. The SNCRprocess takes place between 8500 and 950C with a high excess of NH3 supply (excess factor = 5). The NO, reduction is approximately 50 percent. The deNOxperformance of the SNCRcan be improved when it is integrated in the reduction stage of the three-stage combusK 4 Verfl.o,tion process.Using an acceptable excessof NH3 (rest emission NH3 is 30 mg/Nm 3 , 11 percent 02), an NO, reduction of 80 percent can be realized. _ The SCRprocess takes place at a temperature of approximately 300C in a catalyst bed. With stochiometric NH3 supply, a reduction of NOXof 90 percent can be achieved.Becauseof the required temperature, the SCR device must be installed between the heat exchangers,where the thermal energy from the flue gasesis exchanged for a process medium.

Source: TNO (1992).

Figure 3.17: Example of a Multi-Cyclone

JThe SteamCycle _pwcme

Ch.an Mroutht Ut

_..

W nlemte

~i.

-.

An important application of thermal energy obtained from a combustion system is to generate elecwaZl 11 p Tub a steam cycle.The whole chain of enusing pl latricity OV V" ergy transformation involved in a steam cycle is I 1lbne UVlshown in Figure 3.18. A simplified process scheme Indmse L1ais presented in Figure 3.19. From these schemes, the following main compoDSlh nents can be identified: the furnace and boiler, \which in most cases strongly integrated and reare ferred to as the boiler; the turbine; the condenser; and the boiler feed-water pump. The cycle is as follows: * The boiler feed-water is pressurized by the boiler feed-water pump and fed into the boiler. * In the boiler, the water is evaporated and superheated.

-ft

S.Wid

Source: TNO (1992).

I8

Energy Biomass from

Table 3.2: Advantages, Drawbacks, and Energy Use of Flue-Gas Treatment Systems
Treatment system Electrostatic precipitator Bagfilter Energy consumption per 1,000 m3 0.2-0.4kWh
0.2-0.4 kWh

Advantages Highefficiency(approx.95 %) Resistantto 300C

Low pressure drop (0.2-0.4 kPa)

Drawbacks Needfor high voltages Efficiency dependenton

flue-gas quantity

High efficiency (95-99.9%) Lowpressuredrop (0.6-1 kPa)

Rest emission is adjustable (high pressure drop -> low emissions) Hot gases can be cooled and cleaned No fire risk High temperature resistance Compact construction Low costs Low pressure drop ( 1-3 kPa) High reliability

Not resistantto high temperatures Replacement bags (every of

2-3 years) High energy consumption Efficiency < 95% Need for water treatment

Scrubber

3-10 kWh

Multicyclone

Low efficiency Efficiencydependent on flue-gas quantity Constant flue-gas conditions required

0.2 kWh

Source: Author.

* The superheated steam from the boiler is fed into the steam turbine, where it expands to a low pressure and temperature, which is determined by the condenser. * Next, the expanded steam (which may have already passed saturation and may contain water) is fed from the condenser into the deaerator. * In the deaerator, the noncondensible gases, which may be dissolved in the feed water, are removed to prevent their accumulation elsewhere in the system. The deaerator needs some heating; as shown in Figure 3.19, some steam from the evaporator is used for that purpose. It should be noted that a steam engine rather than steam turbine can also be considered. At low capacities (< 500 kW), steam engines may be an alternative to steam turbines because of low efficiency of turbines in this range. Furthermore, in simple cyclesthe condenser maybe omitted by simply discharging the expanded steam. The major drawbacks of this simplified system are its low cycle efficiency and need for continuous fresh (treated) water.

Because of fundamental thermodynamic principles (see Annex 3), it is impossible to convert all thermal energy in the steam into power on the turbine shaft (which drives the generator). In the steam cycle,this restriction is manifested by the unavoidable fact that the water vapor has to be condensed (releasing heat) to close the cycle. The cycle efficiency is determined by the following factors: * Boiler efficiency. * Steam conditions entering the turbine (both the temperature and the pressure should be as high as possible). * Turbine efficiency. * Cooling conditions in the condenser (both the temperature and the pressure should be as low as possible). * Feed-water heating system. The turbine-powered generator efficientlyconverts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Typical values range from 85 to 98 percent. Combining all individual components, the overall efficiency ranges from 5 to 40 percent. At this point

19

Energy Biomass from

Figure3.18:EnergyTransformations a Steam Cycle In

Chemical energy Thermal energy Thermal energy I _ Boller _ _power
shaft

Mechanical energy Generator ;

T1 gen

Electric energy

~~~~gas

hot flue

T1 boll

steam

Losses: * hotash * unbumed fuel * heat to the loss environment Source: Authors.

Losses * fluegasto thestack * heatloss the to environment

Losses * heatreleased by thecondenser * turbine loss

Losses * internal heat production in thegenerator

Figure3.19:Schematic a Steam System of

Vent
Combustion air fan Deaerator Fumace

4
LF1 '_ J

1.
Superheater

Economizer

Ocf
Kate

Load

F* (

[!t

Evaporator FuelBlow down Blwdonpump

r Condenser

Fuel Source: Authors.

~~

Feed-water Condensate pump

some equipment in the cyclealso useselectric power. The boiler feed-waterpump and the combustion air fan, in particular, consume a considerable amount of electricity(referredto asparasiticpower).The overall efficiencyis correctly calculated in equation 3.

Components of the Steam Cycle Steam Boilers Steam boilers are usually either of the fire-tube or the water-tube type. Fire-tube boilers have water and steam outside and hot flue gas inside the pipes; in water-tube boilers, it is just the reverse. Fire-tube boilers contain a larger water volume in a larger buffering capacity for absorbing fluctuating steam demands than water-tube boilers. Furthermore, they usually have lighter requirements

Equation3
net electricoutput
______fiuel_inpu

relationto their steam capacityand thereforehave

Tlgen

1O$~input fuel

net electricoutput

=Tcomb

Ilboil

Tlgen X
-

X LHVy,, Xf,

Pparositic

with respectto boiler feed-waterquality.

Fuelinput with:

,el

x LHVf,,

massflowof the enteringfuel

Fire-tube boilers (Figure 3.20) are used to produce steam in relatively low steam conditions. The steam pressure ranges from 1 to 35 bar; the steam

20

Energy Biomass from

Figure3.20:An Inclined-Grate Combustor with a Connected Three-Draft Firetube

Boiler
CHUTE

Figure3.21:Water-Tube Boiler
SUPER HEATER STEAM DRUM STEAM

~ ~

E RFIRE OVERI

ASHREMOVAL DUMPING BOILER SCREW GRATE SHELL

FIREUBES

Source:

NV(1992).

Source:ATNO (1992).

Steam Engines
temperature is limited to approximately 450C. The capacities range from small (1 to 10 kW) to large (25 MW). Fire tubes in the boilers are arranged either vertically (as in the boiler in Figure 3.20) or horizontally. Water-tube boilers (Figure 3.21) are designed for high steam pressures and temperatures (up to 150 bar and 580C, respectively) and large capacities. To compensate for large fluctuations in the demand, water-tube boilers (for control and safety reasons) should have a relatively large steam drum. Capacities range from about 2 MW up to 2,000 MW, or even higher for fossil fuel applications. (Because of the restrictions in biomass fuel availability, the capacity of biomass fueled boilers will in practice be limited to 100 to 200 MW.) However, no firm rules can be given in terms of type and capacity of steam boilers, since the final selection will be governed by many variables. The installation of a (chemical) feed water treatment plant is usually necessary for reliable boiler operation, because the boiler feed water must conform to certain standards. Ideally,the water should have as few salts, alkaline materials, oil, carbon dioxide, iron, and copper as possible. It should also be free of oxygen. The dassic steam power device is the reciprocating piston engine, which is characterized by high reliability,low speed, low maintenance, simple control, and good load-following characteristics. However, piston steam engines tend to be expensivebecause of their relatively massiveconstruction. In addition, larger piston engines have relativelylow efficiencies compared with steam turbines. This is not necessarily true for small engines in the 100 to 200 kW range. The overall efficiency of a 150 kW steam cycle with reciprocating steam engine is higher (17 percent) than that of a comparable steam cycle with a steam turbine (15 percent). Because of its low efficiency,the piston steam engine has been used mainly in operations that have a relatively high process-steam demand. However,in many applications-for example, in the textile industry-the oil content of the exhaust steam, which prevents its use in cogeneration, is a big disadvantage. Small reciprocating steam engines are still available from a few firms in Brazil, the United States, Australia, and Germany. SteamTurbines Steam turbines are sophisticated devicesin whichthe steam expands from high pressure (in biomass-fired

21

Energy fromBiomass

power plants up to approximately 70 bar) and high density (approximately 20 kg/m3 ) to very low pressures and densities (0.1 bar and 0.06 kg/m3 , respec-

Figure 3.22: Isentropic EfficiencyVersus

Capacityfor Small-Scale Turbines

Isentropic efficiency (%)

tively). pressureratiois nearly700-fold,and the The

increase in volume is about 300-fold. The diameter of the steam turbine itselfincreasessignificantlyfrom the high-pressurestagesto the low-pressurecondensing stages.The amount of required materialsinvolved in construction of the low-pressure(condensing)sec-

_Mi__tn

Singlestage radial turbine 70

tion is thereforeconsiderably higherthan that of the

medium- and high-pressure sections.Application of only a back-pressure turbine (without a condensing

__.

Single stage axialturbine (Curts)

low-pressure section)maythereforemeanconsiderablylowerinvestments. resultis that the fullexThe

pansion potential of the steam is not used, leading to lower power production and lowerelectric efficiency. This type of turbine maybe utilized in cogeneration concepts, where heat delivery at temperatures between 100and 150C is required. A steam turbine is best expressedin terms of its isentropic efficiency.Apart from the thermodynamic meaning, this can be interpreted as the actual power obtained from steam expansion in the turbine, divided by the maximum power that can be theoreticallyobtained from the steam expansion. This theoretical maximum depends on the inlet steam pressure and temperature and the outlet steam pressure. Small-scaleturbines contain only one stage (one row of blades), in which complete expansion of the steam takes place. Because of this relatively simple construction the isentropic efficiencyof these single stage turbines is relatively low. Application of multiple stages make the turbine more efficient but also expensive, especially in at small scales. In Figure 3.22,the isentropic efficiencyversus the scale is presented for different types of small-scale turbines. Small single- or multiple-stage back pressure and condensing steam turbines in a capacity range from 100 to 5,000 kWe, are available from manufactures in France,Germany,Great Britain, Japan,the United States, Russia, Sweden, and several other countries. Condensers During power generation, steam that leaves the turbine is condensed in a condenser at very low pressures (approximately 0.1 to 0.2 bar) and tempera-

0.5

1.0

2.0

30

4.0

Capacity(MW)

Source: Nussbaumer (1994).

tures. The lower the temperature, the more power generated. In practice, this temperature is between 40 and 60C, depending on the available cooling media (either water or air) and their temperatures. Water-cooledcondensers rely on water that isheated then returned to rivers or lakes. For environmental reasons, the return temperature must not be so high as to harm the ecosystem. Typically,temperatures rise 5 to 10"C. The water can also be recycled in a cooling tower, where part of it is evaporated, causing the rest to cool. Instead of water, air can also be applied to cool the condenser. Because of the lower specific values for heat transfer in air-cooled equipment, these type of condensers are large and therefore expensive. Water Treatment Water treatment is a complex and highly necessary process for steam cycles. For the purposes of this study, the following brief remarks are appropriate. Water used in steam cycles must be treated to prevent malfunctioning that could damage the boiler, the turbine sections, or both. Natural water contains the following elements requiring treatment: * Partides (> 0.1 mm), to be removed by filtration. e Colloidal particles (0.1 to 0.001 mm), to be removed by flocculation, coagulation, and filtration techniques. * Dissolved (gas) molecules, to be removed in a deaerator.

22

Energy fromBiomass

* Positive and negative ions (minerals), to be removed in a ion exchanger or in an evaporation unit. * Organic matter, to be removed by a combination of the above-mentioned techniques. The consequences of insufficient water treatment may be as follows: * Scaling,which overheats the material and damages the boiler; * Erosion by particles; * Foaming, which disrupts the valves, unbalancing the turbines; * Salt deposits, which lead to corrosion in boiler parts and/or the turbine; * Corrosion, caused by oxygen and CO2 in the water. The extent to which the water has to be treated depends on the required steam conditions and the level of water extraction/supply during operation. The water treatment system is divided into treatment of the water to be supplied to the steam cycle(the make-up water), and the water returning from the condenser. It is clear that water-treatment systems form an essential part of steam-cycle systems. Ready-to-use (skid-mounted) water-treatment packages for make-up water are commercially available. A deaerator continuously removes noncondensible gases from the water. These gases may have come in

by air leakages in the condenser and other sections that are below atmospheric pressure. From the boiler drum, some of the water is continuously discharged (or blown down), to reduce the concentration of the dissolved salts and the contaminants picked up in the cycle. Optimizingof Steam Cycles The basic steam cycle (as presented above in Figure 3.19), can be optimized to increase the conversion efficiencyfrom heat to power. The thermodynamic principles of this optimization are (a) using combustion heat at the highest possible temperature level to obtain the maximum efficiencies,and (b) using low-temperature heat for low temperature heat requirements (see Annex 3). The combustion heat is released to flue gases with a boiler entrance temperature of 9000to 1,600C, depending on the furnace conditions. The steam temperature in advanced steam cycles, however, is limited to only 560C. This temperature determines the limit on the conversion efficiency, the thermodynamic poso tential of the flue gases is not fully utilized. Reheating steam (after a first expansion section) in a turbine is a way to use the combustion heat twice at a reasonably high temperature (300 to 560C), thus increasing thermodynamic efficiency (see Figure 3.23). The water from the condenser must be heated to boiler entrance conditions. This water can be heated by steam that has only a slightlyhigher temperature

Figure3.23:Cyclewith Steam Reheating After the First Turbine

tvent
Deaerator mTI air fan Fumace Make-up COnoo Load

aater
R Fuel eheater Superheater Evaporator Economizer V Btow down Feed-water pump
7

water/air

Condenser

Condensate pump

Source:Authors.

23

Energy fromBiomass

in feed-waterpreheaters.Advanced steam cyclescontain turbines from which steam is extracted at different temperature levels to meet the distinct heat requirements of the feed-water preheaters (see Figure 3.23). From a thermodynamic viewpoint, this method of feed-waterheating is optimal, since steam is put to maximum use, first for electricity production then for heating function. The low-temperature heat contained in flue gases leaving the boiler can be used to preheat combustion in an air preheater (Figure 3.24). By preheating the combustion air, higher furnace temperatures can be obtained. This makes make more heat available for super- and reheating steam. By reducing the heat loss to the stack, cycle efficiency is increased. Application of Steam Cycle The steam cycleis a proven technology used in most large-scale thermal power plants. However, on a

smaller scale (< 5 MWe) the cycletends to be complicated and therefore comparatively inconvenient. Complexity of steam cycles, in particular, is caused by many auxiliaries, including the following: Fresh water supply and the need for water treatment; for closed cycles, only a small supply of extensively treated water is needed. For open cycles,it is just the reverse. A deaerator or a deaerating condenser is needed continuously to remove gases from the water. However,deaeration requirements decreasewith lower steam pressures. Cooling water or an air-cooled condenser or cooling tower (requiring a continuous fresh water supply to compensate for the evaporated water) is needed. Since power failures can cause boiler explosionsand other serious consequences, power for internal consumption requires a stable supply of electricity.

Figure 3.24: Cycle with Feed Water and Air Preheaters

Combustion Furnace Fu[+

Evaporator
i

air fan

h L1
l

Exhaust -

Superrheater
Blow down Feed-water pump Deaerator tvent

Load

tMake-up
water

iCooling

water/air

Condensate pump Source:Authors.

24

Energy fromBiomass

Finally, the equipment used in a steam cycle must resist pressures and temperatures and therefore fulfill high standards of quality and strict safety regulations. Steam systems are relatively expensive. A small steam cycle may cost 5 to 10 times more than a diesel engine of the same capacity. Larger systems are relativelyless expensive.On the other hand, the economic life time of steam equipment is long, and the fuel may be cheap, so a steam cycle may be worth applying. For each case, however, in-depth economic and financial analyses are required.

In practice many heat applications use heat at only modest temperatures-for example, space heating (500to 90C); food industries (800to 150C);paper industry (1000to 150C);and chemicalprocesses.For these applications, cogeneration, combining production of heat and power,maybe used.Although higher temperatures mean lesselectricityproduced per given amount of steam, the temperature levelsof the abovementioned applications are low enough for efficient electricity production via cogeneration. Acogeneration concept based on a steam cycleisvery easyto design.Insteadof a condensingturbine, abackpressure turbine can be applied, delivering steam at the required conditions. A turbine with a controlled extraction facilityfor deliveryof process steam offers more flexibility, since the amount of extraction steam can be controlled to meet the actual heat demand, with the remaining steam directed to the condensing stagesof the turbine to produce power. Currently,many cogeneration plants havebeen built to replace heat-only boilers. Operation of these plants may be governed by the actual heat demand, and electricity that is produced is delivered to the grid. From a thermodynamic viewpoint, this is an optimal method of operation.

Combined Heat and Power

Basic physical laws make it impossible to convert heat from a heat source completelyinto power. Heat supplied on a high temperature level is partly converted into power. The remaining heat is then released at low temperatures. In steam cycles, the maximum power output is obtained by applying high steam temperatures and low condenser temperatures (as discussed above in the section Optimization of Steam Cyclesand in Annex 3). In pure power production plants, heat from the condensers is released into the environment.

25

4. Gasification Systems
Introduction
The production of a combustible gas from carboncontaining materials is already an old technology. So-called dry distillation or pyrolysis (heating of feedstock in absence of oxygen, resulting in thermal decomposition of the fuel into volatile gases and solid carbon) was first practiced on a commercial scale in 1812by a gas company in London. The first commercial gasifier (of the up-draft type; see below) for continuous air-blown gasification of solid fuels was installed in 1839, yielding what is currently known as "producer gas." Gasifiers were then developed for different fuels and industrial power and heat applications up to the 1920s,when oil-fueled systems gradually took over systems fueled by producer gas. In anticipation of unreliable petroleum supplies, compact gasifier systems (of the more advanced down-draft type; see below) for automotive applications were developed in Europe between 1920and 1940. During World War II, tens of thousands of these gasifierswere in use in Europe and elsewhere; they were largely decommissioned after the war, when inexpensive liquid fuels once again became widely available. The energy crisis of the 1970s brought renewed interest in gasification. The technology was perceived as a relatively cheap indigenous alternative for small-scale industrial and utility power generation in developing countries that suffered from high petroleum prices prevailing on the world market and that had sufficient sustainable biomass resources. In the beginning of the 1980s, at least 10 (mainly European) manufacturers offered small-scale wood and charcoal-fueled power plants (of up to approximately 250 kWe,), and at least four developing countries (Philippines, Brazil, Indonesia, and India) started gasifierimplementation programs based on locally developed technologies. Dozens, perhaps hundreds, of biomass gasification systems were installed through donor-financed projects and local entrepreneurs in a large number of developing countries. In Western countries, coal gasification systems attracted interest during the 1980s as an alternative to using natural gas and oil in (dedicated) heat applications. Technological development mainly applied to fluidized-bed gasification systems for coal, but it also was relevant for biomass in the range of 10 to 100 MWth. Currently, development of gasification systems is directed to production of electricity and heat in advanced gas-turbine-based cogeneration units. The theory of gasification is explained in Annex 4. Gasification of biomass looks simple in principle, and many types of gasifiers have been developed. The production of a gaseous fuel from a solid fuelwith attractive properties such as easyhandling and combustion that produce little excess air and low levels of contaminants (and possibly can be used in internal combustion engines)-makes gasification very appealing. However, the biomass fuels used in gasifiers vary widely,and hence include many reactants and many possible reaction paths. The reaction rates are relatively high. All these factors contribute to the complex nature of gasification and make the process hard to control and operate satisfactorily (Stassesn 1995;van Swaay and others 1994). The seemingly successful implementation and utilization of small-scale gasifiers during the world wars have motivated many manufacturers and entrepreneurs to attempt small-scale applications of a seeminglyproven technology.But during wartime, fuel specifications remained relatively strict. Bunker problems with feed flow were alleviated by vibrations during transport. But in that wartime environment, the run-time between cleaning and repair was very short, with many difficulties tolerated in order to provide motorized transport in the absence of liquid fuels. It came as no surprise to see

26

Energy fromBiomass

these machines removed as soon as liquid fuels again became available (Schlaepfer 1933). The old stationary applications for power genera-a-eed tion came equipped with extremely robust, slowspeed engines. In recent applications, modern, cheap, mass-produced, and contaminant-sensitive high-speed machines have been installed. However, a few successful power gasifiers with a capacity below 1 MWe have been reported. On a larger scale (> 2-3 MWth) sophisticated devices can be built that may prove to be economical. Fluidized-bed gasifiers are especiallypromising, in particular when such devices are included in advanced power generation. These concepts are in a development stage and are expected to be proven technology within fiveyears. In this chapter, the principles of gasification, and old and new types of gasifiers,are discussed for both power and heat applications. A characteristic of the various gasifiers is the way in which the fuel is brought into contact at the gasification stage. Four types of reactors exist: updraft or countercurrent gasifiers; downdraft or cocurrent gasifiers; cross-draft gasifiers; and fluidized-bed gasifiers.

Figure 4.1: Updraft or Countercurrent Fixed-Bed Gasifier

L > Gas

Dryingzone

Dsiltozn

Reduction zone

Hearthzone

Grate Ash

Source:FAO (1986).

which carbon is converted and carbon monoxide and hydrogen are produced as the main component of the producer gas. In the hearth zone, the remaining char is combusted, providing heat, carbon dioxide, and the water vapor for reactions occurring in the reduction zone (these chemical reactions are described in Annex 4). The major advantages of this type of gasifier are its simplicity,high charcoal burnout, and internal heat exchangethat leads to low gas-exittemperatures and high gasification efficiencies. Because of the internal heat exchange, the fuel is dried at the top of the gasifier.Therefore, fuels with a high moisture content (up to 60 percent, wet basis) can be used. Furthermore, this type of gasifiercan evenprocess relatively small fuel particles and accepts some size variation in the fuel feedstock. Major drawbacks are the high amounts of tar and pyrolysis products that occur because the pyrolysis gas does not pass the hearth zone and therefore is not combusted. This is of minor importance if the gas is used for direct heat applications in which the tars are simply burned. But when the gas is used for engines, extensive gas cleaning is required.

Fixed Bed Gasifiers

Updraft or Countercurrent Gasiflers The simplest type of gasifier is the fixed-bed countercurrent gasifier (figure 4.1). Here, the biomass is fed at the top of the reactor and moves downward as a result of its conversion and removal of ashes. Air is taken in at the bottom, and gas leaves at the top. The biomass moves counter to the gas flow and passes successivelythrough drying, distillation, reduction, and hearth zones. In the drying zone, the biomass is dried. In the distillation or pyrolization zone, it is decomposed into volatile gases and solid char. The heat for pyrolization and drying is mainly delivered by the upward-flowing producer gas and partly by radiation from the hearth zone. In the reduction zone, many reactions occur (involving char, carbon dioxide, and water vapor) in

27

Energy fromBiomass

Downdraftor CocurrentGasfifers In a downdraftreactor,biomassis fedat thetop, and the airintakeis at the top or the sides.Thegasleaves at the bottom of the reactorand movesin the same direction(figure4.2).Thezonesare similarto those in the updraft gasifier, the order is somewhat but different.The biomassis dried in the drying zone, then pyrolizedin the distillationzone.Thesezones are mainlyheated by radiation(and partlyby convection)heat from the hearth zone,wherea part of the charis burned.Pyrolysis gasesalsopassthrough thiszoneand areburned aswell. extentto which The the pyrolysisgasesare actuallyburned dependson design,biomassfeedstock, the skillsof the opand erator.Afterthe oxidationzone,the remainingchar and the combustionproducts-carbon dioxideand watervapor-pass to the reductionzonewhereCO and H2 areformed (seeAnnex4). Hence,the main advantageof a downdraftgasifier is productionof a gaswith low tar contentsuitable for engines.In practice,however,a tar-free gas is seldomif everachievedduring the operatinglife of the equipment.The main reason seemsto be that Figure4.2:Downdmftor CocurrentFixedBedGasif4er
Feed

not all gasespass through the hottest zones.Also their residencetime in the combustionzone may be too short. In each particular design,other features that help realizea high conversionrate of the pyrolysisgasesare included.This type of gasifier is used in powerproduction applicationsthat range from 80 to 500kWeor more. Drawbacksof the downdraft gasifiermaybe summarizedas follows: * High amountsof ash and dust particlesremain in the gasbecausethe gashas to passthe oxidation zone,where it collectssmallash particles. * Fuel requirementsare relatively strict; fuelmust be uniformlysizedfrom 4 to 10cm so as not to blockthe throat and allowpyrolysis gasesto flow downward heat from thehearth zoneto flow and upward;therefore,pelletizationor briquettingof the biomassis often necessary. The moisture content of the biomass must be lessthan 25 percent (on a wet basis). The relativelyhigh temperature of the exit flue gasresultsin lower gasificationefficiency. (Cross-Draft Gasifiers Cross-draft gasifiers adaptedfor the useof charare coal (figure4.3). Charcoal gasificationresults in
extremely high temperatures (1,500C and higher)

Drying zone

in the hearth zone,which can leadto local material problems. Advantages the systemlie in the small of scale at which it can be operated. In developing countries, installationsfor shaft power under 10 kWe,are used. This is possiblydue to the simple gas-cleaningtrain (a cyclone and a bed filter). A drawbackis the minimaltar-convertingcapability, resultingin the need for high-qualitycharcoal. Open-CoreGasifler
Open-core gasifiers (figure 4.4) are especially de-

Distillation zone
H - earth zone

Hearth zone

Air

Air -----Reduction zone Grate Gas Ash pt

signed to gasifyfine materialswith low bulk density (for example, rice husks). Because of the low bulk density of the fuel no throat can be applied. This avoids bridging of the fuel, which may hamper or even stop the fuel flow. Special devices such

as rotating grates may be included to stir the fuel

and remove the ash. Rice husk gasifiersin particu-

Source: FAO (1986).

lar requirecontinuousash removalsystems because of the high ashcontentof ricehusks (approximately

28

Energy fromBiomass

Figure 4.3: Cross-Draft fixed-Bed Gasifier

Feed
\ G

Becauseof the varietyof gasifier designswhich have been developed for each type of gasifier,this can hardly be called typical, though it indicates the typical differencesbetween the three basic types of fixedbed gasifiers.

Developments Fixed-Bed In Gasifiers

Drying zone
_____

iS pThe Distillation zone Hearthzone

Hearth 3 _ !2+ zone
_

Air

c----

. _

Gas

Reduction zone

Grate
-.

Burning char Ash pit

Source: (1986). FAO

Only a few commercial updraft power gasifiersare in operation today, all of them in South America. situation differed completely in the 1940sand 1950s, when, for example, a considerable number of systems in Europe relied on diverse fuels such as wood residues and agricultural wastes. The last European updraft power gasifier (in Germany) closed down for environmental reasons (water pollution from tarry residues). Hence, most current fixed-bed gasifiersare of the downdraft type. Most downdraft gasifiers have a V-shaped "throat' (see figure 4.5), introduced in the 1920s.The hearth zone is in the narrowest part of the throat. The purpose of the throat is to create a concentrated hightemperature zone and force through it all pyrolysis gases to crack the tar. Air is fed directly into this zone by either a central air-supply pipe or air inlet nozzles located in the walls of the throat. In choosing throat diameter, a balance must be struck

Figure 4.4: Open-Core Gasifier Feed/ air

Drying zone Distillation zone Hearth zone Reduction zone Rotating grate
Gas4-

Figure4.3:DowndraftGasifierwith V-Shaped Throat and Internal Heat Exchange

Fee

11 c

Ash

7-Water lock
Gas+
Dryingzone Distillationzone

Source:Authors.

55 percent of the initial fuel volume). The bottom of the gasifier is set in a basin of water, which acts as a transport medium for the removal of the ash. Comparison of Fixed-Bed Gasifiers For the updraft, downdraft, and open-core gasifiers, some operating characteristics applying wood as feedstock are presented in Table 4.1.

Hearthzone

Air

LIGrt

Reduction zone
A

A Source. Authors.

port P

29

Energyfrom Biomass

between (a) decreasing the risk of tar-loaded gases escaping from the oxidation zone and (b) an optimal flow rate of the fuel and the gas velocities in the throat. The latter should not be so high that the ash is swept up and collected by the gas stream, causing high dust content. In recent designs,the reactor may be double-walled. The producer gas is fed through the space between the walls, allowing an exchange of heat between the producer gas, the fuel in the pyrolysis,and the reacof tor drying zone (see figure 4.5). The effectiveness this heat exchangeis considerablyimproved with the use of small reactor diameters,which enlarge the surface of the heat exchange considerably (figure 4.6).

Figure4.7: Gasiflerwith Tar Collection

Feed

Gas

Tar ryingzone Distillation zon, zone

Hearth zone
-Reduction zon( , S ~~Grate Ash port

Figure4.6:Small-DiameterGasifier
Feed Source: Authors.

Ash pit

Gas4-1

Drying zone zone Distillation Hearth zone

Air~~~~~~~

Figure 4.8: Delacotte Gasifier

~Air
zone Reduction Fe

Ash Pit Ash Pit Authors. Source:

~~~Gas r

_ Drying zone

In some designs, the pyrolysis gases that condense on the cover are drained through a pipe and collected in a tank (figure 4.7).
In the Delacotte gasifier (figure 4.8), the pyrolysis

Distillation zone Hearth zone

Air

gases are collected at the top of the gasifier and partly combusted and partly cracked in a separate reactor. The flue gases are fed into the hearth zone of the gasifier and used to partly burn and partly gasify the charcoal. A relatively tar-free producer
gas results. Source: Authors.

L
\or

Reduction zone

Grate
Ash pit

30

Energy fromBiomass

TechnicalandOperationalProblems with Fixed-Bed Gasifiers

Despite different ingenious gasifierdesigns, a fixedbed gasifier that produces a tar-free producer gas still does not exist. Although Table4.1 shows a turndown ratio for each basic type of gasifier, the partial operation is unsatisfactory for most gasifiers. Explosions. Explosions may occur when combustible gasesleak through the fuel feeding system, the ash discharge system, or any other leakage point. After shutdown of a gasifier,combustible gaseswill remain in the equipment. If the gasifier is ignited again without firstventing the equipmentwith fresh air, the combustible gases still present may explode. To reduce such risks, gasifiers should be located in well-vented rooms or in the open air. Operators should be taught about the risks of gasification equipment, especiallyduring startup and shutdown. Fuel Blockages. Fuel blockages may occur in the throat of the gasifier.These blockages are caused by an inappropriate combination of fuel properties (such as morphology), size distribution, ash content and behavior, bulk density, and the flow properties of the derived char.The gasifierdesign should be adapted to the fuel properties. Corrosion. Corrosion may be a problem, especially on surfaces in the high-temperature areas of the

gasifier (the throat). This corrosion can be caused by the combination of high temperatures and contaminants in the feedstock. The design thus should be adapted to lower the temperature or to use heatresistant materials. Tar Production. It is impossible to avoid production of tar. Excessivetar production may be caused by inappropriate fuel properties such as morphology, size distribution, and moisture content and inappropriate flow of the char. During periods of variable- or partial-load operation, excessive tars may also be produced. The design of a gasifier should be appropriate to the fuel properties, and plants should operate as much as possible under steady-preferably full-load-conditions.

Fluidized-Bed Gasifiers Principles

Fluidized-bed gasification was originally developed to overcome operational problems of fixed-bed gasification of fuels with high ash content, but it is suitable for the larger capacities (larger than 10 MWth) in general.The features of fluidized-bed gasification are comparable with those of fluidized-bed combustion. Compared with fixed-bed gasifiers,the gasification temperature is relativelylow-approximately
750 to 900C. In fixed-bed gasifiers, the tempera-

ture in the hearth zone may be as high as 1,200C, and in charcoal gasifiers it may be up to 1,500C.

Table 4.1:Characteristics DifferentTypesof Gasifiers of

Characteristic
Fuel (wood Moisture content (% wet basis) Ash content (% dry basis) Size (mm) Gas exit temp (oC) Tar (g/Nm3 )

Downdraft
12(mac. 25) 0.5 (max. 6) 20-100 700 0.015-0.500

Updraft
43 (max. 60) 1.4 (max. 25) 5-100 200-400 30-150

Open-core
7-15 (max. 15) 1-2 (max. 20) 1-5 250-500 2-10

Sensitivity load fluctuations to

Turndown ratio hHG filll load (%)a hCGfull load (%)b Producer gas LHV (kJ/Nm3)

sensitive
3-4 85-90 65-75 4.5-5.0

not sensitive
5-10 90-95 40-60 5.0-6.0

not sensitive
5-10 70-80 35-50 5.5-6.0

a. hHG gas efficiency. takes into accountthe heat containedin the gas;for heat applications. Hot This b. hCGCold gas efficiency. gas willbe cooled afterleavingthe gasifierto ambienttemperature;for engineand powerappliThe cations. Source: Swaay others (1994);BTG(1995). Van and

31

Energy fromBiomass

The fuel is fed into a suspended (bubbling fluidized bed) or circulating (circulating fluidized bed) hot sand bed. The bed behaveslike a fluid and is characterized by high turbulence. Fuel particles mix quickly with the bed material, resulting in rapid pyrolysis and a relativelylarge amount of pyrolysisgases. Because of the low temperatures, the tar-conversion rates are not very high. The advantages of fluidized-bed reactors in comparison with fixed-bed reactors are as follows: * Compact construction because of high heat exchange and reaction rates due to intensive mixing in the bed * Flexibility to changes in moisture and ash content and other fuel characteristics; ability to deal with fluffy and fine-grained materials that have high ash content, low bulk density, or both * Relativelylow ash melting points due to the low reaction temperatures. The drawbacks are as follows: * High tar and dust content of the producer gas * High producer-gas temperatures, which leave alkali metals in the vapor state D Incomplete carbon burnout a Complex operation because of the need to control the supply of both air and solid fuel * Need for power consumption for the compression of the gas stream. The carbon burnout in circulating fluidized-bed gasifiersis considerably better than in bubbling fluidized beds. The flexibility in particle size of the fuel is not high compared with fluidized-bed combustion. For gasification, relatively fine fuel particle sizes are preferred. A schematic of a fluidized bed gasifieris givenin figure 4.9.In the figure,steam or pure oxygeninstead of air are shown as fluidizingand gasifyingagents.If gasification is done with pure oxygen,the caloricvalue of the producer gas will be higher becauseof the absence of nitrogen (which of course is present in air). However, production of pure oxygen is expensive,and

therefore it is only feasible in large-scale operations such as the coalgasification powerplantinBuggenum, the Netherlands.For most large-scalebiomass applications,however,an oxygenfactory is not expectedto be economic.

Figure4.9: Fluidized-Bed Gasifier

-~

Gas

Biomass l

Ash

T
Air, oxygen, or steam
Source:Authors.

Pressurized Fluidized-Bed Gasification

For power production in relativelylarge-scale applications (>= 5 MWe) gas turbines seem to be attractive prime movers. When used in a gas turbine, the producer gas has to be fed into the combustor at high pressures (10 to 25 bar, depending on the gas turbine design). As a consequence,the hot producer gas from an atmospheric gasifier must be cooled and compressed,resultingin a high levelof internal power consumption. The cooling of the gas is necessary because (a) the temperature of the gas increasescompression, (b) the temperature resistance of compressors is limited, and (c) hot gases take up large volumes, requiring additional work for compression. The alternative is to gasify under pressurized conditions, delivering producer gas at the pressure of

32

Energy fromBiomass

the gas-turbine combustor. The advantages of this approach are as follows (BTG, 1993): * Low level of internal power consumption * Compact design, implying low specific investment costs * Decrease of ash sintering. The drawbacks are as follows: * The process of feeding fuel into the gasifier is complex. * The approach requires high-temperature producer gas cleaning devices;this technology is still under development and unproven commercially. * The installation is complex and consequently requires substantial investment for low capacity. Both pressurized and atmospheric gasifiersare currently used in advanced biomass gasificationdesigns.

cause corrosion and erosion of cylinder walls and pistons. When the gas is used in a heat application, requirements for gas quality are not strict, especially when the gas remains at high temperatures during transportation to the burner (this prevents tars and alkali metals from condensing).

Tar Removal
The classicalway to remove tars is to cool the gas, which causesthe tars to condense.A condenser may be built from wide pipes and cooled on the outside by the surrounding air.When this is done, tars condense on the walls of the pipes and can be drained offat the bottom. This type of tar condenser is quite large for the amount treated and is therefore not suitable for treating large volumes of gas. Cooling the gas by spraying water into the gas stream with a venturi scrubber causes the tars to condense on the water droplets. The effectiveness of the tar removal can be controlled by adjusting the pressure drop over the spray nozzle, which influences droplet sizes of the water spray. Humidified packed beds are also applied to increase the cooling surface in a tar-condensing device.The bed material may consist of specially designed rings or other shapes, but it could also consist, say,of simple coconut fibers or even ping-pong balls. In the direct water-cooled tar removal systems,some of the dust, HCI, sulfur oxides, and-depending on the temperature in the condenser-alkali metals are also removed by the water.

Comparison of Fixed-Bed and Fluidized-Bed Gasifiers

Table 4.2 summarizes a number of important technical and operational parameters for the different systems. Gas Treatment Before the producer gas can be used in a gas engine or turbine, it must be cooled and cleaned of tars, alkali metals, and dust. Tars may condense on valves and fittings,hampering the ability of valvesto function properly, whereas alkali metals, dust, and tars

Table 4.2:TypicalCharacteristics Fixed-Bed of and Fluidized-Bed Gasifiers

Characteristic Fuel: size(mm) ash content (%wt) Operatingtemperature (oC) Control Trundownratio Constructionmaterial Capacity(MWth) Startuptime Attendance 3 Tar contant (g/Nm ) 3) LHV (MJ/Nm Source: Swaay others(1994); (1993). Van and BTG 33 Fixed-bed downdraft 10-100 <6 800-1,400 simple 4 mild + refractory <2.5 minutes low <3 4.5 Fluidized-bed 0-20 <25 750-950 average 3 heat-resistant steel 1-50 hours average <5 5.1

Energyfrom Biomass

A major drawback of direct water-cooled systems is the tar-contaminated waste-water stream, which needs treatment before disposal. If this waste-water stream is disposed of without cleaning, it will cause severe environmental damage. Tar cracking in a bed of char or a catalyst such as nickel or dolomite at high temperatures (6000 to 1,000C)maybe an alternative to the wet-gas cleaning systems. In such devices,heavy tars in the producer gas are cracked into light, combustible gases that will not condense at the normal operating temperatures of a gas engine. However, such tar-cracking systems are still in development and hence not yet commercially available. Dust Removal Dust-removal equipment for combustion flue gas such as cyclones, bag filters, and electrostatic precipitators can also be used for cleaning producer gas. Depending on the upstream processing of the producer gas, the fabric of bag filters could become clogged by tars and should be replaced regularly. An alternative may be ceramic filters, which have a high temperature and chemical resistance. One drawback of ceramics is their sensitivity to varying temperatures in different locations of the same object. Such variations may occur as a result of rapid changes in the heat load, for example. Packed beds filled with fine granular particles such as sand, sawdust, and rice husks are also used for dust removal. These beds are not as efficient as fabric filters but are relatively cheap and insensitive to tar deposits. Furthermore, biomass filter materials may ultimately be used as fuel when the filter bed is renewed. The most common composition of a producer gas cleaning chain is a cyclone, followed by a tar condenser, a packed filter bed, and (optionally) a fabric filter.

and must be almost free of dust and tars in order to minimize engine wear and maintenance. Tars can condense and clog the gas supply lines and the gasair mixer and accumulate on the intake valves.The latter, in particular, leads to problems once an engine is restarted after cooling down. Any tar that has accumulated on valvesor valvestems will harden during cooling and prevent the valves from closing (figure 4.10). Also, acids may cause severe corrosion and affect the lubricating properties of the oil.

Figure4.10: Tar Accumulation Valve on ~~~~~~~~~~~I

I

%~~~~~~~~

Source: TNO (1992).

Table 4.3 presents general specifications for the use of producer gas in modern engines. To some extent, these specifications may vary with engine type. Spark ignition engines can run entirely on gas. Good mixing with combustion air should be assured; a Tshaped mixer is often used (figure 4.11). The control system should provide a constant gas/air ratio with all loads. The maximum power output of an Otto engine that runs on producer gas depends on the gas heating value, ignition timing, and specific engine characteristics, and is usually a lot less powerful using petrol or natural gas. Because of the high compression ratio of diesel engines, a gas engine is often converted into a diesel engine by replacing the fuel injection device with a spark ignition device. The efficiencyafter conversion is as much as 45 percent lower than in the original diesel engine.

Gas Engines
Producer gas can be used both in spark ignition ("Otto") and injection ignition ("diesel") engines. Engine-quality producer gas must have sufficient heating value for technical and economic reasons

34

Energyfrom Biomass

Table 4.3: Specificationsfor Use of Producer Gas in Engines Gas characteristics

Heating value Dust content Dust size Tar content Hydrochloric acid Acetic acid
Source:VanSwaayand others (1994).

Unit of measure
kJ/Nm3 mg/Nm3 puM mg/Nm3 ppm ppm

Level
>4,200 <50 <5 <10 <500 <100 <50 <500

Comment
acceptable preferable acceptable preferable

Figure 4.1 1: T-Type Mixing System for Mixing Producer Gas with Combustion Air
Air

flame propagation speed of CO, so once the timing is properly set, knocking should be unusual. Gas Turbines

Air filter
Filter F=uel-

Gas turbines are used by themselvesin a wide range of applications, most notably for powering aircraft
but also in industrial plants for driving equipment

vXs;
Particulates

such as compressors, pumps, and generators, and in electricalutilities for producing power for peakloads
3g ,a32 as well as for intermediate- and base-load duties.

Source: Van Swaay others (1994). and

Diesel engines (not converted to spark ignition) can only be partly operated on producer gas (dual-fuel operation) and therefore alwaysconsume diesel fuel at 10 to 25 percent of full-load consumption (van
Swaay and others 1994). The maximum power out-

The principle of a gas turbine is shown in figure 4.12,which depicts one- andtwo-shaftmodels. The compressed air (typically 10 to 25 bar) reacts with the fuel in the combustor. Hot pressurized flue gases expand in the turbine, driving the compressor and the additional load (generator). In the two-shaft design, the turbine is divided. In one-shaft drives, the compressor and the turbine) powers the generator. The two-shaft design provides flexibility in allowing for different compressor and generator
rotational speeds. The hot flue gases from the combustor that enter

put of such an engine depends on the gas heating

value, the amounts of injected diesel fuel, and spe-

cific engine characteristics. The efficiency of a diesel engine operating in dual-fuel mode is as much as 25 percent less than in a single (diesel) fuel mode. Engine knocking occurs when the combustion of the gas in the cylinder continues after the ignition stroke. Knocking may cause pressure oscillations and damage to the engine. Low flame propagation speeds or incorrect ignition timing may also cause knocking. In producer gas, the relatively high flame propagation speed of H2 compensates for the low

the turbine section are considerably hotter (up to 1,250C) than the steam that enters a steam turbine (525 to 560C).Therefore, high thermodynamic efficiency may be expected from gas turbines. However, departing flue gases still have high temperatures (450 to 700C). Their loss causes a considerable detriment to a simple-cyclesystem.Even so, recently developed large-scale gas turbines may reach simple cycleefficienciesof as high as 40 percent. For medium- and small-scale gas turbines, simple-cycle efficiencyranges from 20 to 35 percent.

35

Energy fromBiomass

Figure4.12: Basic GasTurbine (A) and Two-Shaft(B) Configurations

Fuel

Combustor

Fuel Combustor

Compresso

Compresso

Powerturbine

Load

~~~~~~~~~Load
Exhaust

Air

Exhaust

Air

A
Source: Authors.

Efficiency of simple-cycle gas turbines can be increased by recovering heat from the exhaust gases. This is done by heating the compressed combustion air (figure 4.13).

Figure4.13:GasTurbine with Exhaust Gas Heat Recovery

Fuel

The power consumption of the compressor can be decreased by applying intercooling heat exchangers (air or water cooled). This reduces the temperature and volume of the gas and consequently the gas compression. An additional option to increase simple-cycle gas turbine efficiency is to reheat the flue gases after they pass some turbine stages. Heat recovery, intercooling, and reheating are depicted
in figure 4.14.

Combustor

Regene

Compressor

Exhaust

Turbine

T
Air

Shaft Load

Combustion of low-calorific gases in a gas turbine adds requirements to the design of the compressor/combustor connection and combustor design

Source:Authors.

(British Coal Corporation & European Gas Turbines 1995). When pressurized gasification is applied, typically 10 to 20 percent of the compressed air stream is used in the gasifier to attain the required gasifier inlet pressure. The pressure of this air is raised to a slightly higher level by a booster compressor. The bleed of compressed air puts additional requirements on the air offtake system.

The lower heating value (LHV) of producer gas is five to seven times lower than the LHV of natural gas. Hence, to obtain equivalent firing temperatures, the flow of fuel gas has to increase substantially.This means that the incoming fuel and air streams have the same order of magnitude. Because of the high

36

Energy fromBiomass

Figure4.14: GasTurbinewith Heat Recovery, Intercooling, Reheat and

Fuel Regenerator{, Compressors Exhaust Shaft Combustor

Fuel Combustor

Load Turbine Turbine

Intercooler Intercooler
Source:Authors.

flow rates of fuel gas compared with the flow of air, the aerodynamic characteristics of the fuel injector are important. The high level of inerts in the fuel gas tends to reduce the range of stable air to fuel mass ratios. However, this is offset by the high concentration of hydrogen in the flue gas, which burns over a much wider range of air-to-fuel ratios than other combustible components. Furthermore, the high level of inerts reduces combustion temperature in a wayanalogous to steam injection or flue gas recirculation in natural-gas-fired turbines, thus suppressing thermal NO, formation. Unfortunately, the low thermal NO, formation is offset by the formation of NO, from combustion of

NH3 contained in the producer gas. This is formed in the gasifier from the fuel nitrogen. When pressurized gasifiers are used, the fuel temperature delivered to the gas turbine is higher than in conventional gas turbine applications (typically 400 to 600C). These high temperatures affect the selection of fuel control valves,pipework materials, and instrumentation. Currently, only a few turbine manufacturers offer gas turbines suitable for combustion of low-calorific gases that are obtained from biomass gasification (see Table 4.4; Enviropower 1995). Becauseof the limited experience with biomass producer-gasturbines, gas quality requirements are still

Gases Table 4.4:GasTurbinesSuitablefor Low-Calorific

Gas turbine type Allisson, Ruston Mitsubishi,MWI51 GE,Frame 6 CW251 Westinghouse, GE, Frame6A
Source: Author.

PowerMWei 5 21 43 50 70

Simple-cycleefficiency(percent) 28 24 33 33 31

37

Energy from Biomass

not clear. An indication of current requirements set by gas turbine manufacturers is given in Table 4.5.

The efficiencyof steam expansion in a steam turbine is higher than that of steam expansion in a gas turbine. For these reasons, and the fact that the water and steam are kept in a closed cycle,the STEG, despite higher investment costs, is preferable to the STIG. In modern gas plants, overall efficiency of a STEG

Table 4.5: Quality Requirements for Gas Turbine Fuel Gas Gas characteristic MinimumLHV Particles Alkalimetals Source: Author. Unit of measure
3 MJ/Nm

Level

ppm ppm

3-11 may be more than 55 percent, with and 60 percent <2-30 reachable within a few years. This progress is made <0.2-1.0 possible by using dedicated materials and advanced Source. Authorbladecooling systems to raise the inlet temperature of gas turbines. The heat exchanger used to produce steam from gas turbine flue gases is called the heat recovery steam generator (HRSG). Because of the relatively low entry temperatures of flue gas, the design of an HRSG is quite different from that of a steam boiler. Typically,the HRSG consists of a flue-gas path containing finned pipe modules for the steam superheater sections, the evaporator section, and the economizer section (feedwater preheating). The HRSG should be made specificallyfor each gas turbine and combined-cycle concept. For a combined heat and power application, a backpressure steam turbine can be used to deliver the process steam as required. A condensing/extraction turbine may provide flexibility in a CHP concept, as the steam can be extracted for use as process steam or expanded completelyto the condenser and fully utilized for power production. Currently, integrated designs for biomass gasification and combined cycling, integrated gas combined-cycle (IGCC) have been prepared. This concept offers the highest electrical efficienciesin thermochemical conversion of biomass. Estimated efficiencies range from 44 to 50 percent, with the higher figure expected within fiveyears as a result of redesigned gas turbines. However, few IGCC systems for biomass have been realizedso far.In 1995,a concept based on a pressurized circulatingfluidized-bedgasifierand a 4MWegas turbine was in demonstration at a plant in Varnamo, Sweden.The total electricityproduction capacitywill

Application of pressurized gasifiers with gas turbines is advantageous because it forestalls the need for a large producer gas compressor. The gasification air can simply be extracted from the combustion air compressed by the gas turbine. However, the full advantages of such a system are obtained only when high-temperature gas treatment systems (ceramic filters, for example) are applied. These systems are still in the development phase, and a reliable system is currently not commercially available. The absence of effectivehot-gas treatment systems is one of the major bottlenecks in the development of pressurized-gasifier/gas-turbine systems.

Combined-Cycle STIG and STEG

The heat contained in flue gases exiting from a gas turbine that has no recovery system, according to figure 4.13, can be used to produce steam. This steam can be injected into the so-calledSTIG (steam injected gas turbine) or into a separate steam turbine in the so-called STEG (steam and gas turbine) concept. The STIG concept requires continuous supply of water, as the steam is released into the environment. The advantage, however, is its simplicity relative to the STEG. In the STEG concept, the steam is used in a closed steam cycle. The overall electrical efficiency of this concept is higher than in the STIG concept: * High steam pressures can be applied. * The steam can be expanded to vacuum conditions.

38

Energy from Biomass

be 6 MWe. Although plantisfinished, is stillnot the it operational because technical of problems.

Heat Generation
Usingproducergas in heat applicationis more or lesscomparableto two-stagecombustion.The differenceis that somedistanceis createdbetweenthe first stage(gasifier)and the secondstage (burner). The hot producergasesareconductedthrough gas pipes to the burner(s). To prevent problemswith condensationof tar, it is important that the piping is wellinsulatedand that the transport distanceis not too long. The advantagesof the gasification/ combustionroute comparedwith direct combustion of the fuelare as follows: Lowoverall(gasification combustion) plus excess airfactors, allowing relatively efficiencies for high * Lowlevelsof NOX emissions x Lessfoulingof the heat exchange equipmentor heatedproducts(in direct heatapplications such as drying or baking) as a resultof lessfly ash in the combustiongases.
*

to clean the producer gas instead of the fluegases after combustion. The volume flow rate of the formeris roughly50percentof thevolumeflowrate of the latter,leadingto considerable savingsin cost cleaningdevices. Burnerperformance dependson the properties of the gas.Changingfrom natural gasto producergas meanschangingthe air-to-fuelratio.To obtainthe sameheat release,the fuel gas flowhas to be increasedby further opening the fuelvalveor pressurizingthe producergas. Flamestability dependson flamevelocity flamand mabilitylimits.Althoughit ispossibleto getan idea aboutflamestabilityfrom theoretical observations, it is advisableto test a specificburner with the actual producergas beforeinstallingit. Thesizeand temperature distributionofthe flame, which affects the furnace efficiency, depends on the composition of the producer gas and its dust content. The adiabaticflametemperature of LHVproducer gas is lower (1,600C)than that of natural gas (1,900C). High-temperatureapplicationssuch as glass-melting furnacesmaynot be ableto use producer gas effectively. most other applications, In however, relatively adiabaticflametemperathe low ture willnot necessarily mean a drop in efficiency.

The disadvantage the lossof heat in the gasifier is and transport piping. Good insulation and close connection to the heat applicationwill minimize this loss,however. If it is necessaryto clean the gas to complywith environmentalregulations,it maybe advantageous

39

5. Combustion Versus Gasification

Heat Applications
In chapter 3, different aspects of combustion of biomass are presented and discussed in relation to different types of furnaces. Basically,the hot flue gases leaving the furnace can be used directly or indirectly. Direct combustion heat is used for baking (e.g., stones, bakery products, and cement) and drying (e.g., food, wood, paper, and painted objects). Indirect heating processes use heat exchangers such as boilers for the production of steam or hot water. Designs based on direct heating may be cheaper because of the absence of these heat exchangers. However, direct contact between the product and the hot flue gases may limit possible applications of the direct heating process, because the contact may result in physical or chemical interactions between the flue gases and the product. To some extent, this problem may be solved by using cleaning equipment to reduce the levels of contaminants. However, the temperature resistance of the available cleaning systems is limited, so the flue gases would have to be cooled first to the operating temperature of the cleaning systems (approximately 3000 to 400C). This, of course, would result in a considerable loss of the contained heat. Gasification of biomass may be advantageous if direct heating by flue gases is considered. The advantages of using producer gas are as follows: * A producer gas flame can easily be burned with low NOXemissions. * When strict emission levels on flue gas contaminants are required, producer gas can be cleaned before use. * A gas flame can easily be directed to a certain heating zone. * Each burner can be controlled easily (the process is similar to cooking on a gas stove). The energy in the producer gas is to a large extent chemicallybound energy (about 80 percent). If the cleaning system requires cooling of the producer gas, only thermal energy, which represents approximately 20 percent of the contained energy, 40 gets lost. By using an intensive gas-cleaning system in combination with a well-designed burner, a clean flow of hot flue gases can be produced for direct heat applications. If the heat is applied in an indirect heating system using heat exchangers (e.g., boilers), both gasification and combustion systems can be used. In general, direct combustion systems may offer the highest overall efficiency,whereas gasification may offer the highest controllability.

Retrofittingof Fossil-Fuel-Fired Furnaces

In some cases it can be attractive to convert fossilfuel-fired furnaces to biomass fuel rather than to construct new biomass-fueled devices. When no alternative exists, fossil-fuel conversion may be the most effectiveway to prevent waste of capital goods. A clear reason for such a conversion may be a sudden scarcityof fossilfuels that makes them extremely expensive.This applies particularly to some Central and Eastern European countries that can no longer accesscheap fossilfuels from Russian resources and now must import them. Some such countries, such as Estonia (BTG 1995a) and the other Baltic states, also have large biomass resources available in the form of wood and peat. For these countries, retrofitting to biomass fuel is a serious option to decrease dependency on foreign fossil fuels. Policies for sustaining energy resources can also stimulate conversion of equipment. In the United States, the government offers tax credits if biomass fuels are used. The basic principles for boiler conversion are described below.

Installation a Prefurnace of
An additional furnace, the prefurnace, can be installed in front of the existing boiler/furnace device. This prefurnace is especially designed to

Energy from Biomass

burn biomass fuels. The hot flue gases from this prefurnace are directed into the existing boiler/ furnace and pass through the boiler heat exchangers. In this way, the heat is completely released by convection. In the original boiler/furnace, heat exchange takes place through a combination of convection and radiation. The heat exchangers in the boiler are too small to reach their design capacity purely by convection heating. As a consequence, the maximum capacity is downgraded to 50 percent of its original value, depending on the boiler design. Installation of a Gasifier A gasifier can be installed that fires producer gas in the existing furnace/boiler. The radiation of a producer gas flame is comparable with a natural gas flame and slightly less than that of an oil flame. In gas- or oil-fired boilers converted to this technology, the same mechanisms of heat transfer (radiation and convection) remain, and therefore no downgrading occurs. If coal-fired boilers are converted in this way,the capacity of the boiler is downgraded to approximately 80 percent of its original capacity because of the higher radiative heat exchange in the original coal fired furnace/boiler. In the United States, this type of retrofit is often applied relativelyoften (even in coal-fired furnaces), stimulated by government tax credits when biomass fuels are used instead of fossilfuels (AED 1994). Conversion of Furnaces Existing furnaces may also be converted to biomass fuels by installing a grate and adapting primary and secondary air supplies. This fuel must burn in the space provided by the combustion chamber. The required residence time in the combustion chamber should be approximately two to three seconds to realize complete combustion. To keep the combustion temperature at the required high level,the combustion chamber walls can be covered with a refractory lining. The downgrading of retrofitted gas- or oil-fired furnace/boilers depends on the devolatilization rate of the biomass materials. If the material is pulverized into small pieces, devolatilization is fast, and little derating occurs. When lump fuel is used, devolatilization is slow, and derating is high.

The combustion room for boilers originally fired with coal is in most cases too small because of the low volatile content in coal. In biomass, the volatile content may be as high as 80 percent (on a dry basis),whereasincoal,acontentof30percentvolatiles is considered very high. Since volatiles require an especiallylarge combustion space, a retrofitted coal furnace/boiler may have to be derated to as little as 35 percent of its original capacity, depending on the original furnace design. Supplying solid-fuel fired furnaces is more complicated than supplying gas- or oil-fired furnaces and requires special attention in design and operation. The required supervision during operation depends strongly on the level of system automation. This can range from complete manual operation to fuel supply systems that are virtually automatic. Power Applications Large-scale steam cycles for producing power are used all over the world; the technology, including combustion technology, is well developed. Gasificationtechnology is far less mature and is still in the development stage. Advanced gasification cycles,which have not yet been realized on a commercial or even a demonstration scale, are promising, and much development work is going on to make these cycles commercially available. Small-scaleapplications are required if biomass (as in most cases) is only available in limited quantities. This should also apply locally to avoid excessive transport costs. For steam cycles and gasification technology, work continues to develop reliable and affordable small-scale equipment. In this section, gasifierand combustion-based units are compared, both for pure power and for combined heat and power production. This comparison is done for a 1 MWelcapacity and for a 5 MWelcapacity. Capacities smaller than 1 MWej are not considered because steam cycles in this range tend to be extremely expensive,whereascomparable gasificationbased systems are still not reliable. For capacities higher than 5 MWei,much development work is being done in advanced integrated
41

Energy fromBiomass

gasification and combined-cycle (IGCC) schemes, with the aim of realizing a high level of integration between fuel preparation and optimal power and heat production. Currently,no realisticdata on costs and performance of these schemes are available.

the producer gas, a multicyclone for separating dust and a gas cooler for condensing tar is included. An indication of the capacity of each component is presented in Table 5.1. The economic lifetime of the plant is estimated at 10 years; this is relatively low, but it is realistic for this type of plant. The Steam-Cycle Concept. The components and related capacities of the considered steam cycle are presented in Table 5.2. The steam condition delivered by the boiler is 28 bar saturated steam, which is almost the maximum pressure that can be delivered by a fire-tube boiler. Because of the reliability of steam-cycle equipment, the life span of the unit is estimated at 15 years. The steam cycle in the CHP concept differs from the power generation concept with respect to the turbine. Instead of a condensing turbine, a counterpressure turbine delivers steam at atmospheric pressure. Condensation of this steam provides heat at a temperature level of 100C. The power production capacity of the counterpressure turbine will be 80 percent lower than that of the condensing turbine. Investments will be lower as well, but the investment for the complete unit expressed per kWewill be higher.

Concepts the I MW Range in

In the 1 MWel range, the following concepts are considered: * A fixed-bed gasifier with a gas engine * A steam-cycle concept based on a fixed-bed furnace and a medium-pressure steam boiler. The considered fuel is a woody biomass with a moisture content of 20 percent (wet basis) and an ash content of I percent (dry basis). Ashmelting points are above 1,200C.The actual LHV is 14.2 MJfkg. Fuel size is in the range of 50 x 50 x 100 mm. Fuel supply is in both cases automatic and more or less identical. A fuel supply system may consist of a storage silo (buffer capacity for one to three days) provided with a screw to force the fuel out of the silo to a transport band. This band moves the fuel into the fuel-supply hopper of the gasifier and furnace. Gasification Concept. The installation is built from a downdraft fixed-bed gasifier combined with an Otto-type gas engine. For the cleaning of

with IndicativeCapacities Table 5.1: Gasifier/Engine ConceptIn I MW. Range

Capacity Component Fuel supplysystem Gasifier: Capacity Gas production Multicyclone: treatment capacity gas Producer-gascooler
Scrubber

Unit of measure t/h MW Nm3 /h m3/h MWth

m3/h

Powergeneration and CHP 1.5 4.1 3,100

9,900

Remarks n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. usefulheat in CHP option

n.a.

1.2
4,200 I

Gas engineand generator

n.a. Not applicable. Source:Author.

MWe MWth

2.2

n.a. usefulheat in CHP option

42

Energy fromBiomass

Table 5.2:Steam-CycleConceptin I MW. Range with IndicativeCapacities

Capacity Component Fuel suppysystem Furnacewith staged combustion Fire-tubeboiler:steamproduction
Multicyclone: gas treatment capacity

Unit of measure

Powergeneration 1.8
7.3

CHP 1.8
7.3

tVh
MWth t/h
m3/h

9.7
18,000

9.7
18,000

Singlestageturbine and generator Watercooledcondenser Makeupwater treatment De-aerator Boilerfeed-waterpump Flue-gasfan

Source:Author.

Mwe MwU m3/h m3/h m3/h

1 5.5 0.1 9.7 18,000

0.8 5.7 0.1 9.7 18,000

Comparison of Gasification and the Steam-CycleConcept in the I MWM,Range The steam cycleand the gasifier/engineconcepts can be compared with regard to operational, energetic, and financial aspects. In a recent inventory of gasification technologies (van Swaay and others 1994), the equipment is estimated at 1,700 $/kWe (1995 price level). From this figure, total plant costs for installation (mechanical, electrical, piping, instrumentational, and civils) are obtained by averaging the ratio between total plant and equipment costs. Van Swaay and others (1994) propose a ratio of 1.75. This estimate should be considered average, since actual investments on realized installations may tend to center around this figure. For the steam-cycle concept, specific equipment investment costs are estimated at 2,000 $/kWel.The ratio between total plant cost versus equipment cost is estimated at a ratio of two, higher than in the gasification concept because of the more complex installation. It is common for engineering companies to judge the accuracy of estimates based on such "typical and/or characteristic" values at 50 percent. In van Swaayand others (1994), an even wider range of 50 percent to + 100 percent based on an investment survey of "real life" projects is reported for Western gasification equipment.

In general such a range is caused by differences in equipment quality and specific site conditions that have to be met. These include noise regulations, safety requirements, required height of the stack, level of automation, and fluctuations in currency exchange rates that affect investment costs of foreign equipment. An interesting observation also made in van Swaay and others (1994) is that products from developing countries maybe lower in investment costs by a factor of four compared with equipment manufactured in the West. Differences in manufacturing quality, however, are significant between developed and developing countries. It should also be noted that the ratio between total plant costs and equipment costs depends strongly on each situation. The proposed ratio of 1.75 for gasifier/engine concepts may be on target for developed countries but not for developing countries, where wages are lower. In Table 5.3, some characteristic data of both systems are compared. The investment costs for steam cyclesare higher than for gasifiers,even though the expected lifetime is longer. Although the electrical efficiency for a steam cycle is lower, the heat production in CHP mode is higher. Maintenance is estimated to cost 5 percent of the equipment investment for both systems, which consequently are higher for the steam cycle.

43

Energy fromBiomass

Table 5.3:Characteristic Data of Gasifier/Engine Steam-Cycle and Concept

Gassifier/engine Specificdata
Investment Specificinvestment

Steam cycle Power

4,000
4,000

Unit of measure
$1,000
$/kWe

Power
2,975
2,975

CHP
2,975
2,975

CHP
3,800
4,911

Expectedlifetime Labor Efficiency

Electric

year person*year

10 1
0.17 -

10 1
0.17 0.58 1
3.4

15 1
0.14
-

15 1
0.11 0.79 0.8
5.7

Heat Capacity
Electric

Heat
Maintenance
-

MWIAe MWth $1,000/year

1
-

1
-

85

85

100

95

Not applicable. Interest loans on Labor cost LHV (wetbasis) fuel Fuel price Annual operation 8 percent $50,000 person year per per 14.2 MJ/kg $40/tonne $2.82/GJ: (i.e., approximately percent fossil price) 50 of fuel 6,000 h/year

Note:General andassumptions asfollows: data are

Source: Author.

Some general aspects concerning operability are mentioned in Table 5.4. The gasifier/engine installation is relativelysimple with respect to number of components, but operation is difficult and may require regular deaning and removal of tar from critical parts of the plant. Instrumentation to measure key process parameters for this type of equipment is not yet developed to a usable level. This implies that the operator should rely on a"feel" for the plant, since, to a large extent, efficiencyof the plant is determined by the operator's skills and motivation. The steam cycle is complex because it consists of many components. Operation is straightforward but requires skilled and motivated operators. Key process parameters are measured directly, and operation procedures are well-defined. For both plants, continuous operation is most productive. If partial use of the most optimal mode of operation for both plants is mandated, the steamcyclecan be turned down to one-fifth to one-tenth of the design load, whereas the gasifier engine rate is limited to one-fourth of design capacity.

In CHP mode, steam can be condensed at a constant temperature (in the presented case 100C), while the gasifier/engine delivers heat by warming up water (in principle, other fluids are alsopossible) from, for example, 70 up to 105C(for the engine). The heat from the gas cooler is released at higher temperatures, and its use increases the potential of the gasifier engine unit to heat a fluid from, say, 700 up to 1200or 125C. The design of a steam cyclecan easily be adapted to deliver heat at higher temperatures (150C, for example, is common in process industries). However, this will reduce electricity production. In the case presented, the applied boiler steam pressure and temperature are modest because of the application of a fire-tube boiler. A water-pipe boiler would allow higher steam temperatures and pressures, resulting in higher electric efficiency.But investments would also increase significantly. In Annex 5, a complete financial analysis is presented for both the gasification and the steam-cycle-based

44

Energy fromBiomass

Table 5.4:OperationalAspects Gasifier/Engine Steam Cycle of and

Characteristic Turndownratio Reliability Complexity Safety Noiselevel Startup/shutdown Operability Source: Author. Gasifier/engine 3-4 Poorto reasonable Moderate CO danger High,at medium frequencies 0.2-1 h Difficult: skilled personnelrequired Steam cycle 5-10 High High High-pressure steam High,at high frequencies 1-3 Straightforward: skilled personnelrequired

power production units. The resultsare presented in Tables 5.5 and 5.6. The steam-cycle concept is 25 to 30 percent more expensive than the gasifier concept because its higher capital costs and lower overall efficiency (14 percent versus 17 percent) result in higher fuel and maintenance costs.

When both cyclesin a CHP are compared, the steam cyde is still more expensive than the gasifier/engine concept. The net fuel costs (fuelcostsminus expenses for heat production) are roughly the same for both concepts (0.03 $/kWh). In the case presented, the price for heat is expressed minus fuel costs for heat production. This is based on a boiler efficiencyof 90 percent, which is assumed to produce the heat if no CHP units were installed. Sensitivity Analysis. Because of the uncertainties and assumptions about the general data that form the basis for the financial comparison, a sensitivity analysisis performed on annual hours of operation, fuel price, and specific investment. The results of this analysis are presented in Figure 5.1. . Sensitivity to annual hours of operation focuses on a range between 4,000 and 8,000 h/year as a base case. Within this range, the steam cycle has higher kWhecosts than the gasifier/engineconcept, but this difference is reduced as annual operating hours increase. The sensitivity is higher for the CHP concept because project income, which depends on operation hours, is higher from the saleof both electricity and heat. The sensitivity to fuel price is widely considered to reflect the actual range in biomass fuels and, consequently, fuel prices. Biomass may be available from no cost up to a relatively high cost when energy cropsare considered. Becauseof the lower efficiency, the sensitivity to fuel price for the steam cycle is somewhat higher for pure power generation and more or less the same for CHP production. If the fuel is free, the costs of generating pure power are

Table 5.5:ElectricityProductionCosts: Steam versus Gasifier (Range: I MWCs u )

Cost element Capitalcost Fuelcost Labor Maintenance Total Source: Author. Steam cycle ($/kWhe) 0.08 0.07 0.01 0.03 0.19 Gasifier/engine

($kwhe)
0.07 0.06 0.01 0.01 0.15

Table 5.6:Electricity Production Costs: Steam versus Gasifier for Small Applications Based on CHP Concepts (Range: < I MW,1) Cost element Capitalcost Fuel cost Omitted fuelcost Labor Maintenance Total
Source: Author.

Steam cycle ($/kwhd) 0.10 0.09 (0.06) 0.01 0.04 0.18

Gasifier/engine ($/kwhe) 0.07 0.06 (0.03) 0.01 0.01 0.12

45

Energy fromBiomass

Figure5.1:Sensitivity Analysis Concepts the I MW, Range of In

Power generation (capacity MWQ) 1
0.25 0.25 -

CHP (capacity MW) 1 0

0.20 -

~_

_0.20-

0.15 -

010 -

0.OS -

0.10 -

0.05-

0.05 -

4,000 4,500 5,000 5,500 6.000 6,500 7,000 7,500 8,000

4,000 4,500 5,000 5,500 6,000 6,500 7,000 7,500 8,000

Operating Hours
Steamcycle - - - - Gasifierengine

Operating Hours
Steamcycle - - - - Gasifierengine

Power generation (capacity MW) 1 0

0.25 0.25 -

CHP(capacity MW) 1 0

0.20 -

020 -

0.15

0.15

0.10 -

0.10 -

0.05 -

0.05 -

OM

0.00

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

1,000

2,000

3,000 --*

4,000

5,000

6,000

Specific investment ($/kW,) U

SteamcycAe Basecasesteamcycle

Specific investment ($/kW,)

Steamcycle * Basecasesteamcyde - Gasifierengine Basecase gasifier engine

- - -Gasifier engine Basecasegasifier engine

Power generation (capacity MW0) 1

0.25 0.25 -

CHP (capacity MW0) 1

0.20 -

0.20 -

0.15 -0.15
0.0 0.1

0.05 -

0.05

0.00 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

0 .Q00 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 s0

Fuelprice($/ton)
Steamcycle Source: Authors. - - - - Gasffier engine

Fuel price($/ton)
Steamcycle
- - - -

Gasifierengine

Note:The basecasefor operationhours is 6,000hours per year;for fuel priceit is $40per ton

46

Energy from Biomass

almost the same for both. Although the CHP steam cycle has higher costs than the gasifier engine, the sensitivity is identical. The lower electrical efficiency of the steam cycle and-consequently-the low level of electricity sales are in this case counterbalanced by greater heat production, resulting in almost the same fuel cost per electrical kilowatt hour. The specific investment ranges from 0 to 6,000 $/ kW; the maintenance costs are not considered to depend on the investment and are kept constant on the level of Table 5.3. In the graph, the base cases for both concepts are different and represented by a designated symbol. The sensitivity to specific investment costs is lower for the steam cyclebecause of the longer lifetime of the equipment. For specific investment, the 0 $/kW represents the production costs. The production costs for the steam cycleare higher than those of gasifier/engines. From this analysis,it can be concluded that the sensitivity of the kWhe costs for the different parameters in the considered range is much larger than the differences between the two concepts. For example, if the number of annual operating hours for the gasifier/engine is only 5,000h/yr because of frequent interruptions, while the steam cycle results in 7,000 operating hours per year, the differencesin these are bridged and become roughly the same for both concepts. Concepts In the 5 MW Range In the 5 MWelrange, an upscaled version of the 1 MWel steam cycle and gasifier/engine can be considered. Regarding the steam cycle, higher steam temperatures and pressures can be applied (up to 530C and 60 bar), and, when combined with a multiple-stage turbine, this yields higher electric efficiency.A conventional steam cyclein this capacity range may consist of a fixed-bed furnace and a water-tube boiler. In Finland, circulating and bubbling fluidized-bed furnace/boilers in the range of 5 to 10 MWe have been developed with equipment costs estimated at 1,300 $/kWe (VTT Congress 1995).

A factor of two is employed as the ratio between total plant costs and equipment costs. This figure should be considered average.A bandwidth of 50 percent for actual figures is also applicable for the same reasons mentioned for the 1 MWe*The components and capacities are presented in Table 5.7. The applied steam conditions are higher than in the 1 MWelcase: 530C and 60 bar. Scaling up a gasifier/engine plant from 1 to 5 MWe results in fiveunits of 1 MWe rather than 1 unit of 5 MWe. This is because a gasifier is difficult to scale up. Thus, specific data for a fixed-bed gasifier/engine plant of 5 MWe are roughly the same as for the 1 MWesystem. In this capacity range, a modern system would be based on a fluidized-bed gasifier,combining a gas turbine with an HRSG and a steam turbine (STEG; Table 5.8). In Varnamo, Denmark, a plant of this type is in the experimental phase. This technology is expected to become of major importance in biomass-fueled power plant concepts and will therefore be considered here. Data for a conventional gasifier/engine unit can easily be derived from the 1 MWe case that has been discussed. Steam is produced at 450C and 60 bar. The lifetime of the system is expected to be 15 years. The specific equipment costs are estimated at 1,400 $/ kWe,, and the ratio between total plant costs and equipment costs is assumed to be 2. Those estimates are based on Western equipment prices,since manufacturing this equipment is only feasible in highly industrialized environments. Some of the equipment (boilers) can be produced in Central or Eastem European countries, which reduces the investment costs for these countries. The accuracy of the investment estimate is plus or minus 50 percent. Comparison of Gasification and SteamCycle Concepts in the 5 MW., Range The general assumptions and data for the 5 MWe concepts are presented in Table5.9. The investments are in the same range and do not differ much. The CHP is based on the same equipment as the power generation concepts,exceptfor the steam turbine and condensing systems.Becauseof the reduction in electrical capacity that results from use of a

47

Energy fromBiomass

Table 5.7:Steam Cyde Concept,5 MW., with IndicativeCapacities

Capacity Component Fluidized-bed furnace Thermalcapacity Fuel consumption Water-tube boiler: steamproduction Multicyclone/bag filter:gastreatment cap Multiplestageturbine and generator Watercooledcondenser Makeup watertreatment De-aerator Boilerfeed-waterpump
Flue-gas fan
Source: Author.

Unit of measure MWth t/h t/h m3 /h MWe

MWth

Powergeneration 18.2 4.6 19.1 47,000 5 11.3

0.3

CHP 18.2 4.6 19.1 47,000 4 12.3

0.3

m3 /h

m3 /h
m3 /h

19.1
50,000

19.1
50,000

Table 5.8:GasifierISTEG Conceptwith IndicativeCapacities

Capacity Component Fluidized-bed gasifier Gas production Fuel consumption Gasturbine Heat recovery steam generator Steamturbine Overallheat production
-

Unit of measure Nm3/h t/h MWe t/h MWe MWth

Powergeneration 7,500 3.6 3.2 15 1.6

-

CHP 7,500
3.6

3.2 15 0.9 8.2

Not applicable.

Source:Author.

counterpressure turbine, the specificinvestment cost of a CHP unit is considerably higher,despitethe lower investment for a steam turbine and condenser. The expected lifetime of the equipment is 15 years for both. The gasifier/STEG concept is the more complex of the two because of the large number of components involved.In both concepts, three persons are expected to operate the plant. The reliability of the steam-cycle concept is high, whereas the reliability of the gasifier/STEG concept still must be demonstrated. The most critical components are the gasifier,gas treatment, and gas turbine. For both pure power and combined heat and power production electricity production costs are com-

pared in Tables 5.10 and 5.11. A complete analysis is presented in Annex 6. For gasifier-based systems, investment costs are higher, but fuel costs are lower; for steam systems,it is just the reverse.However,according to these tables, production costs hardly differ at all. Even the CHPbased systemsgenerate the same production costs.

Sensitivity Analysis
A sensitivity analysis is performed using the same parameters and bandwidths employed for the 1 MWe concepts: annual operating hours, fuel price, and specific investment (Figure 5.2). As seen from the figure, the differences between gasifier/STEG and steam cycles are negligible in all graphs. As

48

Energy fromBiomass

Table 5.9:Characteristic Data of Gasifier/STEG and Steam-Cycle Concepts the 5 MW. in Range
Gassifier/STEG Steam cycle

Specific data
Investment Specific investment

Unitof measure
$1,000 $/kW,

Power
14,000 2,800

CHP
13,400 3,350

Power
13,000 2,600

CHP
12,000 3,064

Expectedlifetime Labor

year person*year

15 3
0.35 -

15 3
0.28 0.58 4
8.3

15 3
0.28
-

15 3
0.22 0.68 3.9
12.3

Efficiency
Electric

Heat

Capacity
Electric Heat Maintenance
-

MWe
MIWth
-

5
-

$1,000/year

350

335

325

300

Not applicable. Note:Generaldata and assumptionsare as follows: Intereston loans 8 percent Laborcost $50,000per person per year LHVfuel (wetbasis) 14.2MJlkg Fuelprice $40/tonne(i.e.,$2.82/GJ: approximately percent of fossilfuel price) 50 Annualoperation 6,000h/year Source: Author.

Table 5.10:ElectricityProductionCosts Based CHP Concepts the 5 MW 1 on In

Range
Cost element
Capital cost Fuelcost

Table 5.11:ElectricityProduction Costsin the 5 MW., Range Costelement

Capitalcost

Steamcycle

Gasifier/engine

Steamcycle ($/kWh)
0.05

Gasifier/engine ($/kWh)
0.05

($/kWhe)
0.06 0.05
(0.03)

($IkWhi)
0.06 0.05
(0.03)

Fuelcost Omitted cost fuel

Labor

0.04 (0.00)
0.01

0.03 (0.00)
0.01

Omittedfuel cost

Labor 0.01 0.01 Maintenance 0.01 0.01 Total 0.10 0.10 Note: Actual power output approximately 4MWe
Source: Author.

Maintenance Total Source: Author.

0.01 0.10

0.01 0.10

with the 1 MWe,sensitivityto operating hours is higher for the CHP than power conceptsbecause of higher projectedincome from the sale of both electricityand heat. Because lowerelectricalefficiency, steamcycle of the has slightlyhigher sensitivityto fuel prices,even though the prices are the samefor both concepts.

This price sensitivityis less for CHP conceptsbecauseheat salesare coupledto the fuelprice. Sensitivity specificinvestment to costsis high,but it is thesameforpowerand CHP concepts. Production costs(whichcanbe identifiedwhenspecificinvestment is equalto zero) are somewhat lower for the CHPconceptsbecauseof the additionalsaleofheat.

49

Energy fromBiomass

Figure5.2:Sensitivity Analysis Concepts the 5 MWe Range of in

Powergeneration (capacity MWe) 5
0.25 0.25 -

CHP (capacity MWJ 4

0.20 -

0.20 -

0.15 0.10 -

0.15 _
.1
-

0.05 0.00
4,000 4,500 5,000 5,500 6,000 6,500 7,000 7,500 8,000

0.05 0.00
4,000 4,500 5,000 5,500 6,000 6,500 7,000 7,500 8,000

Operating Hours Steamcycle - - - - STEG

OperatingHours Steamcycle - - - - STEG

Powergeneration (capacity MW ) 5 0
0.25 0.25 -

CHP(capacity MW,) 4

0.20 -

0.20

0.15

--

0.15 _

3,0.10

0.10

0.05 0.00 0

0.05 0.00
1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000
- --

I
0 1,000

I
2,000

I
3,000

I.CO
4,000
- --

5,000
STEG

6,000

5,000
STEG

6,000

Specificinvestment ($lkW,)
Steam cycle

Specificinvestment ($/kW,)
Steam cycle

* Base steam case cycle

* Base STEG case

* Base steam case cycle

* Base STEG case

Powergeneration(capacity MW ) 5 0
0.25 -

CHP (capacity MWJ) 4

0.25 - ________________________

0.20-

0.20-

0.15 0.10 -

0.15 0.1~~-0 -

0.05 -

0.05 -

0.00 0 10 20

0.0050 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

30

40

Fuel price($1ton) Steamcycle - - - - STEG

Fuel price($tton) Steamcycle - - - - STEG

Note:The basecasefor operationhours is 6,000hours per year;for fuelprice it is $40per ton Source: Authors.

so

Energyfrom Biomass

When 5 MWeand 1 MWeare compared,the production costs are considerablylower (roughly 30 percent) for the former. Moreover,the sensitivity of the 5 MWeconceptsto changesin parametersis

also lower,except for specificinvestments.(Sensitivity of the gasifier/engineconcept is higher becauseof its shorter life span.)

sI

6. Conclusions
Biomass mateTialshave properties that differ from those of conventional solid fuels such as coal. A major difference is the high content of volatile matter in biomass materials (up to 80 percent), whereas coal has less than 20 percent (anthracite coal sometimes even has a negligible volatile content). The design of a combustion or gasification system depends heavily on the specific biomass material-its morphology, moisture content, and mix of contaminants. The last determines which flue-gas cleaning systems will be applied. Combustion systemsbased on steam cyclesare technicallymature and commercially available.Even the most advanced concepts (based on fluidized-bed combustion) are technically proven. Gasification systems are commercially available. However, small-scale applications need much supervision and suffer from frequent interruptions. Current development of gasification systems is directed toward increasing their performance and reliability. Advanced integrated gasification and combined heat and power concepts are promising but still not demonstrated. A demonstration plant has been built but is not yet in full operation. The main difficulties are in the gas-cleaning systems (preferably at high temperatures) and meeting all requirements set by gas-turbine manufacturers in adapting gas turbines to low calorific gases. The limited availability of biomass means that small-scalepower plants will be preferred. However, the smaller the cycle,the lower the overall efficiency. Development work with steam cyclesaims to downgrade large steam-cycle systems to ranges between 1 and 10MWeand to increase the efficiencyof small systems.Currently, fluidized-bed systemswithin this range operate at mature steam conditions and reach acceptable efficienciesof from 25 to 35 percent. Comparisons have been made between gasifierlengine and steam-cycle concepts with capacities of 1 MWe. Production costs for the gasifier/engine capacities for the considered base are lower than that of the steam cycle. However, some uncertainty is involved in assumptions of the base case, and sensitivity analyses show that change in those assumptions is larger than the difference in costs between the two concepts. Therefore, one cannot conclude in general that one concept is more attractive than the other. Rather, feasibility studies must be performed in each case to determine which system is most suitable. The steam cycle has a higher operational reliability but requires higher investments. The gasifierengine has a higher efficiency but lower reliability. The CHP concepts for the steam cyclelead to derating maximum power output compared to pure power generation. The derating depends on the temperature level of the delivered steam. A CHP concept based on the gasifierlengine concept requires no derating, but heat delivery is restricted by the limited cooling temperature of the engine. A common application might be heating a fluid from 0 700 to 125 C. In the 5 MWe range, a steam-cycle concept and a gasifier/STEG have been compared. The efficiency of the gasifier/STEG is higher, but electricity production costs are comparable. The efficiency of gasification-based systems is higher than that of steam cycles, but the investment costs are also higher. The steam-cycle concept is currently commercially available, whereas the gasifier STEG demonstration phase was expected in 1995. Full commercial availability of the STEG concept is expected within five years. The electricity production costs of the 5 MWe concepts are roughly 30 percent lower than those of the 1 MWe concepts.

52

Energyfrom Biomass

The sensitivityto variationsin the number of annual operating hours and fuel price is lower than that of the 1 MWeconcepts.

Theabove-mentionedconclusionsregardingelectricity production costs are only indications, as in each case both systemsmust be specifiedand costs analyzed.

53

References
AED. 1994. "Commercialization of Biomass Projects: A Case Study of the Design, Development, and Application of a Biomass Gasifier to a Large Retrofit Market." Paper presented at the Sixth National Bioenergy Conference, Reno/Sparks, Nevada, October 2-6. BTG (Biomass Energy Technologies). 1987."Thermochemical Conversion of Biomass to Energy."Prepared for UNIDO, Vienna, Austria.
.1993. UNDP/WB "Small-Scale Biomass Gas-

Enviropower. 1995. "Biomass IGCC' Presented at Seminar on Power Production from Biomass II, Espoo, Finland, March 27-28. Organized by VTT Energy, EC-DGXII, IEA Bioenergy Agreement. FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations). 1986."Wood Gas as Engine Fuel."Forestry Paper 72. Rome, Italy. Mukunda, H.S., and S. Dasappa. 1993."Open Top
Wood Gasifiers.' In Johansson and others

ifier Monitoring Report."World BanktUNDP Washington, D.C.

_.___

(editors), RenewableEnergy Sources Fuels for and Electricity. Washington, D.C.:Island Press.
Nussbaumer, Th., ed. 1992. "Neue Konzepte zur schadstoffarmen Holzenergie Nutzung'"Holz Energie Symposium, October 23, ETH Zurich, Switzerland.
.

1993."VerslagstudiereisbiomassaCFBver-

gassing in Zweden en Finland." Paper prepared for NOVEM,Utrecht, the Netherlands.

_.___

1994. "Vergassing van afval, evaluatie van de installaties van Thermoselect en TPS/Greve/'

1994. "Neue erkenntnisse zur thermischen

Paper prepared for NOVEM, Utrecht, the Netherlands.

. 1995. Biomass Energy Technologies. Course

Nutzung von Holz." Tagungsband zum 3 Holzenergie Symposium, October 21, ETH Zurich, Switzerland. Schmidt et al. 1993. "Analysen von Biogenen Brennstoffen." TU Wien, Austria.
Schlaepfer, P., and J. Tobler. 1933. "Theoretische und

manual on biomass energy technologies in Arusha, Tanzania.

. 1995a. "Estonia, Utilization of Wood and

Peat for Heat Supply." Paper prepared for EBRD,London, United Kingdom. British Coal Corporation and European Gas Turbines. 1995. "Combustion of Low Heating Value Gas in a Gas Turbine." Presented at Seminar on Power Production from Biomass II, Espoo, Finland, March 27-28. Organized by VTT Energy, EC-DGXII, IEA Bioenergy Agreement. El Wakil, M.M. 1985. Powerplant Technology. New York: McGraw Hill.

praktische Untersuchungen uber den betrieb vonMotorfahrzeugenmitHolzgas."Berichtnr. 3 (Separatabdruckaus "Der Motorlastwagen"). Bern, Switzerland. Swaay, W.P.M. van, F.G. van den Aarsen, A.V. Bridgwater, and A.B.M. Heesink. 1994. "A Review of Biomass Gasification, A report to the European Community." DGXII JOULE programme. TNO (the Dutch Institute on Applied Scientific Research). 1992. "Kleinschalige verbranding van schoon afvalhout in Nederland."Prepared for NOVEM, Utrecht, the Netherlands.

54

Energyfrom Biomass

VTT Energy.1994."Flue Gas Condensingat District HeatingPlants.' IEABiomassCombustion Conference,November29, Cambridge, UK.

55

Annex 1:Formulas Quantification for of Biomass Properties

Moisture content, ash content, and heating values maybe expressed on a wet, dry, or dry-and-ash-free basis. This annex presents the formulas for calculating these properties on the different bases. Moisture Content In the following equations the different moisture contents are given. Next to the formulas, numeric examples are given. In the numeric examples it is assumed that 1 kilogram of wet biomass material (Wwm)consists of 0.80 kg dry-and-ash-free matter (Wdaf), 0.05 kg ash (Wash) and 0.15 kg water (WH O). Thus, Wwm= Wdaf+ Wah + WH0. (I) Moisture content on a wet basis(MC.)

Ash Content
The inorganic component of biofuels varies widely. The inherent ash value, which is an integral part of the plant structure and consists of a wide range of elements, represents less than 0.5 percent in wood, 5 to 10percent in many agricultural crop materials, and up to 30 to 40 percent in-for example-rice, husks, and milfoil. The ash content can be expressed in the way the moisture content is expressed:on a wet and dry basis or on a dry-and-ash-free basis. If we take the same figure for the water, ash, and dry biomass weights as given in chapter 2, the different ash contents will be as shown in the equations 4, 5, and 6. In general, the ash content is given on a dry basis.

MCW=

WHO

WHZO
Wwm

(4) Ashcontent on a wet basis (ACw)

Wh

Wdaf + Wah + WH20 MCW=

W.,h
Wwm

0.80 + 0.05 + 0.15

0.15

=0.15 = 15% ACw0

Wdaf+ Wah + WH20

= 0.05 = 5.0% 0.80 + 0.05 + 0.15

(2) Moisture content on a dry basis(MCd)

MCd
=

WH2O Wdaf + W,.h

WH20 Wwm - Wh - WHO2

(5) Ashcontenton a dry basis (ACJ)

Wash Wah

0=0.17617.6% M
0.80 + 0.05

A. ACd =
__

Wdaf+ Wash
_=

Wwm + WH O 2 0.059 = 5.9%

(3) Moisturecontent on a dry-and-ash-free basis (MCda)

WH20 WH20

0.80+ 0.05

(6) Ashcontent on a dry-and-ash-free basis

(ACdaf) MCd.f
MGdf

Wdf

WWm Wash - WHO =0.188 =18.8%wm 0

ACd

W Wf=
wdf

Wah W.m - Wah - WH20 = 0.063 = 6.3%

s

= M0daf -

0.15

ACd = 0.05 af6~.80

56

Energy from Biomass

Heating Values
If moisture content, ash content, and hydrogen content of a fuel are known, all six heating values (LHVwLHVd,LHVdWf,HHVd, andHHVdf) can be derived from each other. The various formulas to calculate the higher heating values are given in equation 7, applied to the numeric examples from chapter 1.

(8) Lower heatingvalueson dry-and-ashfree, dry, and wet basis

LHVdaf = HHVdaf- [f X 20,300- MCaf X 2,260

= 20,400 - 0.06 X 20,300 - 0.188 X 2,260 = 18,757 kJ/kg

LHVd

(7) Higher heatingvalueson dry-and-ashfree,dry, andwet basis

= LHVdaf X

Waff Wdaf + Wah

-

HHVd,f 20,400 kJ/kg =

HHVd

= LHVdf(

Wdaf+ Wah)

HHVdaf X

Wdaf+ Wah

= LHVdaf X (1
\ )

- ACd)

/
= HHVdfX X
-

wash

= 18,757 X (1 - 0.059)
= 17,650 kJ/kg

HHV 4aj X (1 - ACd)

LHVW

= LHVdaf X

Wdaf+ Wash + WHO

= 20,400 X (1 - 0.059)
=

19,196 kJ/kg

= LHVdaf X

+ Wh + WH O 2
WWm

HHVW

= HHVdafx

Wdaf=

LHVdaf X (1- AC,

MC,)

Wdaf + Wa~h+ WHO

W""

+ Wah + WHO=

LHVdaf X (1 - ACd) X (1 - MCw)

=

= HHVdaf X
= HHVdaf = HHVdgf

18,757 X (1 - 0.059) X (1 - 0.15)

15,030 kllkg

X (1 - ACW - MCw) X (1 - ACd) X (1 -MC,)

= 20,400 X (1 - 0.059) X (1 - 0.15)

=

16,317 kJlkg

The lower heating values are also derived from HHVdaf(seeequation 7), compensating HHVdaffor energy contents of present hydrogen, and condensation of moisture. According to the example from chapter 1, LHVdaf = 18,757 kJ/kg, LHVd = 17,650 kJ/kg, and LHVW= 15,030 kJ/kg (with
[H]daf = 6 percent).

57

Annex2: Stoichiometric Requirements Air in the Combustion Process

Amount of Air to Be Supplied the to

Combustion Process
For air supply distinction be madebetween a can primaryair aupplyand secondary supply. air Primaryairissupplied directly thefuelbed,whereas to secondary mixes air with the volatile gasesabove the fuelbed. Tocalculate amountof airneeded combusthe for tion,thechemical composition thefuelisneeded. of In thefinalanalysis, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and ash contentis determined. proximate The analysis provides data on the contentof charcoal, volatile matter,andash. Forthe calculation willassumethe following we composition thebiomass a dry basis): of (on
e

PrimaryAir Primary is requiredforthe combustion the Air of solids thefuelbed-for example, nonvolatile in the (or fixed) fractionof carbon, charcoal. or The following reactionoccurswhen charcoalis burnedin thefuelbed: Reaction 1 moleC + 1 mole02 1:
-_

1 moleCO 2

Primary needed for 1 kgof fuel: air is xX 32 k2 12 Thestoichiometric amountof airneededis: 32 100.0
xX -X-kg

Ultimate analysis: - Carbon(C) p kg/kgfuel - Hydrogen (H) q kg/kg fuel - Oxygen (0) rkg/kgfuel - Ash: s kg/kg fuel

12 23.3 Including excess factorfor primaryair Xp the air equation becomes: 4 ApX x X
3

X 00.0kgair
23.3

* Proximate analysis: - Charcoal: x kg/kgfuel Volatiles: y kg/kgfuel - Ash: skg/kgfuel * Combustion complete therefore rust, is and no hydrocarbons, carbon and monoxide formed. are * The biomass ovendry,and moisturecontent is is 0 percent. * Thecomposition airbyvolume 21percent of is 02 and 79percent 2. Byweight N the composition is23.3percent02 and76.7percent 2. N For the exercise, kg of biomass burned.First, 1 is the requiredamountof primaryair is calculated, followed thecaluclation secondary supply. by of air Second, combustion the products determined. are

Secondary Air
At combustion the volatiles, reactions of two are involved: Reaction Combustion hydrogen 2: of fraction the of biomas, or
2 mole H2 + 1 mole02
-e

2 mole H20

Forcombustion 1 kgbiomass, amountof 02 of an is needed: 32 qX - = 8 X q kgO 2

58

Energy from Biomass

If it is assumed that all the oxygen present in the biomass is used to burn the hydrogen in the biomass, this leaves an amount of oxygen needed from the air:

The combustion products of reaction 1 are: Co2 xX I+ kg

kgO2 8 X q-r 8Xq-r2 kgO

The stoichiometric amount of air needed for the

X N2 : X x X ~~~~~N A X x XX132 2
12

76.7 kg -X23.3

32

combustionof hydrogenis:
100.0
23.3 X (8 X q - r) kg

(Xp-)XxXy

12: kg

The combustion products of reaction 2 are:

H20

Including the excessair factor for secondary air, X* 100.0 XSX 23.3 X (8 X q-r) kg

: 9 X q kg 76.7

N2
02

s-2 X 23.3

X (8

X q-r) kg

Reaction 3:Combustion of the volatile carbon fraction in the biomass: 1 mole C + 1 mole 02
-*

: (Xs - 1) X (8 X q - r) kg

The combustion products of reaction 3 are:

1 mole GO 2
CO 2 : (p -x)
X-

44 12
kg

From this reaction it can be concluded that the total amount of air needed for the combustion of car-

32

bon in the volatilesis:

Xs X (p -x)

N2
32
12 -X

: ApX (p-x) X-j

(Xp - 1) X (p -x)
X

76.7 X 232
kg

kg

100.0

T 23.3

kg

12

To summarize, for the combustion of 1 kg of biomass, the primary and secondary air requires: 100.0 8 X 2 5 T XXp Xx 8
3

Thus, by combining the three reactions, the following combustion products can be distinguished: 44

kgprimaryair

CO :4 2

kg

~~23.3
100.0 - x)s x
2

1223X(p-1)Xx-(S-1

8 :TX(Xp-l) -X(p-x)

X x (-1
+8 X q J

{8
3 X (p-x)
+

kg

8 X q-r)

kgsecondary air H20:

9 X q kg 8 76.7 X ; -XP3
X

Products Combustion
The data of the previous section supply sufficient information for determining the amount of the combustion products generated by burning 1 kg of biomass.The products are: CO , N2 , H2 0, and 022

N
N

76.7 X X
23.3 P

(8

X(p-x) +8 X q -

kg

59

Annex3: Conversion Heat into Power of

An important application of thermal conversion of biomass is to produce mechanical power from the generated combustion heat. The effectivenessof this conversion is governed by thermodynamic laws. These laws say that it is impossible to convert allheat completely into power. The limitations are quantified by the Carnot efficiency,related to a theoretical cycle producing power from heat. When the heat is supplied at a constant (high) temperature (Th), and heat is releasedat a constant (low) temperature (TI), the maximum power output is given by: Power output = (1 - Th/Tl) x heat supply. In thermal conversion of biomass, chemical energy is converted into thermal energy. The maximum temperature that can be reached is the adiabatic flame temperature. The hot flue gases are cooled down, releasing heat at several temperature levels. According to the formula for the Carnot efficiency, the more heat that is supplied to a power generating cycle at a high temperature level, the higher the overall performance. In a steam cycle this temperature is limited to superheater temperatures of approximately 560C in large thermal power plants. In a gas turbine this temperature is limited to the acceptable turbine entrance temperature: about 1,250C in advanced gas turbines. Therefore, the thermodynamic potential of a cyclecontaining a gas turbine is much higher than that of just a steam cycle. In a steam cycle the full trajectory from adiabatic flame temperature (1,6000to more than 2,000C, depending on the fuel) to about 560C (the temperature of the superheated steam) is not fully utilized.The heat is mainly used to evaporate the steam at a significantly lower temperature than the superheat temperature and to superheat the steam. Reheating steam (after a first expansion stage) is a way to supply a larger fraction of the availableheat at a relatively high temperature, by which the overall cycle efficiencywill increase. An analogous principle holds for the gas-turbine cycle. After some expansion of the flue gases, the gases are reheated by combustion of additional fuel in a second combustor; this heat is also supplied at a relatively high temperature, which will increase the overall conversion efficiency. The general rule in optimization of cycles is to use the available heat at the highest possible temperature and, for just power production, to release it at the lowest possible temperature.

60

Annex4: Theoryof Gasification

A solid fuel is usually composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. In addition, there may be nitrogen, sulfur, and other trace elements.However,since these are present only in small quantities, they will be disregarded in the following discussion. In the gasifiers considered, the biomass is heated by combustion. The combustion gases are then reduced by being passed through a incandescent bed of charcoal. Equation 6 C + 2H2
"

CH 4

Equation 7 C + 3H2 - CH + H20 + 205.9 kJ/mol 4 Equations 3 and 4 are the main reactions of the reduction stage and require heat. As a result, the tem-

In complete combustion, carbon dioxide is obtained perature will decrease during the reduction. Equafrom the carbon, and water is obtained from the tion 5 describes the so-calledwater-gasequilibrium. hydroge. OFor each temperature, in theory, the ratio between h-ydrogen.Oxygen from the fuel, of course, will be thprdcofheonnrainfcrbno-

incorporatedin the combustionproducts, thereb

incorporated in the combustion products. therby decreasing the amount of combustion air needed. Combustion, occurring in the oxidation zone, is described by the following chemical formulas: Equation I

the product of the concentration of carbon monoxide (CO) and water vapor (H 2 0) and the product of the concentration of carbon dioxide (GO2) and hydrogen (H2 ) is fixed by the value of the water-gas equilibrium constant (Kwe).Kw,is given as: Equation 8 (CO) X (H120) K = ( (C02) X (H2 ) In practice, the equilibrium of the gas will only be reached where the reaction rate and the time for reaction are sufficient. The reaction rate decreases with falling temperature. In the case of the water-gas equilibrium, the reaction rate drops so far below 700Cthat the equiliruIssi ob foe? h a opsto librium is said to be dfrozen.' gas composition The

C +O2 - CO2 + 401.9 kJ/mol

Equation 2 1 H + - 02 TtH2 0 + 241.1 kJ/mol Thus, burning 1 mole of carbon to dioxide releases a heat quantity of 401.9 kj. The most important reactions that take place in the reduction zone of a gasifier between the different gaseous and solid reactants are given by:

then remainsunchanged.

Equation3
C + CO2 + 164.9 kJ/mol 2C0 Equation 4 C + H2 0 + 122.6 kJ/mol Equation 5 C + H2 + 42.3 kJ/mol - CO + H2 0

Introduction of the theory of water-gas equilibrium provides the opportunity to calculate the gas composition from a gasifier that has reached equilibrium at a given temperature. Table A4.1 presents typical gas compositions obtained from commercialwood and charcoal downdraft gasifiersthat run on low- to medium-moisture-content fuels (wood, 20 percent; charcoal, 7 percent).

CO C + H2

61

-gywrBn.
TableA4.1:Composition GasFrom Commercial of Wood and CharcoalGasiflers
Component Nitrogen Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide Hydrogen Methane
Gas heating value (kJ/m3 ) Source: (1986). FAO

Wood gas (volume percent) 50-54 17-22 9-15 12-20 2-3

5,000-5,900

Charcoalgas (volume percent) 55-65 28-32 1-3 4-10 0-2

4,500-5,600

62

Annex5:Financial Analysis I MWm of Systems

TableA5.1:Steam Cycle (Appr.I NW, Power n at
Variant:powergeneration/vacuum condensor Boilerefficiency Steam28 bar/saturated:H= Condensor 0.2bar 60 C: H= CondensateH= Isentr.Enthalpydrop turbine (delta H) Turbineisentrop.efficiency Generatorefficiency Electricityproduction Heat releasecondensor Fuel supply Efficiency electricity Efficiency heat Assumptions Interest Economiclifetime
Biomass fuel price

um condense)

Unit of measure

Capacity1 MW. kj/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJJkg kJ/kg kj/kg 0.9 2,800 2,050 251 750 0.55 0.95 392 2,157 2,832 0.14 0.76 8 15
40

% a
$/ton

Biomassmoisturecontent Ashcontent dry basis LHVdaf biomass(MC=O) ActualLHV Labor Number fullload operation hours Investment Investmentequipment Totalplant cost/equipment Investmenttotal plant Operationaldata Capacity Efficiency electricityproduction Efficiency production heat Heat utilization (percentof heat produced) Efficiency biomassfueledheat only boiler Labor Maintenance(percentof investmentequipment) Electricity production Usefulheat production Fuel consumption Omitted fuelconsumptionheat production Fuel consumption/kWhe

% % MJ/kg MJ/kg S/app 1/a

20 1 18.5 14.2 50,000 6,000 2,000 2 4,000 1 0.14 0 0 0.9 1 5 6,000 0 0 0 1.84
(table continues foL7owing on page)

'NV/MW,,
$1,000 $1,000 MWe % person*a
%

2,000 4,000

MWh,/a MWhth/a ton/a ton/a kg/kWh.

63

Energyfrom Biomass

(Table A5.1 continued) Unit of measure

Cost Capital cost Fuel cost Omitted fuel cost heat Labor Maintenance Note:H-specificenthalpysteam. Source: Author.

$/a
467,318 440,929 0 50,000 100,000 netto

$/kWh,
0.08 0.07 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.18

64

Energy fromBiomass

Table A5.2:Steam Cycle(Appr. I MW*; CHP atm condenser)

Unit of measure Variant:CHP atm condensor Boilerefficiency Steam28 bar/saturated:H= Condensor 1 bar CondensateH= Isentr.Enthalpydrop turbine (deltaH) Turbineisentrop.efficiency Generatorefficiency Electricityproduction Heat releasecondensor Fuel supply Efficiency electricity Efficiency heat Assumptions Interest Economiclifetime Biomassfuelprice Biomassmoisturecontent Ashcontent dry basis LHVdaf biomass(MC=0) ActualLHV Labor Numberfull load operation hours Investment Investmentequipment Totalplant cost/equipment Investmenttotal plant Operationaldata Capacity Efficiency electricityproduction Efficiency production heat Heat utilization (percentof heat produced) Efficiency biomassfueled heat onlyboiler Labor Maintenance(percentof investmentequipment) Electricityproduction Usefulheat production Fuel consumption Omitted fuel consumptionheat production Fuel consumption/kWhe Capacity1 MWe kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJJkg kJ/kg kJ/kg 0.9 2,800 2,240 251 560 0.57 0.95 303 2,246 2,832 0.11 0.79 8 15 40 20 1 18.5 14.2 50,000 6,000 1,900 2 3,800 0.77 0.11 0.79 75 0.9 1 5 4,643 25,789 11,023 7,284 2.37
(tablecontinues onfollowingpage)

% a $/ton % % MJ/kg MJ/kg $/a pp I/a INVI MWe $1,000 $1,000 MWe % person*a % MWhlia MWhth/a ton/a ton/a kg/kWh,

2,456 4,911

65

Energy from Biomass

(Table A5.2 continued) Unit of measure Cost

Capital cost Fuel cost Omitted fuel cost heat Labor Maintenance Note:H-specific enthalpysteam. Source: Author.

$/a
443,978 440,929 291,356 50,000 95,000 netto

$/kWhe
0.10 0.06 0.06 0.01 0.02 0.16

66

Energy fromBiomass

TableA5.3: Gasifier/Engine (Appr. I MW.; Powergeneratlon)

Unit of measure Variant 1:Powergeneration Gasifier gas efficiency hot Gasifiercold gas efficiency Engineefficiency electric Engineefficiency heat Generatorefficiency Overallelectricefficiency Overallheat efficiency Assumptions Interest Economiclifetime Biomassfuel price Biomassmoisture content Ash contentdry basis LHVdaf biomass(MC=0)
LHV actual

0.9 0.7 0.25 0.55 0.95 0.17 0.39 % a $/ton % % MJ/kg

MJ/kg

8 10 40 20 I 18.5
14.2

Labor Number fullload operation hours

Investment

$/a pp 1/a
INVIM%We

50,000 6,000 1,700 1.75 2,975 1,700 2,975

Investmentequipment Totalplant cost/equipment Investmenttotal plant Operationaldata

Capacity

$1,000 $1,000
Mwe

Efficiency electricityproduction Efficiency production heat Heat utilization (percentof heat produced) Efficiency biomassfueledheat only boiler Labor Maintenance(percentof investmentequipment) Electricity production Usefulheat production Fuelconsumption Omitted fuel consumptionheat production Fuel consumption/kWhe

% person*a % MWhe/a MWhth/a ton/a ton/a ton/MWh,

0.17 0.39 0 0.9 1 5 6,000 0 9,174 0 1.53

(tablecontinues following on page)

67

Energyfrom Blomass

(Table A5.3 continued) Unit of measure

Cost Capital cost Fuel cost Omitted fuel cost heat Labor Maintenance Note:H-specificenthalpysteam. Source: Author.

$
443,363 366,967 0 50,000 85,000 netto

$/kWhe
0.07 0.06 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.16

68

Energy fromBiomass

TableAS.4:Gasifier/Engine (Appr. I MWe;CHP)

Unit of measure
Variant 2: CHP Gasifier hot gas efficiency Gasifier cold gas efficiency Engine efficiency electric Engine efficiency heat Generator efficiency Overall electric efficiency Efficiency heat recovery gas cooling Overall heat efficiency Assumptions Interest Economic lifetime Biomass fuel price Biomass moisture content Ash content dry basis LHV daf biomass (MC=0) LHV actual Labor Number full load operation hours
Investment

0.90 0.70 0.25 0.55 0.95 0.17 0.80 0.55

% a $/ton % % MJ/kg MJ/kg $/a pp 1/a

INV/MWe

8 10 40 20 1 18.5 14.2 50,000 6,000

Investment equipment Total plant cost/equipment Investment total plant Operational data Capacity Efficiency electricity production Efficiency heat production Heat utilization (percent of heat produced) Efficiencybiomass fueled heat only boiler Labor Maintenance (percent of investment equipment) Electricity production Useful heat production Fuel consumption Omitted fuel consumption heat production Fuel consumption/kWhe

$1,000 $1,000

1,700 1.75 2,975

1,700 2,975

Mwe

% person*a % MWh/a PWhth,/a ton/a tonla ton/MWhe

1 0.17 0.55 75 0.9 1 5 6,000 14,752 9,174 4,167 1.53

(table continues onfollowingpage)

69

Enegy from Bkwno

(Table A5.4 continued) Unit of measure

Cost Capital cost Fuel cost Omitted fuel cost heat Labor Maintenance Note:H-specificenthalpysteam. Source: Author.

$
443,363 366,967 166,664 50,000 85,000 netto

$/kWhe
0.07 0.06 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.13

70

Annex6: Financial Analysis 5 MWe, of Systems

TableA6. 1:Steam Cycle(Appr. 5 MWe; Powergenertion/vacuumcondenser)
Unit of measure Variant:power generation/vacuum condensor Boilerefficiency Steam60 bar/530 C: H= Condensor0.2 bar 60 C: H= CondensateH= Isentr.Enthalpydrop turbine (deltaH) Turbineisentrop.efficiency Generatorefficiency Electricityproduction Heat releasecondensor Fuel supply Efficiency electricity Efficiency heat Assumptions Interest Economiclifetime Biomassfuelprice Biomassmoisturecontent Ashcontent dry basis LHV daf biomass(MC=o) ActualLHV Labor Number full load operation hours Investment Investmentequipment Totalplant cost/equipment Investmenttotal plant Operationaldata Capacity Efficiency electricityproduction Efficiency production heat Heat utilization(percentof heat produced) Efficiency biomassfueled heat onlyboiler Labor Maintenance(percentof investmentequipment) Electricityproduction Usefulheat production Fuel consumption Omittedfuel consumptionheat production FuelconsumptionlkWhe Capacity5 MWe kJ/kg kj/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJe/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg 0.9 3,500 2,225 251 1.275 0.82 0.95 993 2,256 3,610 0.28 0.62 8 15 40 20 1 14.2 50,000 6,000 6,500 2 13,000 5 0.28 0 0 0.9 3 5 30,000 0 27,718 0 0.92
(tablecontinues following on page)

% a $/ton % % MJ/kg $/a pp l/a

INVIMWe

$1,000 $1,000 MWe % person*a % MWhe/a MWhth/a ton/a ton/a kg/kWh,

1,300 2,600

71

EomBbm

(Table A6.1 continued) Unit of measure

Cost

Capitalcost Fuel cost Omitted fuelcost heat Labor Maintenance

Note:H-specific enthalpy steam.
Source.Author.

$/a 1,518,784 1,108,712 0 150,000 325,000 netto

$ikWhe 0.05 0.04 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.10

72

rfrom

kuma

Table A6.2: SteamCycle(Appr. 5 MW*; CHP)

Unit of measure Variant: CHP Boiler efficiency Steam 60 bar/530 C: H= Condensor 1 bar 100 C: H= Condensate H= Isentr. Enthalpy drop turbine (delta H) Turbine isentrop. efficiency Generator efficiency Electricity production Heat release condensor Fuel supply Efficiency electricity Efficiency heat Assumptions Interest Economic lifetime Biomass fuel price Biomass moisture content Ash content dry basis LHV daf biomass (MC=0) Actual LHV Labor Number full load operation hours Capacity Appr. 4 MW, kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg 0.9 3,500 2,525 251 975 0.84 0.95 778 2,471 3,610 0.22 0.68

kJelkg kj/kg kJ/kg

% a $/ton % % MJlkg MJ/kg $/a pp I/a

INVIMWe

8 15 40 20 1 18.5 14.2 50,000 6,000

Investment
Investment equipment Total plant cost/equipment Investment total plant Operational data Capacity Efficiency electricity production Efficiency heat production Heat utilization (percent of heat produced) Efficiency biomass fueled heat only boiler Labor Maintenance (percent of investment equipment) Electricity production Useful heat production Fuel consumption Omitted fuel consumption heat production Fuel consumption/kWhe

$1,000 $1,000

6,001 2 12,001

1,532 3,064

MWe

% person*a % MWhe/a MWhth/a ton/a ton/a kg/kWhe

3.9 0.22 0.68 75 0.9 3 5 23,501 55,976 27,718 15,810 1.18 (tablecontinues following on page)

73

-nwymrmB
(Table A6.2 continued) Unit of measure Cost Capitalcost Fuel cost Omitted fuel costheat Labor Maintenance
Note: H-specific enthalpysteam. Source: Author.

$/a 1,402,075 1,108,712 632,403 150,000 300,000 netto

$/kWhe 0.06 0.05 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.10

74

-omBbn_
TableA6.3: Gasifierand STEG(Appr. 5 MW,, PowergenerationSTEG)
Unit of measure Variant1: STEGPowergenerationSTEG Gasifier gas efficiency hot Gasifiercoldgas efficiency Engineefficiency electric Engineefficiency heat Generatorefficiency Overallelectricefficiency Overallheat efficiency Assumptions Interest Economiclifetime Biomassfuelprice Biomassmoisturecontent Ashcontent dry basis LHV daf biomass(MC=o) LHV actual Labor Numberfull load operation hours Investment Investmentequipment Totalplant cost/equipment Investmenttotal plant Operationaldata Capacity Efficiency electricityproduction Efficiency production heat Heat utilization (percentof heat produced) Efficiency biomassfueledheat only boiler Labor Maintenance(percentof investmentequipment) Electricity production Usefulheat production Fuelconsumption Omittedfuel consumptionheat production Fuel consumption/kWhe Capacity5 MWe 0.9 0.07

0.35

% a $/ton % % MJ/kg MJ/kg $/a pp 1/a INVWMWe $1,000 $1,000 MW. % person*a % MWhJa MWhth/a ton/a ton/a ton/MWhe

8 15 40 20 1 18.5 14.2 50,000 6,000 7,000 2 14,000 5 0.35 0 0.9 3 5 30,000 0 21,789 0 0.73
(tabk continues followingpage) on

1,400 2,800

75

EwyronWwim

(TableA6.3 continued) Unit of measure Cost Capital cost Fuel cost Omitted fuel cost heat Labor Maintenance
Note: H-specificenthalpysteam. Source:Author.

$ 1,635,614 871,548 0 150,000 350,000 netto

$/kWhe 0.05 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.10

76

omBWmass

Table A6.4:GasifierandSTEG (Appr. 5 MW.; CHP STEG)

Unit of measure Variant 2: CHP STEG Gasifier hot gas efficiency Gasifier cold gas efficiency Engine efficiency electric Engine efficiency heat Generator efficiency Overall electric efficiency Efficiency heat recovery gas cooling Overall heat efficiency Assumptions Interest Economic lifetime Biomass fuel price Biomass moisture content Ash content dry basis LHV daf biomass (MC=0) LHV actual Labor Number full load operation hours Investment Investment equipment Total plant cost/equipment Investment total plant Operational data Capacity Efficiency electricity production Efficiency heat production Heat utilization (percent of heat produced) Efficiencybiomass fueled heat only boiler Labor Maintenance (percent of investment equipment) Electricity production Useful heat production Fuel consumption Omitted fuel consumption heat production Fuel consumption/kWhe Capacity appr. 4 MWe 0.9 0.7

0.28 0.58

% a $/ton % % MJ/kg MJ/kg $/a pp 1/a INVIMWe $1,000 $1,000

8 15 40 20 1 18.5 14.2 50,000 6,000

6,700 2 13,400

1,675 3,350

MWe

% personf*a % MWh,/a MWhth/a ton/a ton/a tonl/Mwhe

4 0.28 0.58 75 0.9 3 5 24,000 37,286 21,789 10,531 0.91 (tablecontinues following on page)

77

from BWn

(TableA6.4 continued) Unit of measure Cost Capital cost Fuel cost Omitted fuel cost heat Labor Maintenance
Note: H-specificenthalpysteam. Source:Author.

$ 1,565,516 817,548 421,248 150,000 335,000 netto

$/kWhe 0.07 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.10

78

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