Lecture #9

(with Prof. Neureuther)

ANNOUNCEMENT
Bring your own copy of Lecture #10 notes (posted on the class website) to class on Wednesday! (No hardcopies will be handed out.)

OUTLINE The operational amplifier (op amp) Feedback Comparator circuits Ideal op amp Unity-gain voltage follower circuit Reading Chapter 5.1-5.2

EECS40, Fall 2003

Lecture 9, Slide 1

Prof. King

Solution to Superposition Example

Find Vo: 24 V +
4

2 4A

4V +

+ 4 Vo = Vo + Vo + Vo= 8V

Find contribution of 24 V source

24V 2

Find contribution of 4 A source

4A i 4

Find contribution of 4 V source

+ Vo 2

+ Vo
2

+
4V 4

+ Vo

Vo =

EECS40, Fall 2003

4 24V = 16V 2 + 4

2 4 i= 4A = A 2 + 4 3 16 Vo = i (4) = V 3
Lecture 9, Slide 2

Vo=

4 8 (-4V) = V 2 + 4 3
Prof. King

Final Comment on Thvenin Equivalent

If there are no independent sources in a circuit, VTh = 0.
If there are dependent sources in the circuit, we need to apply an external voltage in order to determine RTh. Example: Circuit used in RTh Calculation Example #2, Lecture 8:

Vx

ITEST =

VTEST Vx VTEST 40i + 20 60

VTEST
RTh = VTEST 75 = I TEST 4

Applying KCL to node x : Vx Definition of i : i = 80

EECS40, Fall 2003

Vx 40i V V i + x TEST = 0 16 20

Lecture 9, Slide 3

The Operational Amplifier

The operational amplifier (op amp) is a basic building block used in analog circuits.
Its behavior is modeled using a dependent source. When combined with resistors, capacitors, and inductors, it can perform various useful functions:
amplification/scaling of an input signal sign changing (inversion) of an input signal addition of multiple input signals subtraction of one input signal from another integration (over time) of an input signal differentiation (with respect to time) of an input signal

A commonly used op amp is the 741

(You will use these in the EECS40 lab next week.)
EECS40, Fall 2003 Lecture 9, Slide 4 Prof. King

Vx =

8 VTEST 25
Prof. King

Op Amp Circuit Symbol and Terminals

V+
non-inverting input inverting input

positive power supply

output

V negative power supply

The output voltage can range from V to V +

The positive and negative power supply voltages do not have to be equal in magnitude.
EECS40, Fall 2003 Lecture 9, Slide 5 Prof. King

Op Amp Terminal Voltages and Currents

All voltages are referenced to a common node. Current reference directions are into the op amp.
V+ ip + vp in + vn ic+ + icV Vcc +
common node
(external to the op amp)
EECS40, Fall 2003 Lecture 9, Slide 6 Prof. King

io + vo + Vcc

Op Amp Voltage Transfer Characteristic

The op amp is a differentiating amplifier:
vo Vcc
slope = A >>1

vpvn

-Vcc
Regions of operation: negative saturation linear positive saturation

In the linear region, vo = A (vp vn) where A is the open-loop gain Typically, Vcc 20 V and A > 104
linear range: -2 mV vp vn 2 mV

Thus, for an op amp to operate in the linear region, vp vn

(i.e. there is a virtual short between the input terminals.)
Lecture 9, Slide 7 EECS40, Fall 2003 Prof. King

Achieving a Virtual Short

Recall the voltage transfer characteristic of an op amp:
Plotted using different scales for vo and vpvn Plotted using similar scales for vo and vpvn

vo Vcc
~10 V slope = A >>1

vo Vcc
~10 V slope = A >>1

vpvn

vpvn

-Vcc
~1 mV

-Vcc
~10 V

Q: How does a circuit maintain a virtual short at the input of an op amp, to ensure operation in the linear region? A: By using negative feedback. A signal is fed back from the output to the inverting input terminal, causing vp-vn to decrease and hence vo to decrease until the op amp operates in its linear region.
EECS40, Fall 2003 Lecture 9, Slide 8 Prof. King

Negative vs. Positive Feedback

Familiar examples of negative feedback:
Thermostat controlling room temperature Driver controlling direction of automobile Photochromic lenses in eyeglasses
Fundamentally pushes toward stability

Familiar examples of positive feedback:

Microphone squawk in sound system Mechanical bi-stability in light switches Thermonuclear reaction in H-bomb
Fundamentally pushes toward instability or bi-stability

EECS40, Fall 2003

Lecture 9, Slide 9

Prof. King

Op Amp Operation w/o Negative Feedback

(Comparator Circuits for Analog-to-Digital Signal Conversion) 1. Simple comparator with 1 Volt threshold:
V is set to 0 Volts (logic 0) V+ is set to 2 Volts (logic 1) A = 100 + VIN V0 1V +
V0 2 1 0 1 2

If VIN > 1.01 V, V0 = 2V = Logic 1

VIN

If VIN < 0.99 V, V0 = 0V = Logic 0

V0

2. Simple inverter with 1 Volt threshold:

V is set to 0 Volts (logic 0) V+ is set to 2 Volts (logic 1) A = 100 + V0 1V + VIN
EECS40, Fall 2003 Lecture 9, Slide 10 Prof. King

2 1 0

If VIN < 0.99 V, V0 = 2V = Logic 1

2 VIN

If VIN > 1.01 V, V0 = 0V = Logic 0

Op Amp Circuits with Negative Feedback

Q: How do we know whether an op amp is operating in the linear region? A: We dont, a priori. Assume that the op amp is operating in the linear region and solve for vo in the op-amp circuit.
If the calculated value of vo is within the range from -Vcc to +Vcc ,, then the assumption of linear operation is valid. If the calculated value of vo is greater than Vcc, then the assumption of linear operation was invalid, and the op amp output voltage is saturated at Vcc. If the calculated value of vo is less than -Vcc, then the assumption of linear operation was invalid, and the op amp output voltage is saturated at -Vcc.
EECS40, Fall 2003 Lecture 9, Slide 11 Prof. King

Op Amp Circuit Model (Linear Region)

Ri is the equivalent resistance seen at the input terminals, typically very large (>1M), so that the input current is usually very small: ip = in 0 Ro Ri + A(v v ) p n vn in

vp

ip

io

vo

i p + in + io + ic + + ic = 0 io (ic + + ic )

Note that significant output current (io) can flow when ip and in are negligible!
EECS40, Fall 2003 Lecture 9, Slide 12 Prof. King

Ideal Op Amp
Assumptions:
Ri is large (105 ) A is large (104) Ro is small (<100 )

ip = in= 0 vp = vn
ip + vp in + vn + io + vo
Prof. King

Simplified circuit symbol:

power-supply terminals and dc power supplies not shown Note: The resistances used in an op-amp circuit must be much larger than Ro and much smaller than Ri in order for the ideal op amp equations to be accurate.
EECS40, Fall 2003

Lecture 9, Slide 13

Unity-Gain Voltage Follower Circuit

VIN IIN + vn vp
V0(V)

V0

2 1 1 2 VIN(V)

vp = vn

V0 = VIN

( valid as long as V V0 V + )
Note that the analysis of this simple (but important) circuit required only one of the ideal op-amp rules.

Q: Why is this circuit important (i.e. what is it good for)? A: A weak source can drive a heavy load; in other words, the source VIN only needs to supply a little power (since IIN = 0), whereas the output can drive a powerhungry load (with the op-amp providing the power).
EECS40, Fall 2003 Lecture 9, Slide 14 Prof. King