PROBLEM 1.

1
A teaspoon is placed in a cup of hot coffee.
[a] Discuss the flow of heat through the spoon and show directions on a sketch.
[b] What modes of heat transfer are taking place in this example?
[c] What is the approximate temperature of the spoon at the coffee-air interface ?
[a] Heat flows by convection from the coffee to the surface of the submerged part of
the spoon. This energy is transmitted by conduction towards the exposed part. Heat
is convected from the exposed surface to the surrounding air. Heat is also transferred
by radiation from the exposed surface to the surroundings.
[b] Three modes of heat transfer take place in this example: conduction, convection and
radiation.
[c] There is a small temperature drop between the coffee and the submerged part of the spoon. At
the coffee-air interface the temperature of the spoon is slightly lower than the coffee temperature.
coffee
air
PROBLEM 1.2
A hand drill is used to drill a hole in a very hard material. Because the bit is very dull it spins without advancing.
After a few minutes it is observed that the bit is hot. Discuss the direction and modes of heat flow in this situation.
At what location is the temperature highest?
(1) Observations. (i) Heat generated by friction at the tip
of the bit is transferred by conduction through bit and the
hard material. (ii) Heat leaves the surface of the bit by
convection to the surrounding air. (iii) Heat loss from the
surface of the bit also takes place by radiation to the
surroundings.
(2) Problem Definition. Determine, qualitatively, the
temperature distribution in the bit and the mode of heat
transfer.
(3) Solution Plan. Identify the source of heat and direction
of heat flow.
(4) Plan Execution.
(i) Assumptions. The drill and hard material are initially
at the ambient air temperature.
(ii) Analysis. Since heat is generated by friction at the tip of the bit, it follows that this is the
location of the highest temperature. From this location heat is transferred by conduction through
the bit and the hard material. Heat is lost by convection and radiation from the bit surface to the
surroundings. As a result of this heat loss the temperature of the bit drops as the distance from the
tip is increased towards the chuck.
(5) Learning and Generalizing. The source of energy is the electric power supplied to the drill.
A portion of this energy is stored in the hard material and the drill itself. The remainder is
transferred to the surroundings by convection and radiation. At steady state no energy is stored.
hard material
hand drill
drill bit
PROBLEM 1.3
Consider the door handle of a wood burning stove. Discuss the direction
and modes of heat transfer in this configuration.
Solution
Heat flows by conduction and radiation from the stove door to rod A.
Heat is lost from rod A to the surroundings by convection and radiation
and is transmitted to handle B by conduction. Heat is conducted through
handle A and convected and radiated to the surroundings. Handle A also
receive heat by radiation from the stove and rod A. Thus three modes of
heat transfer take place in this example: conduction, convection and
radiation.
B
A
door stove
PROBLEM 1.4
A very thin metallic sheet is placed between two wood plates of different thicknesses. The plates
are firmly pressed together and electricity is passed through the sheet. The exposed surfaces of the
two plates lose heat to the ambient fluid by convection. Assume uniform heating at the interface.
Neglect end effects and assume steady state.
[a] Will the heat transfer through the two plates be the same? Explain.
[b] Will the exposed surfaces be at the same temperature? Explain.
(1) Observations. (i) The electric energy generated in the metallic
sheet is transferred outwardly through the two wood plates. (ii) Since
the plates are of identical material but of different thicknesses, it
follows that this is an asymmetrical problem. (iii) According to
Fouriers law of conduction, material thickness plays a role in the rate
of heat conducted. (iv) Heat is removed from the exposed surfaces by
convection to the surroundings.
(2) Problem Definition. Determine if the flow of heat is symmetrical
with respect to the interface metallic plane.
(3) Solution Plan. Examine the effect of plate thickness on the rate of
heat transfer. Use Fouriers law of conduction and Newtons law of cooling.
(4) Plan Execution.
(i) Assumptions. (1) Steady state, (2) one-dimensional conduction, (3) the two plates are of
identical material, (4) constant thermal conductivity, (5) the heat transfer coefficients on the two
exposed sides are equal, (6) the ambient temperature is the same on both sides and (7) negligible
radiation.
(ii) Analysis.
[a] According to Fouriers law for one-dimensional conduction in a plate, the rate of heat transfer
is inversely proportional to the plate thickness. Since the two plates do not have the same
thickness, it follows that the rate of heat transfer through the plates is not the same.
[b] Application of Newtons law of cooling gives
q
= h (T
s
-
T

) (a)
where
h = heat transfer coefficient, W/m
2
-
o
C

q
= surface heat flux, W/m
2

T
s
= exposed surface temperature,
o
C
T

= ambient temperature,
o
C
Solving (a) for the surface temperature yields
T
s
=
T

+
q
h
(b)
T
s1
current
+
-
T
s2
q
1
q
2
Equation (b) shows that if h and
T

are the same for both plates but

q
is different, then T
s
will be
different.
PROBLEM 1.4 (continued)
(iii) Checking. Dimensional check: Each term in (b) must have the units of temperature. The
units of the term
q
h
are
C
C) (W/m
) (W/m
o
o 2
2

h
q

(5) Learning and Generalizing. (i) More heat is transferred through the thinner of the two
plates. (ii) The outside surface temperature of the thinner plate is higher than that of the thicker
plate.
PROBLEM 1.5
A rod is perfectly insulated along half its length and is
exposed to a fluid at T

along the other half. The

end of the rod at the insulated half is heated such
that the temperature is T
o
. If T
o
> T

, what is the
temperature of the rod at the midpoint relative to T
o
and T

?
Solution
According to the second law of thermodynamics, heat transfers from high to low temperature. The
temperature of the rod at the end of the insulated half is T
o
. Heat transfers from this end by
conduction towards the uninsulated half. The temperature drops through this half such that at
the mid-point of the rod it is lower than T
o
but higher than T

. In the uninsulated half heat is

conducted axially and radially and then transferred by convection and radiation from the surface to
the surroundings.
insulation

T h,

T h,
o
T
PROBLEM 1.7
At a given section of an insulated lead bar the temperature is 300
o
C and the temperature gradient
is 448
o
C/m. Taking into consideration variation of thermal conductivity with temperature and
assuming steady state,
[a] Calculate the heat flux at this section.
[b] Determine the gradient at another section where the temperature is 20
o
C.
(1) Observations. (i) Heat is conducted axially along
the bar. (ii) The temperature varies along the bar. (iii)
Since the temperature is not constant it follows that
the thermal conductivity varies along the bar. (iv) Heat
flux is determined from Fouriers law.
(2) Problem Definition. Establish a relationship
between heat flux, temperature gradient and thermal
conductivity.
(3) Solution Plan. Apply Fourier's law of conduction.
(4) Plan Execution.
(i) Assumptions. (1) Steady state, (2) one-dimensional conduction, (3) constant cross section
area and (4) perfectly insulated surface.
(ii) Analysis. [a] Fouriers law gives

dx
T d
k q (a)
where
k = thermal conductivity, W/m-
o
C

q"
= heat flux, W/m
2
T = temperature,
o
C
x = distance along bar, m
Applying (a) to the first section

1
1 1

,
_

dx
dT
k q
(b)
where subscript 1 refers to the first section. Since the temperature at section 1 is known the
corresponding thermal conductivity of lead can be determined from Appendix A. With the
gradient at this section given, equation (b) gives the flux.
[b] Equation (a) is applied to determine the temperature gradient at section 2
x 0
1 2
T
1
=300
o
C
dT
1
/dx = 448
o
C/m
T
2
= 0
o
C
insulation
2 2
2
k / q
dx
dT

,
_

(c)
PROBLEM 1.7 (continued)
However, conservation of energy between sections 1 and 2 requires that the heat transfer rate at
section 1 be equal to that at section 2. Since the cross section area is constant, the flux at the two
sections is the same. Thus
2 1
q q
(d)
Substituting (d) into (c)
2 1
2
k / q
dx
dT

,
_

(e)
where
1
q
is given in (b).
(iii) Computations. [a] Flux at section 1. The conductivity of lead at 300
o
C is obtained
from Appendix A
k
1
= 31.75 W/m-
o
C
Substituting into (b) and noting that
1

,
_

dx
dT
= 448 (
o
C/m)
1
q
= -31.75 (W/m-
o
C) 448 (
o
C/m) = - 14,224 W/m
2
[b] The thermal conductivity at section 2 where the temperature is at 0
o
C is obtained from
Appendix A:
k
2
= 35.7 W/m-
o
C
The temperature gradient at section 2 is given by (e)

2

,
_

dx
dT
= - (-14,224) (W/m
2
) / 35.7 (W/m -
o
C) = 398.4
o
C/m
(iv) Checking. Dimensional check: Computations showed that units of equations (b) and (e)
are correct.
(5) Learning and Generalizing. If the thermal conductivity is treated as constant, the error in
determining the temperature gradient at section 2 will be 12.5%. This error is associated with a
temperature change of 300
o
C. A smaller change in temperature results in a smaller error in
assuming constant conductivity.
PROBLEM 1.10
Heat is removed from a rectangular surface by convection to an ambient fluid at
T

. The heat
transfer coefficient is h. Surface temperature is given by
T
s
=
A
x ( )
/ 1 2
where A is constant. Determine the steady state heat transfer rate from the plate.
(1) Observations. (i) Heat is removed from the surface by convection. Therefore, Newton's
law of cooling may be helpful. (ii) Surface temperature is not uniform. It varies the plate in a
known manner. (iii) The heat transfer coefficient and the ambient temperature are known.
(2) Problem Definition. Find the total heat transfer rate by convection from the surface of a
plate with a variable surface temperature.
(3) Solution Plan. Newton's law of cooling gives the
rate of heat transfer by convection. However, in this
problem the surface temperature is not constant. This
means that the rate of heat by convection varies along
the surface. Therefore, Newtons law should be applied
to an infinitesimal area dA
s
and integrated over the
entire surface to obtain the total heat transfer.
(4) Plan Execution.
(i) Assumptions. (1) Steady state, (2) negligible radiation, (3) uniform heat transfer
coefficient and (4) uniform ambient fluid temperature.
(ii) Analysis. Newton's law of cooling states that
q
s
= h A
s
(T
s
- T

) (a)
where
A
s
= surface area, m
2
h = heat transfer coefficient, W/m
2
-
o
C
q
s
= rate of surface heat transfer by convection, W
T
s
= surface temperature,
o
C
T

= ambient temperature,
o
C
Applying (a) to an infinitesimal area dA
s
= W dx
d
q
s
= h (T
s
- T

) W dx (b)
where
L
x
dx
W
dq
s
0
W = width of plate, m
x = distance along plates length, m
To determine the total heat transfer rate, equation (b) is integrated from x = 0 to x = L
PROBLEM 1.10 (continued)

q
s
=

s
dq
=

L
s
dx W T T h
0
) ( (c)
In this equation, h, T
s
and W are constants. However, surface temperature T
s
varies with x
according to
T
s
=
A
x
1 2 /
(d)
where
A = constant, m
1/2
-
o
C
Substituting (d) into (c)
q
s
= h W dx T
x
A
L

1
]
1

0
1/2
(e)
Performing the integration gives
q
s
= h W (2 A L
1/2
- T

L) (f)
(iii) Checking. Dimensional check: According to (d) the units of A are m
1/2
-
o
C. Therefore
units of
q
s
in (f) are
q
s
= h(W/m
2
-
o
C)W(m) [A(
o
C-m
1/2
)L
1/2
(m
1/2
)

T (
o
C)L(m)] = W.
Limiting checks: (1) If h = 0 or W = 0, then
q
s
= 0. Equation (f) satisfies these limiting cases.
(2) If the surface is at a uniform temperature T
s
= 0, equation (a) can be applied directly to give

q
s
= h A
s
( 0 T

) = h A
s
T

(g)
According to (d), setting A = 0 gives T
s
= 0. Substituting T
s
= 0 into (a) gives
q
s
= h A
s
T

(h)
which agrees with (g).
Learning and Generalizing. Integration was necessary because surface temperature is not
uniform. The same procedure can be followed if the ambient temperature or the heat transfer
coefficient or the width varies along the plate.
PROBLEM 1.11
A semi-transparent plate of thickness L and conductivity k is heated
by a laser. The temperature distribution in the plate is
T(x) =
A
k a
2
exp(-ax) + B x + C
where A, a, B, C and k are known constants. Determine the
conduction heat flux at the two surfaces x = 0 and x = L.
(1) Observations. (i) Temperature distribution in the plate is known. (ii) Heat flux is given by
Fouriers law.
(2) Problem Definition. Determine the heat flux at specified locations in the plate.
(3) Solution Plan. Apply Fourier's law of conduction.
(4) Plan Execution.
(i) Assumptions. (1) One-dimensional conduction and (2) constant k.
(ii) Analysis. Fourier's law gives
q" = k
d T
d x
(a)
where
k = thermal conductivity, W/m-
o
C
q" = heat flux in the x direction, W/m
2
T = temperature,
o
C
x = coordinate, m
Temperature distribution in the plate is given by
T(x) =
A
k a
2
exp(
ax
) + B x + C
(b)
where a, A, B and C are constants. Temperature gradient is obtained from (b):
d T
d x
=
a k
A

exp(
ax
) + B (c)
Evaluating (c) at x = 0 and substituting into (a) gives the flux at x = 0
q"(0) =
a
A
k B (d)
Similarly, at x = L the flux is
q"(L) = kB aL
a
A
) exp( (e)
laser
x
0
L
(iii) Checking. Dimensional check: (1) Units of (a) should be W/m
2

(m)
C) (
) C W/m (
o
o
dx
dT
k = W/m
2
PROBLEM 1.11 (continued)
(2) To check units of (d), units of a, A and B must be determined. Since the exponent of the
exponential in (b) must be dimensionless, a must have units of (1/m). Since each term in (b) must
have units of
o
C, it follows that units of A are (W/m
3
) and units of B are (
o
C/m). Substituting into
(d)
) C/m ( ) C W/m- (
) m / 1 (
) W/m (
) 0 (
o o
3
B k
a
A
q
= W/m
2
Limiting check: For the special case where A = 0, temperature distribution in equation (b) becomes
linear. This case corresponds to one-dimensional conduction in which energy added at x = 0 must
be equal to energy removed at x = L. That is
q"(0) = q"(L) (f)
Setting A = 0 in (d) and (e) gives
q"(0) = kB
and
q"(L) = kB
This result satisfies (f).
(5) Learning and Generalizing. Since temperature distribution is independent of time, it follows
that this is a steady state problem. However, the flux at x = 0 is not equal to that at x = L. This
does not mean that conservation of energy is violated. The difference is due to the fact that laser
energy is added volumetrically and not just at the surface x = 0.
PROBLEM 1.12
A right angle triangle is at a uniform surface temperature T
s
.

Heat is removed by convection to an
ambient fluid at T

. The heat transfer coefficient h varies along the surface according to
h =
C
x
1 2 /
where C is constant and x is distance along the base measured from the apex. Determine the total
rate of heat transfer from the triangle.
(1) Observations. (i) Heat is removed from the surface by convection. Therefore, Newton's
law of cooling may be helpful. (ii) The ambient temperature and surface temperature are uniform.
(iii) The surface area and heat transfer coefficient vary along the triangle.
(2) Problem Definition. Find the total heat transfer rate by convection from the surface of a
plate with a variable surface area and heat transfer coefficient.
(3) Solution Plan. Newton's law of cooling gives the rate of
heat transfer by convection. However, in this problem surface
area and heat transfer coefficient are not uniform. This means
that the rate of heat transfer varies along the surface. Thus,
Newtons law should be applied to an infinitesimal area dA
s
and integrated over the entire surface to obtain the total heat
transfer.
(4) Plan Execution.
(i) Assumptions. (1) Steady state, (2) negligible radiation and (3) uniform ambient fluid
temperature.
(ii) Analysis. Newton's law of cooling states that
q
s
= h A
s
(T
s
- T

) (a)
where
A
s
= surface area, m
2
h = heat transfer coefficient, W/m
2
-
o
C
q
s
= rate of surface heat transfer by convection, W
T
s
= surface temperature,
o
C
T

= ambient temperature,
o
C
Applying (a) to an infinitesimal area dA
s

d
q
s
= h (T
s
- T

) dA
s
(b)
The next step is to express h and dA
s
in terms of distance x along the triangle. The heat transfer
coefficient h is given by
W
x
L
dx
dq
s
h =
C
x
1 2 /
(c)
The infinitesimal area dA
s
is given by
PROBLEM 1.12 (continued)
dA
s
= y(x) dx (d)
where
x = distance along base of triangle, m
y(x) = height of the element dA
s
, m
Similarity of triangles give
y(x) =
W
L
x (e)
where
L = base of triangle, m
W = height of triangle, m
Substituting (c), (d) and (e) into (b)
d
q
s
=
C
x
1 2 /
(T
s
- T

)
W
L
x dx (f)
Integration of (f) gives q
s
. Keeping in mind that C, L, W, T
s
and T

are constants (f) gives

q
s
=

s
dq
= ) (

T T
L
W C
s

L
x
x
0
2 / 1
dx (g)
Evaluating the integral in (g)
q
s
=
2
3
C W L
1/2
(T
s
- T

) (h)
(iii) Checking. Dimensional check: According to (c) the units of C are W/m
3/2
-
o
C. Therefore
units of
q
s
in (h) are
q
s
= C(W/m
3/2
-
o
C) W(m) L
1/2
(m
1/2
) (T
s
- T

)(
o
C) = W
Limiting checks: If h = 0 (that is C = 0) then
q
s
= 0. Similarly, if W = 0 or L = 0 or T
s
= T

then
q
s
= 0. Equation (h) satisfies these limiting cases.
Learning and Generalizing. Integration was necessary because both the heat transfer coefficient
and area vary with distance along the triangle. The same procedure can be followed if the ambient
temperature or surface temperature is variable.
PROBLEM 1.13
Design consideration requires that the surface of a small electronic package be maintained at a
temperature not to exceed 82
o
C. Noise constraints rule out the use of fans. The power dissipated
in the package is 35 watts and the surface area is 520 cm
2
. The ambient temperature and
surrounding walls are assumed to be at 24
o
C. The heat transfer coefficient is estimated to be
9.2 W/m
2
-
o
C and surface emissivity is 0.7. Will the package dissipate the required power without
violating design constraints?
(1) Observations. (i) The electronic package
loses heat by convection and radiation. Both
Newton's law of cooling and Stefan-Boltzmann
radiation law may be needed. (ii) In a steady state
process the power dissipated is equal to the heat
loss from the surface. (iii) Increasing the power,
increases surface temperature. (iv) The maximum
allowable surface temperature is 82
o
C. However,
the operating surface temperature is unknown.
(2) Problem Definition. Determine the relationship between total heat transfer rate from the
package and its surface temperature.
(3) Solution Plan. Apply Newton's law of cooling and Stefan-Boltzmann law to the surface of the
package to obtain a relationship between total heat transfer rate and surface temperature.
(4) Plan Execution.
(i) Assumptions. (1) Steady state, (2) uniform surface temperature, ambient temperature and
heat transfer coefficient, (3) the package is assumed to be a small surface surrounded by a much
larger surface, (4) the ambient air does not interfere with radiation and (5) the package radiates
energy to a surrounding which is at the same temperature as the ambient air.
(ii) Analysis. Applying Newton's law of cooling and Stefan-Boltzmann law to the surface of
the package gives
P = q = h A (T
s

T ) + ( ) A T T
s
4 4

(a)
where:
A = surface area = 0.052 m
2
h = heat transfer coefficient = 9.2 W/m
2
-K
P = Power dissipated in package = 35 W
q = total surface heat transfer rate = 35 W
T
s
= surface temperature = 82
o
C + 273.15 = 355.15 K

T = ambient air temperature = surroundings temperature = 24

o
C + 273.15 = 297.15 K
= emissivity = 0.7
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 10
-8
W/m
2
-K
4
PROBLEM 1.13 (continued)
surroundings
+
-
electronic package
T
sur
P
s
T

T h,
Of interest is the determination of the surface temperature T
s
. However, because of the T
s
4
term
in (a), this equation can not be solved explicitly for T
s
. The solution can be obtained by a trial and
error procedure. Another approach is to calculate the power dissipated corresponding to the
maximum allowable surface temperature. If the calculated power is less than design level, it
follows that the package cannot be operated safely.
(iii) Computations. Assuming that surface temperature is at the maximum allowable level
of 355.15 K, equation (a) is used to compute the corresponding power
P = q = 9.2 (W/m
2
-K) 0.052(m
2
) (355.15 15 . 297 )(K) +
0.7 x 5.67x10
-8
(W/m
2
-K
4
) 0.052 (m
2
) [(355.15)
4 4
) 15 . 297 ( (297.15)
4
] (K
4
)
P = q = 27.75 W + 16.74 W = 44.49 W
Since the resulting power level is more than the operating value of 35 W, it follows that the
package can dissipate the required power without violating design constraints.
(iv) Checking. Dimensional check: Computations showed that equation (a) is
dimensionally correct.
Qualitative checks: Increasing h or T
s
or A or , increases the allowable power level. Equation (a)
exhibits this behavior.

(5) Learning and Generalizing. (i) Including radiation is important since it represents 37.6% of
the total heat loss. Neglecting radiation leads to the wrong conclusion the package can not be
operated. (ii) To solve for the surface temperature corresponding to P = 35 W by trial and error, a
value for T
s
is assumed and substituted into (a). The calculated P is then compared with 35 W. The
process is repeated until a satisfactory agreement between calculated and given values is obtained.
Using this approach gives T
s
= 343.7 K , or 70.6
o
C. This is less than design value.
PROBLEM 1.14

The temperature of a rod varies along its length
according to
T(x) = T

+ (T
o
T

)
cosh
cosh
( )

m L x
mL

where T
o
is the temperature at x = 0, T

is the
ambient temperature, m is a constant and x is measured along the rod. The length of the rod is L
and its radius is r
o
. The heat transfer coefficient is h.
[a] Determine the heat conducted through the rod at x=0 and x=L.
[b] Determine the total heat transfer from the cylindrical surface to the ambient fluid .
(1) Observations. (i) Temperature distribution in the rod is known. (ii) This is a steady state
problem since time does not appear in the temperature distribution equation. (iii) Heat transfer can
take place at the ends as well as along the cylindrical surface of the rod. (iv) Mathematically this is
a one-dimensional problem since temperature varies with x only. (v) Fouriers law gives heat
transfer rate by conduction.
(2) Problem Definition. Determine: [a] the heat conducted through the rod at the two ends. [b]
The total heat transfer rate from the cylindrical surface.
(3) Solution Plan. Apply Fouriers law of conduction to determine the heat conducted at the two
ends. Apply conservation of energy to the entire rod to determine the heat transfer rate from the
cylindrical surface.
(4) Plan Execution.

(i) Assumptions. (1) Steady state, (2) no energy generation and (3) no radiation.
(ii) Analysis. [a] Knowing the temperature distribution, Fouriers law gives the rate of heat
flow by conduction
q k A
dT
dx
x
k r
dT
dx
o

2
(a)
where
A = cross section area = r
o
2
, m
2

k = thermal conductivity, W/m-
o
C
q
x
= heat transfer rate, W
r
o
= radius of rod, m
T = temperature,
o
C
x = distance along rod, m
Temperature gradient in (a) is obtained from the temperature solution which is given by
( )
( ) T x T T T
o
+

( )
cosh
cosh
m L x
mL

(b)
PROBLEM 1.14 (continued)
h
,
L
T

o
r
0
x
o
T
where
L = length of rod, m
m = constant, 1/m
T
o
= temperature at x = 0,
o
C
T

= ambient temperature,
o
C
Differentiating (b) with respect to x gives the temperature gradient

d T
d x
m
( T
o
- T

)
( ) sinh
cosh
m L x
mL

(c)
To determine the heat transfer rate at x = 0 equation (c) is evaluated at x = 0 and the result is
substituted in (a)

q
x
( ) 0
=
x d
T d
r k
o
) 0 (
2

= r
o
2
k m (T
o
- T

) tanh mL (d)
Similarly, at x = L

q
x
(L) = - k
x d
L T d
r
o
) (
2

= r
o
2
k m( T
o
- T

)
sinh
cosh
0
mL
= 0 (e)
[b] The heat transfer from the cylindrical surface is obtained by applying conservation of energy
to the rod
Rate of energy in = Rate of energy out
or
q
x
(0) =
q
x
(L) +
s
q
(f)
where
q
s
= rate of heat transfer from the cylindrical surface, W
Solving (f) for
q
s
and substituting (d) and (e) into the resulting equation
q
s
= r
o
2
k m ( T
o
- T

) tanh mL (g)
(iii) Checking. Dimensional check: Units of
q
s
in (g) should be W
q
s
= r
o
2
(m
2
) m(1/m) k(W/m-
o
C) m(1/m)( T
o
- T

)(
o
C) tanh m(1/m)L(m) = W
Limiting check: For the limiting cases of r
o
= 0 or T
o
= T

, heat transfer from the

cylindrical surface must vanish, i.e.
q
s
= 0. Setting r
o
= 0 or T
o
= T

in (g) gives
q
s
= 0.
Learning and Generalizing. (i)
q
x
(L) = 0 means that the end of the rod at x = L is perfectly
insulated. (ii) Although the given temperature distribution in (a) is one-dimensional, the problem
is in fact two-dimensional since the flow of heat is in both the axial and radial directions. Thus (b)
is an approximation. (iii) An alternate method for determining q
s
is by applying Newtons law of
cooling to the cylindrical surface. Since T(x) varies along the surface, Newtons law must be
applied to an infinitesimal surface element. Integration gives q
s
.
PROBLEM 1.17
A small electronic package with a surface area of 820 cm
2
is placed in a room where the air
temperature is 28
o
C. The heat transfer coefficient is 7.3 W/m
2
-
o
C. You are asked to determine if it
is justified to neglect heat loss from the package by radiation. Assume a uniform surface
temperature of 78
o
C and surface emissivity of 0.65 Assume further that rooms walls and ceiling
are at a uniform temperature of 16
o
C.
(1) Observations. (i) The electronic package
loses heat by convection and radiation. Thus
both Newton's law of cooling and Stefan-
Boltzmann radiation law apply. (ii) Radiation
heat loss may be neglected if it is small compared
to heat loss by convection.
(2) Problem Definition. Determine the rate of
heat loss by convection and radiation and compare
the two.
(3) Solution Plan. Apply Newtons law of cooling and Stefan-Boltzmann radiation law to the
electronic package.
(4) Plan Execution.
(i) Assumptions. (1) Uniform surface temperature, (2) uniform ambient air and surroundings
(walls and ceiling) temperature, (3) package surface is small compared to that surroundings and
(4) atmospheric air does not interfere with radiation.
(ii) Analysis. Application of Newtons law of cooling gives
q
c
= h A (T
s
-T

) (a)
where
A = surface area of package = 0.082 m
2
h = heat transfer coefficient = 7.3 W/m
2
-
o
C
q
c
= convection heat transfer rate, W
T
s
= surface temperature = 78
o
C = 78
o
C + 273.15 = 351.15 K
T

= ambient air temperature = 28
o
C + 273.15 = 301.15 K
Application of Stefan-Boltzmann law gives
q
r
= A( ) T T
s sur
4 4
(b)
where
q
r
= radiation heat transfer rate, W
T
sur
= surroundings temperature (walls and ceiling) = 16
o
C = 16
o
C + 273.15 = 289.15 K
= emissivity = 0.65
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x 10
-8
W/m
2
-K
4
(iii) Computations. Substituting numerical values into (a)
PROBLEM 1.17 (continued)
surroundings
+
-
electronic package
T
sur
P
q
r
q
c
T
s
h
q
c
= 7.3(W/m
2
-K) 0.082(m
2
) (351.15 15 . 301 )(K) = 29.93 W
Similarly, equation (b) gives
q
r
= 0.65 5.67 10
-8
(W/m
2
-K
4
) 0.082(m
2
) [(351.15)
4
- (289.15)
4
] (K
4
) = 24.82 W
(iv) Checking. Dimensional check: Equations (a) and (b) are dimensionally correct since they
give the correct units for heat transfer rate.
(5) Learning and Generalizing. (i) Heat loss by radiation can not be neglected since it is of the
same order of magnitude as heat loss by convection. (ii) Examination of equation (b) shows that
radiation heat transfer is directly proportional to emissivity. Radiation heat loss can be increased
by coating the surface with a high emissivity paint. (iii) When carrying out computations of
radiation heat loss, all temperatures must be expressed in absolute degrees.
PROBLEM 1.18
Consider radiation from a small surface at 100
o
C which is enclosed by a much larger surface at
24
o
C. Determine the percent increase in the radiation heat transfer if the temperature of the
small surface is doubled.
(1) Observations. (i) This is a radiation heat transfer problem. (ii) Radiation is from a small
surface which is enclosed by a much larger surface. (iii) Of interest is the effect of surface
temperature on the rate of heat transfer. (iv) Increasing surface temperature increases heat transfer
by radiation.
(2) Problem Definition. Determine the radiation heat transfer rate corresponding to two surface
temperatures.
(3) Solution Plan. Apply Stefan-Boltzmann law.
(4) Plan Execution.
(i) Assumptions. (1) The heat transfer surface is a small body which is completely enclosed
by a much larger surface and (2) constant emissivity.
(ii) Analysis. Stefan-Boltzmann law gives
( )
4 4
sur s r
T T A q (a)
where
A = surface area, m
2
q
r
= radiation heat transfer rate, W
T
s

= surface temperature = 100
o
C + 273.15 = 373.15 K
sur
T
= surroundings temperature = 24
o
C + 273.15 = 297.15 K
= emissivity
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 10
-8

W/m
2
-K
4
The percent change in radiation heat due to doubling of the surface temperature is given by
% change = PC = 100

,
_

1 100
1
2
1
1 2
r
r
r
r r
q
q
q
q q
(b)
where the subscripts 1 and 2 correspond to
T
s1
and
T
s
2
, respectively. Substituting (a) into (b) and
noting that A cancels out, gives
PC = 100
T T
T T
s
s
2
4 4
1
4 4
1

_
,

(c)
(iii) Computations. For T

= 297.15 K,
T
s1
= 373.15 K and
T
s
2
= 2 100
o
C + 273.15 =
473.15 K, equation (c) gives
PC = 100
47315 297 15
37315 297 15
1
4 4
4 4
. .
. .

_
,
= 265
PROBLEM 1.18 (continued)
T
sur
T
s2

q
r1
q
r2
surroundings
T
s1

(iv) Checking. Dimensional check: Percent change should be dimensionless. Equations (b)
and (c) are dimensionless.
Limiting check: For the special case of
T
s
2
=
T
s1
, there is no change in
q
r
. Letting
T
s
2
=
T
s1
in (c)
gives PC = 0, as expected.
(5) Learning and Generalizing. (i) A 100 % increase in surface temperature results in 265%
increase in radiation heat flux. This is a reflection of the non-linear nature of radiation as indicated
by the fourth power of temperature in the Stefan-Boltzmann law. (ii) Doubling temperature on the
Celsius scale is not the same as doubling temperature on the kelvin scale. (iii) It is possible to
solve this problem without knowing the emissivity of surface area because both cancel out in
equation (c).
PROBLEM 1.19
A sphere of radius 10 cm is maintained at uniform surface temperature of 220
C
o
. The sphere is
suspended in a large room whose surfaces are at 18
C
o
. Determine the steady state
radiation heat transfer rate from the sphere if its emissivity is 0.85.
(1) Observations. (i) The sphere loses heat by radiation. Thus, Stefan-Boltzmann radiation law
applies.(ii) Sphere surface area is small compared to the room walls, floor and ceiling area.
(2) Problem Definition. Determine the net rate of heat exchanged by radiation between a small
surface and a much larger surface enclosing it.
(3) Solution Plan. Apply Stefan-Boltzmann radiation law.
(4) Plan Execution.
(i) Assumptions. (1) Uniform sphere surface temperature, (2) uniform surroundings (walls,
floor and ceiling) temperature, (3) sphere surface area is small compared to surroundings area and
(4) room atmosphere does not interfere with radiation.
(ii) Analysis. Application of Stefan-Boltzmann law gives

q
r
= A( ) T T
s sur
4 4
(a)
where
A = surface area of sphere, m
2
q
r
= radiation heat transfer rate, W
T
s
= sphere surface temperature
= 220
C
o
+ 273.15 = 493.15 K
T
sur
= surroundings temperature
= 18
C
o
+ 273.15 = 291.15 K
= emissivity = 0.85
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant
= 5.67 x 10
-8

4 2
K W/m
Sphere surface area is
2
4
o
r A (b)
where

o
r
= sphere radius = 0.1 m
(iii) Computations. Substituting (b) into (a) and using numerical values
q
r
= 0.85 5.67 10
-8
(
4 2
K W/m ) 4

( 0.1)
2
(m
2
) [(493.15)
4
- (291.15)
4
] (K
4
) = 314.7 W
(iv) Checking. Dimensional check: Equations (a) and (b) are dimensionally correct since they
give the correct units for heat transfer rate.
Limiting check: If the sphere is at the same temperature as the surroundings no heat transfer can
take place. Setting
sur s
T T
in (a) gives . 0
r
q
PROBLEM 1.19 (continued)
1
T
o
r
sur
T

(5) Learning and Generalizing. (i) Heat loss by radiation can not be neglected unless it is small
compared to heat loss by convection. (ii) Examination of equation (a) shows that radiation
heat transfer is directly proportional to emissivity. It can be significantly changed using
paint to alter surface emissivity. (iii) When carrying out computations of radiation heat
loss, all temperatures must be expressed in absolute degrees.
PROBLEM A-1.3
The steady state temperature distribution along an insulated rod of radius 1.5 cm is found to be
linear. The hot end of the rod is at 120
C
o
and the cold end is at 40
C
o
. Determine the
heat transfer rate through the rod. The rod length is 10 cm and its conductivity is 230
C W/m
o

.
(1) Observations. (i) Rod surface is perfectly insulated and thus heat flows axially by
conduction from the hot end to the cold end . (ii) Temperature distribution in the rod is one-
dimensional. (iii) Fouriers law gives the rate of heat conducted through the rod.
(2) Problem Definition. Determine the rate of heat conducted through the rod.
(3) Solution Plan. Apply Fouriers law of conduction.
(4) Plan Execution.
(i) Assumptions. (1) Steady state, (2) the cylindrical surface is perfectly insulated, (3)
constant thermal conductivity k and (4) uniform conditions at any cross section (one-
dimensional).
(ii) Analysis. Fourier's law gives

L
T T A
k q
so si
x
) (
(a)
where
A = cross section area =
2
o
r m
2
k = thermal conductivity = 230 W/m-
o
C
L = rod length = 10 cm = 0.1 m
q
x
= rate of heat transfer, W
r
o
= radius of rod = 1.5 cm = 0.015 m
T
si
= hot end temperature = 120
o
C
T
si
= cold end temperature = 40
o
C

(iii) Computations. Substituting into (a)
W 06 . 130
) m ( 1 . 0
C) )( 40 120 ( ) m ( ) 015 . 0 (
) C W/m ( 230
o 2 2
o

x
q
(iv) Checking. Dimensional check: Units of (a) are consistent and indicated in the
computation of
.
x
q

Limiting check: (1) If the conductivity k is zero, the heat transfer rate should also be zero.
Setting k = 0 in (a) gives q
x
= 0. (2) If the two ends are at the same temperature, no heat flow
will take place. Setting
so si
T T
in (a) gives q
x
= 0.
(5) Learning and Generalizing. Equation (a) is valid for the assumptions made above.
x
L
so
T
si
T
PROBLEM A-1.4
A rectangular plate is cooled by convection. The heat transfer coefficient varies along the plate
according to
2 / 1
x C h
o
where
o
A
is constant. The plate surface is maintained at uniform temperature
s
T
and the
ambient fluid is at .

T The width of the plate is W and its length is L. Determine the steady
state heat transfer rate from the plate.
(1) Observations. (i) Heat is removed from the surface by convection. Therefore, Newton's
law of cooling should be helpful. (ii) The heat transfer coefficient is not uniform. It varies
along the plate in a known manner. (iii) Total heat transfer can be obtained by integration of
Newtons law of cooling.
(2) Problem Definition. Find the total heat transfer rate by convection from the surface of a
plate with a variable heat transfer coefficient.
(3) Solution Plan. Newton's law of cooling gives the rate of heat transfer by convection.
However, in this problem the heat transfer coefficient is not uniform. This means that the
rate of heat by convection varies along the surface. Therefore, Newtons law should be
applied to an infinitesimal area dA
s
and integrated over the entire surface to obtain the total
heat transfer rate.
(4) Plan Execution.
(i) Assumptions. (1) Steady state, (2) negligible radiation, (3) uniform surface
temperature and (4) uniform ambient fluid temperature.
(ii) Analysis. Newton's law of cooling states
that
q
s
= h (T
s
- T

) A
s
(a)
where
A
s
= surface area, m
2
h = heat transfer coefficient, W/m
2
-
o
C
q
s
= rate of surface heat transfer by convection, W
T
s
= surface temperature,
o
C
T

= ambient temperature,
o
C
Applying (a) to an infinitesimal area dA
s
= W dx
d
q
s
= h (T
s
- T

) W dx (b)
where
W = width of plate, m
PROBLEM A-1.4 (continued)

T
x
0
L
W
s
T
dx
s
dq
x = distance along plates length, m
To determine the total heat transfer rate, equation (b) is integrated from x = 0 to x = L
q
s
=

s
dq
=

L
s
dx W T T h
0
) - ( (c)
In this equation, T
s
,

T and W are constant. However, the heat transfer coefficient h varies

with x according to
2 / 1
x C h
o
(d)
where
o
C
= constant,
C W/m
o 3/2

Substituting (d) into (c)

dx x WC T T q
L
o s s
2 / 1
0
) (

(e)
Performing the integration gives
2 / 1
) ( 2 L WC T T q
o s s
(f)
(iii) Checking. Dimensional check: Units of
q
s
in (f) are
) m ( ) C W/m ( ) m ( ) C ( ) ( 2
2 / 1 2 / 1 o 2/3 o
L C W T T q
o s s


= W
Limiting checks: If h = 0 or W = 0, then
q
s
= 0. Setting
0
o
C
or 0 W in (f) gives
. 0
s
q
(5) Learning and Generalizing. Integration is necessary in this problem because the heat
transfer coefficient is not uniform. The same procedure can be followed if the ambient
temperature or surface temperature or the width varies along the plate.
PROBLEM A-1.5
A sphere of radius 10 cm is maintained at uniform surface temperature of 220
C
o
. The sphere is
suspended in a large room whose surfaces are at 18
C
o
. Determine the steady state
radiation heat transfer rate from the sphere if its emissivity is 0.85.
(1) Observations. (i) The sphere loses heat by radiation. Thus, Stefan-Boltzmann radiation
law applies.(ii) Sphere surface area is small compared to the room walls, floor and ceiling
area.
(2) Problem Definition. Determine the net rate of heat exchanged by radiation between a
small surface and a much larger surface enclosing it.
(3) Solution Plan. Apply Stefan-Boltzmann radiation law.
(4) Plan Execution.
(i) Assumptions. (1) Uniform sphere surface temperature, (2) uniform surroundings
(walls, floor and ceiling) temperature, (3) sphere surface area is small compared to
surroundings area and (4) room atmospheric does not interfere with radiation.
(ii) Analysis. Application of Stefan-Boltzmann law gives

q
r
= A( ) T T
s sur
4 4
(a)
where
A = surface area of sphere, m
2
q
r
= radiation heat transfer rate, W
T
s
= sphere surface temperature
= 220
C
o
+ 273.15 = 493.15 K
T
sur
= surroundings temperature
= 18
C
o
+ 273.15 = 291.15 K
= emissivity = 0.85
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant
= 5.67 x 10
-8

4 2
K W/m
Sphere surface area is
2
4
o
r A (b)
where

o
r
= sphere radius = 0.1 m
(iii) Computations. Substituting (b) into (a) and using numerical values
PROBLEM A-1.5 (continued)
q
r
= 0.85 5.67 10
-8
(
4 2
K W/m ) 4

( 0.1)
2
(m
2
) [(493.15)
4
- (291.15)
4
] (K
4
) = 314.7 W
o
r

1
T
2
T
(iv) Checking. Dimensional check: Equations (a) and (b) are dimensionally correct since they
give the correct units for heat transfer rate.
Limiting check: If the sphere is at the same temperature as the surroundings no heat transfer can
take place. Setting
sur s
T T
in (a) gives . 0
r
q
(5) Learning and Generalizing. (i) Heat loss by radiation can not be neglected unless it is small
compared to heat loss by convection. (ii) Examination of equation (a) shows that radiation heat
transfer is directly proportional to emissivity. It can be significantly changed using paint to alter
surface emissivity. (iii) When carrying out computations of radiation heat loss, all temperatures
must be expressed in absolute degrees.