CHAPTER 3 STEELS Introduction Steel is used in a variety of types and forms in every building.

. It also the strongest, the most resistant to ageing, and generally the most reliable in quality. Steel is completely industrialized material and subject to its tight control of its content and the details of its forming and fabrication. It has additional desirable qualities of: o Non-combustible o Non-rotting o Dimensionally stable with time & moisture change Main properties of steel : 1) Strong under compression and tension compared to concrete & timber 2) Can resist excessive load due to wind, earthquake, vibration & impact transfer load. Factors in selecting specific application of steel : Strength level required Mechanical properties required together with strength Steel making, heat treatment and other plant available Arbitrary local conditions and code of practice

Structural steel can be divided into 3 categories : Framed structures consists of skeletal framework which carries all the load The steel members are used to carry: lateral loads when acting as beams and girders axial loads when acting as struts and ties The steel frame are made of load bearing elements (e,g. tension members, columns, beams under combined bending, girder, trusses and axial load) E.g. beam, girder (girder is a large support beam used in construction , dome (dome is a common structural element of architecture that resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere), trusses Shell-Type structure carries axial stress load the shell serves a use function in addition to participation in carrying loads. The main stress in tension is the containment vessel E.g. containment vessel used to store liquid, water tank & storage bin. Suspension-Type structure Axial tension to support system Major supporting element is tension cable Since the tension element is the most efficient way of carrying load, structures utilization this concept are coming into increasing use. E.g. cable, suspension bridge.

Type of steel There is an almost infinite numbers of kinds of steel available, since it possible to make steel to perform under most known conditions. The usage of steel: Steel for strength To resist impact To resist corrosion/abrasion Steel to take & hold a sharp edge Steel to cut other steel Steel is composed of about 98% of iron with the main alloying elements of carbon, silicon and manganese. The design of steel structures is based primarily on the yield stress or proof stress of the steel but ductility, toughness at normal and weld ability are often important properties. The yield strength or yield point of a material is defined in engineering and materials science as the stress at which a material begins to plastically deform. Prior to the yield point the material will deform elastically and will return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed. Weld ability is important because welded structures give weight saving and ease of fabrication compared to bolting and riveting. Steel is derived from 2 raw materials (liquid pig iron and scrap) Pig iron is raw iron, the immediate product of smelting iron ore with coke and limestone in a blast furnace. Pig iron has a very high carbon content, typically 3.5%, which makes it very brittle and not useful directly as a material except for limited applications.

The iron making blast furnace produces liquid pig iron from the: Iron Ore Limestone Coke Air The scrap used for new steelmaking arises in the steelwork itself (readily characterized and usually recycled completely). Steel for structural use in hot rolled application may be classified into 3 categories: Carbon Steel High Strength Low-Alloy Steel Alloy Steel

Manufacturing Process a) Primary Steel Making Refers to the refining processes used to produce liquid steel. The aim is to produce a melt of the required composition. Typical ranges required for structural steels are: Carbon 0.15 - 0.25% Manganese 0.5 1.5% Sulphur & Phosphorus < 0.05% Types of refining process: The Bessemer/Thomas process The open-hearth (Siemens) process The basic oxygen process Electric arc steelmaking b) Secondary Steel Making The liquid steel process is not finished when it is tapped from the furnace. It must undergo further treatment, i.e it is necessary to deoxidize the metal. This is done by adding manganese and silicon, which react with dissolved oxygen to form insoluble particles of oxide. It may be necessary to adjust the carbon and manganese contents to give the grade of steel required, because with carbon it will improves strength and manganese gives low temperature toughness. c) Mechanical Forming Process Are used to convert ingot or continuously cast materials into the shapes and sizes required. It can be done either by hot rolling or cold rolling.

Hot Rolling All constructional steel are hot rolled. These steel are heated to temperature of 1200 1300 C to make them soft enough to deform and shape. Cold Rolling Cold rolling cannot be used to the same degree as hot working for shaping purposes, because of the increased strength of the cold work piece. Modest reduction can be achieved by rolling to give better size tolerances and surface qualities. Mainly for light weight sections. Steel product 2 products of steel: i) Hot Rolled Product ROLLED & FORMED SECTION COMPOUND SECTION BUILT UP SECTION ii) Cooled Rolling Product

Prestressing Steel Prestressing Steel (tendons) are produced in the form of wire and strand. Steel for presressing material may be made by any process except the air and mixed air/oxygen blown process. Prestressing are used in construction of bridge, buildings, stadium and others. There are three types of prestressing which are wires, strands and bars Weathering steel Is a type of steel that develops a protective oxide coat on its surface upon exposure to the elements so that painting is not required for protection against most atmospheric corrosion. Suitable for used on bridges, buildings and for decorative effect. Stainless Steel Stainless steel is defined as an iron-carbon alloy with a minimum of 10.5% chromium content. The name originates from the fact that stainless steel does not stain, corrode or rust as easily as ordinary steel. This material is also called corrosion resistant steel when it is not detailed exactly to its alloy type and grade, particularly in the aviation industry. As such, there are now different and easily accessible grades and surface finishes of stainless steel, to suit the environment to which the material will be subjected in its lifetime.

Reinforcement in concrete : 2 types of bar used in reinforced concrete : o Hot rolled mild steel, fy = 250 N/mm o Hot rolled high yield bar, fy = 460 N/mm Mild steel in the form of smooth round bars High yield bar are produce in deformed bar Other steel product include : i) Prestressing steel ii) Stainless steel iii) Weathering steel

Connection 3 Principle system for connecting member : o Bolting o Riveting o Welding Connections need to join: Members together in trusses Plates together to form built up members. Beams to beams, beams, trusses, to column in structural frame and Column to foundations i) BOLTING Ordinary bolt in clearance holes : o Consist of black hexagon head bolt, nut & washer o Force taken by share of bolt body High Strength Friction Grip Bolt : i. Made from high Strength steel ii. Clamping force will transmit the force to the connected member by friction. iii. Surface in contact must be free from mile scale rust, paint, grease which would prevent solid contact between surface & lower the slip factors. ii) RIVETING There are several common method or techniques for performing riveting operation There is the standard hand riveting with a bucking bar or a blind rivet. Three basic alternative methods of riveting are : o Cold riveting o Hot riveting o Automated riveting Each method is used to achieve different characteristics. In the standard riveting process and in cold or hot riveting a bucking bar is used at the bottom end of the rivet to cause it to form a head when the rivet is driven through the hole.

Bucking bars are of different weight depending on the size of the rivet being used. Cold riveting process 1. rivet are kept in a refrigerator until they are ready to be used. 2. rivet is driven while it is still cold (the rivet remains soft and more malleable). 3. rivet will cure at room temperature and become hardened (necessary for rivets produced from certain aluminum alloys).

 Hot riveting process 1. is done for the same reason. 2. rivet will be at room temperature before its use. 3. When the rivet is needed it will be heated and than driven while it is still hot. 4. When it cools again it will return to its hardened state.

i)

Butt welding

ii)

Fillet welding

Automated riveting process o are cheaper, but due to lengthy setup time they are usually limited to one rivet type. o Automated riveting can include the hot and cold riveting method. iii) WELDING Process of jointing metal parts by fusing them and filling with molten metal from electrode. Extensively used to join parts and members, attach cleats, stiffeners, end plates & to fabricate complete elements such as plate girders. Produces neat, strong & more efficient joints than are possible with bolting. 2 type of welding joint : Size of fillet specified by leg length Strength of weld calculated on throat thickness

Advantages of steel as structural material High Strength o High strength per unit weight dead load is small o Good for long span bridges, tall building & poor foundation Uniformity o Properties do not change with time Elasticity o Follow Hooks Law Permanence o Maintain properly with last long Ductility o Withstand extensive deformation without failure under high tensile stress. o When a mild steel member is being tension, considerable reduction in cross-section & large amount of elongation will occur at the point of failure before actual fracture occur.(if does not have this property hard & brittle, might break if subjected to sudden shock) o Under normal loads, high stress concentrations develop at various points, will yield locally at those points prevents premature failures o When overloaded, their large deflection give visible evidence of impending failure Addition of existing structure o New bays/wings can be added to existing steel frame building, steel bridge can be wide. Miscellaneous o Ability to be fastened together by several simple connection devices (welds, bolts & rivets) o Adaptation to fabrication o Speed of erection o Ability to be rolled into a wide variety of sizes & shapes o Toughness & fatigue strength o Possible reuse after a structure is disassembled o Economy through mass production of standardized items

Disadvantages of steel as structural material Maintenance cost o Susceptible to corrosion when exposed to air & water need periodically painted. Fire proofing cost o Steel is an excellent heat conductor may transmit heat to other section causing fire to start in the next building/room. Susceptibility to buckling o Danger to buckle and not economical since required to stiffen the column against buckling. Fatigue o When subjected to cyclic loading, steel strength will be reduced. Steel properties 1) Brittle Fracture Steel is ductile at above 10C but become brittle at temp. fall and fracture can occur below 0C. 2) Stress-strain Relationship in Structural Steel

3) Corrosion of Steel Exposed steelwork - severely affected by corrosion in the atmosphere particularly if pollutants are present need surface protection. Water soluble can accelerate further corrosion. Atmosphere containing chloride or sulphur oxide further accelerate corrosion. Type of protective coating Active coating (Cathodic protection, Galvanized): Zinc coating on steel provides protection galvanically. The zinc is anodic to the steel, which is cathodically protected. The zinc may be sprayed on applied by heating the surface in contact with zinc powder. Alternatives to zinc are aluminium which act in the same way as the zinc. The member is coated by dipping in a bath of molten zinc in the galvanizing process, spraying or electrolytic deposition processes. Electrolytic process gives thinner coatings. Barrier coating Inorganic o These include enamels and cement, although the is usually taken to mean thin barriers produced either by surface modification or by painting. Organic o Thick coating of substances such as pitch, tar and bitumen are useful for steel structures to be buried in earth, usually in association with cathodic protection. o In the cathodic protection, the cathodic partner is protected by the corrosion of an anode by imposing a current so that the area to be protected is made sufficiency cathodic.

Painting of various system are used. One common system consist of using a primer of zinc chromate followed by finishing coats of micaceous iron oxide. The paint system normally consist of primer, undercoats and finishing coats. Paint can give good long-term protection if applied by brushing, spraying. All paints are permeable to air and water vapour to some degree and the protection afforded is directly proportional to the thickness of the paint. Plastic coatings o o o Steel especially in sheet form can be coated with protective and decorative plastics. The coatings are adherent and can withstand mechanical shaping methods such as folding and even deep drawing. They are widely used for cladding and roofing.

Universal beam Very efficient for resisting bending moment about major axis

Angle & tee Produced by cutting universal beam or column into 2 parts Used for truss members, ties and light beams

Universal column To resist axial in load with high radius of gyration about the minor axis to prevent buckling that plane

Channels Used for beams, bracing members, truss members and in compound members

Hollow sections Produce from flat plate Circular section is made first, then this is converted to the square or rectangular shape

Wires, strands & bars Wires o Wire made to BS 5896:1980 is made by cold drawn with high carbon content steel rod through a series of reducing dies o May be crimped mechanically @ have surface indentedimprove bond when used in short units.

Strands o Seven-wire strand made to BS 5896:1980 is made by spinning 6 cold drawn wires in helical form around a slightly larger straight central wire. o Then it is stress-relieved @ hot stretched

 Bars o Prestressing bars to BS 4486:1988 are made by hot rolling microalloyed steels under controlled conditions and then stretching them in controlled manner. o May be plain @ deformed with a max length of 18m. o The prepared ends are threaded by cold rolling o Can be joined end to end by couplers

Buckling & blind rivets