Using Multimedia in Constructivist Learning

The Effective Use of Multimedia in a Constructivist Learning Environment Brian Mitchell Boise State University EDTECH 504 May , 2011 Dr. Yu-Hui Ching

Using Multimedia in Constructivist Learning Abstract Constructivist learning theory has at its base the notion of a student-centered learning environment. One way to achieve such an environment is through the use of interactive multimedia technology. The use of multimedia is not new. It goes back to cognitivism, where dual-coding theory first addressed the ability of the human brain to process visual and narrative stimuli simultaneously. Using both of the brains receptors made for a more effective learning experience, because it reduced the cognitive load on the learner. However, it wasnt until recently that multimedia was able to become an interactive experience, where the learner is able to not just view the multimedia, but also create it themselves, thus helping them achieve higher order constructivist learning. Research shows that multimedia instruction is one of the most effective ways to achieve not only high student knowledge outcomes, but also a high level of student satisfaction.

Using Multimedia in Constructivist Learning The Effective Use of Multimedia in a Constructivist Learning Environment

The application of educational theories in education has been changing over several decades. These theories began with behaviorism as early as the 1920s and 1930s, pioneered by such scholars as B.F. Skinner (Burton, Moore, & Magliaro, 1996). Skinner spent the bulk of his career developing theories based in the psychological concepts of behaviorism. Behaviorists believe that education is the result of human responses to certain stimuli and that by modifying these stimuli; various educational results can be achieved. Educational theory then moved on to cognitivism. Cognitivist theories in education began to develop around the 1960s through the 1980s. Early leaders in this field were Gange, Piaget, and Paivio (Winn, 2004). Cognitivists believe that learning is an internal process that is the result of processes in the brain resulting from information that is taken in and processed. Most recently, the theories of constructivism have emerged. Constructivists believe that learning is unique to each individual and that social factors as well as cognitive processes influence the way knowledge is gained (Schunk, 2008). One of the key tenets of constructivism is the idea of student-centered learning (Land & Hannafin, 2000). While these theories of education were being developed, the use of technology in education was also emerging. In particular, the use of multimedia, which developed out of older audio-visual technologies like film, audio recordings, video, and computer media, gained tremendous strides, both in technological development and also in integration in the classroom. Strictly defined, multimedia simply refers to the use of two or more types of media. One of the most popular forms of multimedia is video, because it incorporates a moving visual component, as well as an aural component. However, in more recent years, the term multimedia is used to

Using Multimedia in Constructivist Learning refer not only to communication in two or more media, but it also includes some sort of interactivity. The goal of this paper is to look at how multimedia technology and modern educational theories, especially cognitivism and constructivism, can work together to provide effective and dynamic classroom learning environments. Multimedia and Cognitive Theory Multimedia lends itself very nicely to cognitive learning theory. Richard Mayer presented a theory about how the brain processes multimedia, based on earlier findings by Clark and Paivio (1991) and Baddeley (1992). Baddeley had a strong belief in the notion of working memory. This is where the brain is divided into different functions for learning information. The first is the sensory memory, which takes in different stimuli. Next is working memory, which is the conscious memory through which the brain processes information. Finally, there is long-term memory, where knowledge is stored. When stimuli are received, the sensory memory processes which of these stimuli it wants to work with and then passes those into the working memory. There mental manipulations and processing are done to create meaning. Sometimes, it is necessary to pull previously learned information from the long-term memory to combine it with the new information, in order to create meaning. Once meaning is created, it is stored in the long-term memory, if the brain deems it important. The working memory serves as the place where conscious thought takes place, whereas long-term memory stores information for later retrieval. Information can only be processed from long-term memory by first being moved into working memory (Baddeley, 1992). Clark and Paivio took Baddeleys theory of the brain a step further through the notion of dual-coding theory (Clark & Paivio, 1991). They believed that the sensory memory is actually

Using Multimedia in Constructivist Learning divided into two parts. One of those parts processes visual information, and the other part processes aural and narrative information. Mayer (2005) combined these two theories and applied them to the processing of multimedia. He believed that, because of the dual-coding ability of the brain, that it could process multimedia information well, because it was able to separate the visual information from the narrative information and process them both together. By doing so, the brain is able to reduce cognitive load, which is the capacity of the brain to process a certain amount of information at one time. The brain is then able to select certain parts of the information received and move them into working memory (p.38). Another tenet of cognitivism is the notion of mental imagery. This means that the brain processes information by creating a mental image or mental map of the information it takes in. By visualizing an image, the brain is able to more easily create knowledge from that information. By using multimedia, it becomes possible to help the brain create that mental imagery much more easily, and thus achieve learning faster. Lee and Gretzel (2010) demonstrated this theory in a study they did with tourism students. Because of the experiential nature of tourism, meaning that it is vitally important to have clear mental pictures of a destination, Lee and Gretzel (2010) believed that the use of multimedia would really help to achieve effective learning. What they found in their study is that a large majority of the students have only a moderate preference for visual processing, suggesting that providing content only in visual modalities will not provide these students with an effective learning environment (Lee & Gretzel, 2010, p. 303). They did find, however, that there are some students who have trouble creating mental images on their own, a skill especially important in the tourism industry. Where the multimedia technology ended up being helpful in

Using Multimedia in Constructivist Learning this regard was through interactivity. When the students were provided with a more interactive experience, like a virtual tour, they were much more able to create mental images (Lee & Gretzel, 2010, p. 302). This creation of mental images is one of the key components of cognitivism. The interactive nature of technology, however, is also a key feature of constructivist learning. Constructivism Overview The most recent and currently most popular learning theory is constructivism. One of the pioneers of constructivism was Vygotzky, who emphasized the role of social mediation on knowledge construction (Schunk, 2008, p. 235). Constructivists believe that learning isnt so much acquired, but rather constructed by each individual learner. In other words, it breaks away from the focus on a teacher passing information of their choosing to their students, and focuses more on the students discovering information for themselves, with the teacher there to guide and assist them in the right direction. Constructivists believe that students should become actively involved with content through manipulation of materials and social interaction (Schunk, 2008, p. 237). So while Lee and Gretzels study found multimedia to be helpful in the cognitive notion of mental imagery, one might say that their discoveries about the benefits of interactivity really supports more of a constructivist view. Since constructivism shifts the focus from the teacher passing on knowledge that they deem important and puts the focus more on the student discovering information, this learning theory strongly supports what Land and Hannafin (2000) call student-centered learning environments (p. 1). Such environments support concepts like scaffolding, which is the notion that a teacher is there not to deliver learning, but to help support students to lift themselves up to

Using Multimedia in Constructivist Learning the next level of learning. Student-centered learning also puts an emphasis on the experiences of each learner and the importance of real-world types of applications for the learning (Land & Hannafin, 2000, p. 14). One reason for the popularity of constructivist methods is that it often results in higher student satisfaction. Neo and Neo (2009) found this to be true in a study they did with a Macromedia Director project. After completing the project, the students completed a questionnaire, where they reported experiencing high levels of motivation and self-esteem when doing the multimedia project (Neo & Neo, 2009, p. 264). Anytime students can have such a high satisfaction with learning, they will be more motivated to learn, and thus achieve greater gains in knowledge as a result. This theory was supported by the Neo & Neo (2009) study as well. Constructivism is not perfect however. Teachers must be careful not to fall into the trap of allowing students too much freedom in their learning. This was proven by Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006). They found that education which keeps students completely undirected causes them to lose focus and thus have a significantly lower level of learning. Thus, the role of the teacher becomes critical in being a guide, directing the students towards a specific goal. As the concept of scaffolding points out, the teacher is still vitally important in helping to raise student learning to the next level. Multiple studies have also found that multimedia can play an important role in achieving that direction and scaffolding support that is so essential to a constructivist point of view.

Using Multimedia in Constructivist Learning Multimedia and Constructivist Theory The findings of Neo and Neo (2009) provide some of the clearest evidence of the effectiveness of multimedia on constructivist learning. Perhaps it cannot be said any better than the conclusion they reached: The study was thus successful in providing students with the experience in problemsolving, critical-thinking and creativity skills, communication and reflection, and in improving their overall understanding of the projects objective, as students reported satisfaction with their contributions. They also became active participants in their learning process. The project also allowed students to become more independent in their thinking and as a whole, enabled them to improve their learning process. Adapting Jonassens (1999) proposition for building a constructivist learning environment using technology in this classroom environment created a learning environment where students were able to solve a problem, via the interactive multimedia project, that was authentic and relevant to them, and allowed them to collaborate and work together as a team to complete the project, and to claim responsibility and ownership of their development process. This multimedia-mediated learning environment allowed students to experience a constructivist-based approach in their learning process where they became active participants and constructed their own knowledge. Although the students reported that there were some challenges in teamwork and collaboration, it did not deter them from having an overall positive attitude towards the project. Therefore, this research study has shown that incorporating multimedia technology into a constructivist learning environment can lead to innovative teaching and learning methods for the improvement of classroom learning. (p. 265).

Using Multimedia in Constructivist Learning

They arent the only ones who found such strong constructivist benefits to the use of multimedia. Wang (2009) also found the use of multimedia to give a high level of student satisfaction: According to the questionnaire results of the study, there is greater satisfaction among students using a multimedia teaching method. Students have a higher acceptance of multimedia teaching than the traditional method, and they believe that, compared with the traditional teaching method, it is easier to learn with the multimedia. (p. 55).

Like Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006), Wang cautions against relying too heavily on self-directed multimedia learning. He stresses the importance of interaction with the teacher and other students and points out the necessity of teacher coaching throughout the process. He also thinks that the teacher should try to integrate their own experiences and skills into the platform (Wang, 2009, p. 55). The principles of multimedia use in a constructivist approach also apply to adult learners. Seo, Templeton, and Pellegrino (2008) studied the effectiveness of multimedia project-based learning on pre-service teachers. They used a variety of multimedia projects that included PowerPoint, Moviemaker, FrontPage, Mozilla, virtual field trips, Web Quests, and concept maps. By using surveys to determine learning effectiveness, the scholars found increased learning in all three areas of the study: technology, subject matter, and teaching. Their findings also strongly support an effective constructivist learning environment: Multimedia-assisted, project-based learning can create a profound ripple effect in the teaching/learning process. When teachers engage with students in creating multimedia

Using Multimedia in Constructivist Learning presentations, they have an opportunity to personalize the curriculum to reflect learning from the viewpoints of the learners. Multimedia productions provide opportunities for constructing authentic demonstrations of learning. (p. 264).

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One might say that the conclusion of Seo, Templeton, and Pellegrino (2008) above, could be a way of defining constructivist learning. It seems unusual to find such strong praise for the effectiveness of an education technique like multimedia use. Yet, such praise can be found over and over in many different studies on the subject.

Conclusion The use of multimedia in education is not new. One might say that the old sixteen millimeter sound and film projectors were an early form of multimedia. The same could be said for newer audio-visual forms like video. However, as several researchers have discovered, what truly makes multimedia effective is interactivity. Thus, the realm of multimedia should really be confined to the type of interactive audio-visual materials developed during the last twenty years, usually computer-based. Such technologies have become even more advanced and interactive within the last five years. Early studies in multimedia found strong support for the benefits of the technology on cognitive learning. This is because of the ability of the brain to process visual and narrative information simultaneously, as postulated in dual-coding theory. It is also due to the effectiveness of multimedia in helping a person create their own mental imagery, thus enhancing learning from a cognitive point of view.

Using Multimedia in Constructivist Learning However, the true power of multimedia in education is through its use in a constructivist, student-centered, project-based learning environment. Every day that passes brings new technologies in the field of multimedia. And each of these technologies seems to become more and more interactive. As pointed out in multiple studies, interactive multimedia leads not only to a high level of student satisfaction, but it translates to higher student learning outcomes. Technology changes have made multimedia so that it is not just a means of presenting information. Now, students are able to create their own multimedia presentations very quickly and easily, with very little training. The creation of such projects equates to the highest level of learning, encourages creativity, and produces a high amount of student satisfaction. Most importantly, though, multimedia project creation is a direct method for the self-creation of student learning, as described in constructivist learning theory. Multimedia learning also provides a built-in way of applying knowledge to a real-world situation. As technology advances even further, it becomes increasingly important for teachers to embrace educational technology, and especially multimedia technology. While it is important to not let multimedia control the education completely, and for the teacher to play a guiding role, the time is not far away when multimedia technology will be the primary tool for education delivery and acquisition. With the advent of technologies like e-readers and further development of Web 2.0 sites, such time is even closer at hand. Teachers who expect to keep up with their students and provide them the best education possible would benefit from learning as much as they can about the constructivist use of multimedia in education.

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Using Multimedia in Constructivist Learning References Baddeley, A. (1992). Working memory. Science, 255(5044), 556 -559. Bruce, D. L. (2008). Visualizing literacy: Building bridges with media. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 24(3), 264-282.

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Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based experiential and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75-86.

Land, S. M., & Hannafin, M.J. (2000). Student-Centered learning environments. In D.H. Jonassen & S.M. Land (Eds.), Theoretical foundations of learning environments (pp. 123). Mahwah, NJ. Psychology Press.

Lee, W. & Gretzel, U. (2010). Tourism students' mental imagery ability: Implications for multimedia learning environments. Journal of Teaching in Travel & Tourism, 10(4), 289311. Mayer, R. E. (2005). The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning. Cambridge University Press.

Using Multimedia in Constructivist Learning Muller, D. A., Sharma, M. D., & Reimann, P. (2008). Raising cognitive load with linear multimedia to promote conceptual change. Science Education, 92(2), 278-296. Neo, M. & Neo, T. (2009). Engaging students in multimedia-mediated Constructivist learning -Students' perceptions. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 12(2), 254-266.

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Schunk, D. H. (2008). Constructivist theory. In Learning theories: An educational perspective (5th ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Seo, K. K., Templeton, R., & Pellegrino, D. (2008). Creating a ripple effect: Incorporating multimedia-assisted project-based learning in teacher education. Theory Into Practice, 47(3), 259-265. Wang, T.J. (2009). Educational benefits of multimedia skills training. TechTrends: Linking Research & Practice to Improve Learning, 54(1), 47-57.

WinnWinn, W. (2004). Cognitive perspectives in psychology. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology.

Yang, J.C., Huang, Y.T., Tsai, C.C., Chung, C. I., & Wu, Y.C. (2009). An automatic multimedia content summarization system for video recommendation. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 12(1), 49-61. Zheng, R., McAlack, M., Wilmes, B., Kohler-Evans, P., & Williamson, J. (2009). Effects of multimedia on cognitive load, self-efficacy, and multiple rule-based problem solving. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(5), 790-803.