CHAPTER 3

PHOTOVOLTAIC DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

3.1 Introduction
Now is the time to plan for the integration of significant quantities of distributed renewable energy into the electricity grid. Concerns about climate change, the adoption of state-level renewable portfolio standards and incentives, and accelerated cost reductions are driving steep growth in U.S. renewable energy technologies. The number of distributed solar photovoltaic (PV) installations, in particular, is growing rapidly. As distributed PV and other renewable energy technologies mature, they can provide a significant share of our nations electricity demand. However, as their market share grows, concerns about potential impacts on the stability and operation of the electricity grid may create barriers to their future expansion. Reasons for the focus on solar photovoltaic distributed generation: 1. Solar is more predictable than wind 2. It makes more sense to combine both solar and wind in renewable mix because some areas might have significant sunlight while some others have significant wind (but not that as much sunlight) 3. The total potential for wind energy for India is estimated at 45000 MW. This is only about 25% of current total electricity capacity for India. If these estimates are correct, wind alone cannot supply all of Indias renewable electricity (the 45GW potential was estimated in the early 80s when the turbines were of much smaller sizes and at much lower heights). 4. On the other hand, India is blessed significant amounts of land areas having good sunshine for over 300 days a year. If solar (either in the form of PV or thermal) becomes cost effective, the entire countrys electricity needs can be fully met from solar alone. 5. The costs of solar energy are indeed coming down (current capital costs are about $4 million per MW), but the question is, how long will it take before capital costs come down enough in order to make electricity generation costs competitive to coal, natural gas and wind.
Department of EEE Page 15

PHOTOVOLTAIC DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

The photovoltaic technology has been developed rapidly over the last two decades supported by market forces. It is now one of the main sources of renewable DG units worldwide, and perfectly matches the conditions of countries with high solar radiation levels. The photovoltaic modules convert sunlight into dc power. Hence, the photovoltaic DG units (PVDG) are interfaced with the grid via grid-tied inverters as shown in Fig 3.1. The grid-tied inverters convert the dc power produced by the PV array into ac power synchronized with the utility grid.

Fig.3.1. Typical configuration of the PVDG unit It is important to mention that the power output of the PVDG system normally will not be equal to the capacity of the PV array. Commercially speaking, the capacity of PV array is rated to its dc output power at standard solar irradiance equals to 1000w/m2. On the other hand the PVDG power production is the actual ac power converted by the inverter and injected in the utility grid at the CP. Hence, the conversion efficiency and actual rates of solar irradiance should be considered in estimating the PV capacity required to produce the targeted PVDG power production. Unlike traditional DG units, that can yield controllable amounts of power, the PVDG unit produces variable power driven by the variations of solar irradiance. Fig.3.2 & fig 3.3, considers both traditional and PVDG units. The traditional DG unit is assumed to produce constant power with time. From fig.3.2, the production of constant power over time by the traditional DG unit drags each point on the original load curve down by the same amount of PDG. Hence, the load curve will keep the same shape but at a lower

Department of EEE

Page 16

PHOTOVOLTAIC DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

level. On the other hand, fig.3.3 indicates that each point on the original load curve is dragged down by different value at each time (t) according to the amount of PVDG at that time. Also fig 3.3 shows that the variation in load curve occurs only during daylight hours from T1 to T2.The conclusion of fig.3.3 states that the connection of PVDG unit originates the need to dealing with two time-variant curves at the same time; the load curve of the feeder and the production curve of the PVDG unit.

Y- axis

X-axis

Fig.3.2 : With traditional DG unit

Department of EEE

Page 17

PHOTOVOLTAIC DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

Y- axis

X-axis

Fig.3.3: With PVDG unit

3.2 Characteristics of photovoltaic cell

Fig.3.4: Current-voltage line of a photovoltaic cell The usable voltage from solar cells depends on the semiconductor material. In silicon it amounts to approximately 0.5 V. Terminal voltage is only weakly dependent on light radiation, while the current intensity increases with higher luminosity. A 100 cm silicon cell,

Department of EEE

Page 18

PHOTOVOLTAIC DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

for example, reaches a maximum current intensity of approximately 2 A when radiated by 1000 W/m. The output (product of current and voltage) of a solar photovoltaic cell is temperature dependent. Higher cell temperatures lead to lower output, and hence to lower efficiency. The level of efficiency indicates how much of the radiated quantity of light is converted into useable electrical energy.

3.3 Different photovoltaic cell types

One can distinguish three cell types according to the type of crystal: monocrystalline, polycrystalline and amorphous. To produce a monocrystalline silicon cell, absolutely pure semiconducting material is necessary. Monocrystalline rods are extracted from melted silicon and then sawed into thin plates. This production process guarantees a relatively high level of efficiency. The production of polycrystalline cells is more cost-efficient. In this process, liquid silicon is poured into blocks that are subsequently sawed into plates. During solidification of the material, crystal structures of varying sizes are formed, at whose borders defects emerge. silicon film is deposited on glass or another substrate material, this is a socalled amorphous or thin layer cell. The layer thickness amounts to less than 1m (thickness of a human hair: 50-100 m), so the production costs are lower due to the low material costs. However, the efficiency of amorphous cells is much lower than that of the other two cell types. Because of this, they are primarily used in low power equipment (watches, pocket calculators) or as facade elements. Table 3.1: efficiency of different types of photovoltaic cells

Material Monocrystalline Silicon Polycrystalline Silicon Amorphous Silicon

Level of efficiency in % Lab approx. 24 approx. 18 approx. 13

Level of efficiency in % Production 14 to17 13 to15 5 to7

Department of EEE

Page 19

PHOTOVOLTAIC DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

3.4 PV Cell circuit model and equations

Fig 3.5 PV Cell circuit model Where, ISC = short circuit current ID = diode current VD = diode voltage RP = parallel resistance RS = series resistance Applying KCL,

(3.1)

Department of EEE

Page 20

PHOTOVOLTAIC DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

Diode characteristics,

(3.2)
Applying KVL,

(3.3)

3.5 Current input PV module model

Fig 3.6: Current input PV module

Department of EEE

Page 21

PHOTOVOLTAIC DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

3.6 Masked current input PV module

The simulink model of the current input pv module shown in fig 3.6 is masked as a sub system with inputs as current (I pv) and insolation and outputs as voltage (VPV) and power (PPV).

Fig 3.7: Masked current input PV module

3. 7 Variation of PV module output with insolation

The above model is used to simulate the performance of PV cell for various insolation levels. The results are presented in the fig 3.8 (a) and fig 3.8 (b)

(a)

(b) Fig 3.8: Output characteristics of PV module

Department of EEE

Page 22

PHOTOVOLTAIC DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

From fig 3.8 (b), it is seen that the output power of a PV module is directly proportional to the insolation levels. A typical daily insolation curve is shown in fig 3.9. So, the output of a PV module and hence that of a PVDG attains its peak value during that period when insolation is maximum. This has to be considered when considering the size of a PVDG.

Fig 3.9: A typical daily insolation curve

Department of EEE

Page 23