Both crude oil and natural gas are mixtures of molecules formed by carbon and hydrogen atoms.

There are many different types of crude oils and natural gases, some more valuable than othen. Heavy crude oils are very thick and viscous and are difficult or impossible to produce, whereas light crude oils are very fluid and relatively easy to produce. Less valuable are sow crude oils that contain sulfur and sour natural gasses that contain hydrogen sulfide. Some natural gass bum with more heat than others, conrain natural gas liquids and gasoline, and are more valuable. In order to have a commercial deposit of gas or oil, three geological conditions must have been met. F t there musr be a source rock in the subi, surface of that area that generated the gas or oil at some time in the geological past. Second, there m s be a separate, subsurface reservoir rock ut to hold the gas or oil. Third, there must be a trap on the reservoir rock to concentrate the gas or oil inro commercial quantities. The u p p e w s t crust of the earth in oil- and gas-producing areas is composed of sedimentary rock layers. Sedimentary rocks are the source and reservoir r& for gas and oil. These rocks are called sedimentary rocks because they are composed of sediments. Sediments arc I) parrides such as sand grains that were formed by the breakdown of pre-existing rocks and The transported, 2) seashells, or 3) salt that precipirated from of wate~ sedimentary rocks that make up the earth's crust are millions and sometimes

Nonteohnlcal Guide to Petmleum Geology, Exploration, Drilling, and Production

Introduction

biions of years old. During the vast expanse of geological time, sea level has not been constant. Many times in the past, the seas have risen to cover the land and then fallen to expose the land. During these times, sediments were deposited. These sediments are relatively simple materials such as sands deposited along beaches, mud on the sea bottom, and beds of seashells. These ancient sediments, piled layer upon layer, form the sedimentary rocks that are drilled to find and produce oil and gas. The source of gas and oil is the organic matter that is buried and preserved in the ancient sedimentary rodts. These rocks contain not only inorganic partides such as sand grains and mud, but also dead plant and animal material. The most common organic-rich sedimentary rock (the source rock for most of the gas and oil) is black shale. It was deposited as organic-rich mud on an ancient ocean bottom. In the subsurface, temperature is the most important factor in turning organic matter into oil. As the source rock is covered with more sediments and buried deeper in the eacth, it becomes hotter and hotter. The minimum temperature for the formation of oil, about 150F (65-C), occurs at a depth of about 7000 ft (2130 m) below the surface [Fig. 1-1). O is generated from there and down m about i l 3006F (150C) at about 18,000 ft (5500 m). The reactions that change organic matter into oil are complex and take a long time. If the source rock is buried deeper where the temperatures are above 300F (150C), the remaining organic matter will generate natural gas. Gas and oil are relatively light in density compared to water that also occurs in the subsurface sedimentary rocks. After oil and gas have been generated, they rise due to buoyancy through fractures in the subsurface rocks The rising gas and oil can intersect a layer of reservoir rock A teservoir rock is a sedimentary rock that contains billions of tiny spaces called pores. A common sedimentary rock is sandsrone composed of sand grains similar to the rand grains on a beach or i n a river channel. Sand grains are There l i e spheres, and there is no way the grains will fit together ~erfectl~. are pore spaces between the sand grains on a beach and in a sandstone rock. Limestone, another common sedimentary rock, is deposited as shell beds or reefs, and there are pores between the shells and corals. The gas and oil flow into the pores of the reservoir rock layer.

F g C1 Generation and migration o gas and oil i. f

Any fluid (wafer, gas, br oil), either on the su& or i the s u b s u k , n will al-ys ilow along the path of least resisrance, the easiest route. In tke substieface, the pa& of least resistance is along a reservoir rock layer. This ir becawe most of the pore spaca interconnect, and the fluid can flow F o rm pore to pore to pore up the angle of thP rock layer toward the scufaee. The ease in which the fluid can flow through the rack is called pemcabiIity. and the movement of the gas and ail up the angle of the reervoir re& t d the surface is called migration. Because of migration, the gas and oil can end up a considerable disranm, both vmically and briaondy, from when it was origindy formed. (Fig. 1-1) As the gag and oil migrate8 up dong the resewair rock, it can encounter a mp, A uap is abigh point in the -ok raJr where the gas or oil is stopped trnd concentrated. Becaw the pores in &e reservoir rock are flledkt~ water, tbe gas and oil w9L &owto the highest part of the re.servo$ rock One rgpe of tmp is a n a n d arch in the refayoir rodt (ig. 1-21 d u d a dome or antidine. In the trap, the fluids separate according to their density. The gas is the lightest and goes to the t s p of the trap to form the free gas cap.