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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction
The aim of development of this project is towards providing efficient and simple method for control speed of DC motor using pulse width modulation technique. There are several methods for controlling the speed of DC motors. One simple method is to add series resistance using a rheostat. As considerable power is consumed in the rheostat, this method is not economical. Another method is to use a series switch that can be closed or opened rapidly. This type of control is termed as chopper control. The PWM based chopper circuit smoothly controls the speed of general purpose DC motors. To get desired modulation of pulse width as output, we have the modulation of pulse width is obtained using 89S52 microcontrollers.

The speed of DC motor is given by relations

N= (V-IaRa)/kf

Thus there are three general methods of speed control of d.c. motors which are

Armature resistance control

Field flux control method

Armature voltage control

1.2 Why PWM?


Pulse width Modulation or PWM is one of the powerful techniques used in control systems today. They are employed in wide range of control application which includes: speed control, power control, measurement and communication.

PWM can run multiple parellel motor.

Motor can run smoothly even at low speed.

1.3 Basic Principle of PWM


Modulation means to vary something. Pulse Width modulation means to vary the width of pulses to obtain desired output voltage. Pulse-width Modulation is achieved with the help of a square wave whose duty cycle is changed to get a varying voltage output. mathematical explanation of this is given below A

Ton is the time for which the output is high and

Toff is time for which output is low.

Let Ttotal be time period of the wave such that,

FIG.1.1 square waveform 3

Duty cycle of a square wave is defined as

The output voltage varies with duty cycle as

So we can see from the final equation the output voltage can be directly varied by varying the Ton value.

2. SPEED CONTROL OF DC MICRO MOTOR

2.1 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

The circuit described here is a linear regulator circuit. Transistors T1 and T2 form a darlington pair. Diode D2 is used to stabilise the voltage across preset VR1. The speed can be varied by the preset. This circuit makes the motor voltage constant for 15% voltage variation. Thus it can be operated in a range of 175V to 260V AC supply with a suitable battery eliminator.

For certain motors modification may be required in the RFC used here. Transistor T1 needs a good aluminium heatsink.

FIG.2.1 basic block diagram

However, for a complex speed control of DC motor, a sensor with feedback system is necessary, a shown above.

Fig 2.2 Series regulator If for a high load the current increases, the current sensor supplies error voltage through feedback system and error amplifier controls the output voltage to motor through series regulator.

The Circuit given is a simple series regulator. The preset should be set to maximum load of motor, i.e. at 'Play' or 'Record' mode of cassette deck.

The design was tried by me and found working satisfactorily on stereo cassette deck. For any problem of speed the following arrangement may be done on preset.

Adjust these presets to get perfect speed of motor.The reverse direction of motor may be achieved by the following arrangement.

Fig. 2.3 DPDT Switch

2.2 COMPONENTS USED


SEMICONDUCTORS:

1. 2. 3. 4.

T1................................2N3055NPN T2................................SL100 NPN D1...............................1N4001 D2................................6.2V 400mW ZENER

RESISTOR:

1. 2. 3. 4.

R1................................47K 0.5W R2...............................2.2K R3...............................100K VR1............................10K PRESET

CAPACITOR:

1. 2.

C1..............................1000 25V C2..............................220 12V

Fig.2.4 Circuit diagram speed control dc motor

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3. TEMPERATURE SENSOR

3.1 Thermistor
Thermistors are inexpensive, easily-obtainable temperature sensors. They are easy to use and adaptable. Circuits with thermistors can have reasonable outout voltages - not the millivolt outputs thermocouples have. Because of these qualities, thermistors are widely used for simple temperature measurements. They're not used for high temperatures, but in the temperature ranges where they work they are widely used.

Thermistors are temperature sensitive resistors. All resistors vary with temperature, but thermistors are constructed of semiconductor material with a resistivity that is especially sensitive to temperature. However, unlike most other resistive devices, the resistance of a thermistor decreases with increasing temperature. That's due to the properties of the semiconductor material that the thermistor is made from. For some, that may be counterintuitive, but it is correct. Here is a graph of resistance as a function of temperature for a typical thermistor. Notice how the resistance drops from 100 kW, to a very small value in a range around room temperature.

FIG.3.1 characteristic of thermistor 11

3.2 Why Use Thermistors To Measure Temperature?


They are inexpensive, rugged and reliable. They respond quickly

3.3 How Does A Thermistor's Resistance Depend Upon Temperature?


The Steinhart-Hart equation gives the reciprocal of absolute temperature as a function of the resistance of a thermistor. Using the Steinhardt-Hart equation, you can calculate the temperature of the thermistor from the measured resistance. The Steinhardt-Hart equation is: 1/T = A + B*ln(R) + C*(ln(R))3 R in W, T in oK The constants, A, B and C can be determined from experimental measurements of resistance, or they can be calculated from tabular data. Here are some data points for a typical thermistor from "The Temperature Handbook" (Omega Engineering, Inc., 1989). (By the way, when you refer to this thermistor, you would say it has 5kW at room temperature.)

T (oC) 0 25 50

R (W) 16,330 5000 1801

Using these values, we can get three equations in A, B and C. (1/273) = A + B ln(16330) + C (ln(16330))3 (1/298) = A + B ln(5000) + C (ln(5000))3 12

(1/323) = A + B ln(1801) + C (ln(1801))3 This set of simultaneous linear equations can be solved for A, B and C. Here are the values computed for A, B and C. A = 0.001284 B = 2.364x 10-4 C = 9.304x 10-8 Using these values you can compute the reciprocal, and therefore the temperature, from a resistance measurement. Using these values for A, B and C we obtain a plot of resistance vs. Kelvin temperature.

FIG.3.2 Plot of resistance vs. Kelvin temperature obtained from above solution

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3.4 Getting the temperature from resistance


If you have a resistance value - and that is what you will measure electrically - you then need to solve for the temperature. Use the reciprocal of the equation above, and you will get: T = 1/[A + B*ln(R) + C*(ln(R))3] R in W, T in oK However, if the thermistor is embedded in a circuit - like a voltage divider, for example then you will have to measure electrical quantities - usually voltage - and work back from that electrical measurement. There will be situations where you need to measure a higher temperature than a thermistor can work in. Or you may need more precision than a thermistor can give. Consider a thermocouple or and integrated circuit sensor like the LM35.

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4. ADAPTING 3-TERMINAL VOLTAGE REGULATORS FOR CONSTANT HIGH VOLTAGE POWER SUPPLIES

One can get a constant high-voltage power supply using inexpensive 3-terminal voltage regulators through some simple techniques described below. Depending upon the current requirement, a reasonable load regulation can be achieved. Line regulation in all cases is equal to that of the voltage regulator used.

Though high voltage can be obtained with suitable voltage boost circuitry using ICs like LM 723, some advantages of the circuits presented below are: simplicity, low cost, and practically reasonable regulation characteristics. For currents of the order of 1A or less, only one zener and some resistors and capacitors are needed. For higher currents, one pass transistor such as ECP055 is needed. Before developing the final circuits, let us first understand the 3-terminal type constant voltage regulators. Let us see the schematic in Fig. where 78XX is a 3-terminal voltage regulator.

FIG.4.1 Schematic for obtaining low-voltage regulated output using 3-terminal voltage regulators.

Rectified and filtered unregulated voltage is applied at VIN and a constant voltage appears between pins 2 and 2 of the voltage regulator. *The distribution of two currents in the circuit (IBIAS and ILOAD) is as shown. 16

*It is highly recommended to use the two capacitors as shown. Electrically regulator will be at a distance from the rectifier supply. Thus, a tantalum grade capacitor of 5mf and rated voltage is good. Electrolytic capacitor is not suitable for it is poor in response to load transients, which have high frequency components. At the output side a 0.22mf disc ceramic capacitor is useful to eliminate spurious oscillations, which the regulator might break into because of its internal high gain circuitry.

These voltage regulators have a typical bias current of 5 mA, which is reasonably constant. By inserting a small resistor Rx between pin 2 and ground, the output voltage in many cases. By this method voltage increment of 5 to 10 per cent is practically feasible. However, if a high-value resistance is used to obtain a higher output voltage, a slight variation in bias current will result in wide variation of the output voltage. Now let us see that what can be done to get a higher but constant output voltage. If to the circuit of Fig. resistor RY and zener Vz are added as shown in Fig., the output voltage is now given by

VOUT=VR+VZ + IBIAS RX

A constant current flows through RY** because VOUT is constant, and small variations in IBIAS do not change practically the operating point of Vz. This situation is like constant current biasing of zener, which results in a very accurate setting of the zener voltage.

**As long a sVIN>VOUT+2 volts, VOZ is constant from the reasoning current through RY is constant.

of Fig, and thus

VOZ=VR + IBIAS Rx

Here the pin 2 of the regulator is raised above ground by Vz + IBIAS Rx. Thus, any combination of zener with a proper selection of RY can be used.

For example, Let VR=+15 V for 7815 17

IBIAS=5mA

VZ=39V (standard from ECIL) For a standard 400mW zener of ECIL make, IZ MAX=10 mA. Thus, if we let pass 5mA through RY to make a 55-volt supply

55 - 39 RY = -------------- =3.2k3.3k 5 x 10-3 55 - 39 15 RX = --------------------- = 200 ohm 5 x 10-3 IBIAS

FIG.4.2 SCHEMATIC FOR CONSTANT HIGH-VOLTAGE POWER SUPPLIES

It should be noted here that the maximum input voltage allowed for 78XX regulators is 35V between pins 1 and 2. We see that the actual voltage betweens pin 1 and 2 of the regulator in this circuit is

VIN - VZ - IBIAS RX

It is therefore necessary that VIN be so chosen that voltage between pins 1 and 2 of the IC does not exceed the maximum rating. Also, a high input-output differential voltage VINVOUT means more power dissipation in the series-pass element, the regulator. Thus, with proper selection of the input transformer voltage and capacitor, this should be minimized. 18

For example, if 7805 is used, VR equals + 5V and VZ is 40V, so VOUT=45 volts. For 7805, the maximum input voltage is 35 V and the minimum 7V. Therefore, VIN MAX = 45 + 35 - 5 = 75 VOLTS VIN MIN = 45 + 7 - 5 = 47 VOLTS

Thus, from no-load to full-load condition, the unregulated input voltage-including peak ripple-should be within these limits. This gives a margin of 75-47, i.e. 28 volt. Hence, the designer can work out the maximum transformer voltage from the no-load input voltage chosen on the upper side.

The capacitor's value can be determined from the full load unregulated voltage chosen. Roughly, per 100mA current, 100mf capacitor gives 1-volt peak-to-peak ripple. Hence, capacitor's value can be determined for the desired current.

This circuit will have an excellent load and line regulation. For shot-circuit protection, it is recommended to use a fast-blow fuse of suitable value. Although the regulator has inherent short-circuit protection, the maximum current differs from device to device. Adequate heat sink should be used with the regulator.

FIG.4.3 Schematic for constant high-voltage power supplies providing currents in excess of one ampere

Now if currents in excess of 1A are needed, the circuit shown in fig. is useful. This circuit is similar to that in Fig. except that a pass transistor ECP055 is added besides a 0.5-ohm or 19

more resistor. This transistor bypasses the excessive current. By selecting proper Rz the ratio of two currents passing through the regulator and transistor can be altered.

This circuit will show load and live regulation within 1% and will function properly for VIN-VOUT as low as 4 volt. For short-circuit protection, a fast blow fuse is recommended as this circuit does not have inherent short-circuit protection. Adequate heat sink is to be used for the pass transistors. For negative voltages, use 79XX series regulators and ECN055 as the pass transistor. Some advantages of the circuits described above are: the lowest cost among comparable performance circuits, ability to work at low input-output differential, and flexibility in design for various applications.

So audio enthusiasts, if you are troubled by hum emanating from your power amplifier, try this inexpensive alternative for power supply.

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5. COMPONENTS USED IN PROJECT

5.1 DC Motor
According to Faradays, that electricity could be used to produce motion, to build the world first electric motor in 1821. Ten years later, using the same logic in reverse, faraday was interested in getting the motion produced by oersteds experiment to be continuous, rather then just a rotatory shift in position. In his experiments, faraday thought in terms of magnetic lines of force. He visualized how flux lines existing around a current carrying wire and a bar magnet. He was then able to produce a device in which the different lines of force could interact a produce continues rotation. The basic faradays motor uses a freeswinging wire that circles around the end of a bar magnet. The bottom end of the wire is in a pool of mercury. Which allows the wire to rotate while keeping a complete electric circuit.

FIG. 5.1.1 GENERAL DC MOTOR ARRANGEMENT

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BASIC MOTOR ACTION

Although Faraday's motor was ingenious. It could not be used to do any practical work. This is because its drive shaft was enclosed and it could only produce an internal orbital motion. It could not transfer its mechanical energy to the outside for deriving an external load. However it did show how the magnetic fields of a conductor and a magnet could be made to interact to produce continuous motion. Faradays motor orbited its wire rotor must pass through the magnets lines of force

FIG. 5.1.2 motor action

When a current is passes through the wire ,circular lines of force are produced around the wire. Those flux lines go in a direction described by the left-hand rule. The lines of force of the magnet go from the N pole to the S pole You can see that on one side of the wire, the magnetic lines of force are going in the opposite direction as a result the wire, s flux lines oppose the magnets flux line since flux lines takes the path of least resistance, more lines concentrate on the other side of the wire conductor, the lines are bent and are very closely spaced. The lines tend to straighten and be wider spaced. Because of this the denser, curved field pushes the wire in the opposite direction.

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The direction in which the wire is moved is determined by the right hand rule. If the current in the wire went in the opposite direction. The direction of its flux lines would reverse, and the wire would be pushed the other way.

Rules for motor action:-

The left hand rule shows the direction of the flux lines around a wire that is carrying current. When the thumb points in the direction of the magnetic lines of force. The right hand rule for motors shows the direction that a current carrying wire will be moved in a magnetic field. When the forefinger is pointed in the direction of the magnetic field lines, and the centre finger is pointed in the direction of the current in the wire the thumb will point in the direction that the wire will be moved.

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FIG. 5.1.3 FARADAY LAW TORQUE AND ROTATORY MOTION:-

In the basic action you just studied the wire only moves in a straight line and stops moving once out of the field even though the current is still on. A practical motor must develop a basic twisting force called torque loop. We can see how torque is produced. If the loop is connected to a battery. Current flows in one direction one side of the loop, and in the opposite direction on the other. Therefore the concentric direction on the two sides.

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If we mount the loop in a fixed magnetic field and supply the current the flux lines of the field and both sides of the loop will interact, causing the loop to act like a lever with a force pushing on its two sides in opposite directions. The combined forces result in turning force, or torque because the loop is arranged to piot on its axis. In a motor the loop that moves in the field is called an armature or rotor. The overall turning force on the armature depends upon several factors including field strength armature current strength and the physical construction of the armature especially the distance from the loop sides to the axis lines. Because of the lever action the force on the sides are further from the axis; thus large armature will produce greater torques.

FIG. 5.1.4 loop axis

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FIG. 5.1.5 torque twisting

In the practical motor the torque determines the energy available for doing useful work. The greater the torque the greater the energy. If a motor does not develop enough torque to pull its load it stalls.

Producing Continuous Rotation:-

The armature turns when torque is produced and torque is produced as long as the fields of the magnet and armature interact. When the loop reaches a position perpendicular to the field, the interaction of the magnetic field stops. This position is known as the neutral plane. In the neutral plane, no torque is produced and the rotation of the armature should stop; however inertia tends to keep a moving object in the motion even after the prime moving force is removed and thus the armature tends to rotate past the neutral plane. But when the armature continues o the sides of the loop start to swing back in to the flux lines, and apply a force to push the sides of the loop back and a torque is developed in the opposite direction. Instead of a continuous rotation an oscillating motion is produced until the armature stops in the neutral plane.

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FIG. 5.1.6 armature reaction

To get continuous rotation we must keep the armature turning in the same direction as it passes through the neutral plane .We could do this by reversing either the direction of the 28

current flow through the armature at the instant the armature goes through the neutral pole. Current reversals of this type are normally the job of circuit switching devices. Since the switch would have to be synchronized with the armature, it is more logical to build it into the armature then in to the field. The practical switching device, which can change the direction of current flow through an armature to maintain continuous rotation, is called a commutator.

THE COMMUTATOR

For the single-loop armature, the commutator is simple. It is a conducting ring that is split into two segment with each segment connected to an end of the armature loop. Power for the armature from an external power source such as a battery is brought to the commutator segments by means of brushes. The arrangement is almost identical to that for the basic dc generator. The logic behind the operation of the commutator is easy to see in the figures. You can see in figure A that current flows into the side of the armature closest to the South Pole of the field and out of the side closest to the North Pole. The interaction of the two fields produces a torque in the direction indicated, and the armature rotates in that direction. No torque is produced but the armature continues to rotate past the neutral plane due to inertia. Notice that at the neutral position the commutator disconnects from the brushes sides of the loop reverse positions. But the switching action of the commutator keeps the direction of current flow through the armature the same as it was in the figure. A. Current still flows into the armature side that is now closest to the South Pole. Since the magnets field direction remains the same throughout the interaction of fields after commutation keeps the torque going in the original direction; thus the same direction of rotation is maintained. As you can see in figure D, Inertia again carries the armature past neutral to the position shown in the fig. A while communication keeps the current flowing in the direction that continues to maintain rotation. In this way, the commutator keeps switching the current through the loop, so that the field it produces always interacts with the pole field to develop a continuous torque in the same direction. 29

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Fig.5.1.7 Preasentation of torque production

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THE ELEMANTARY D-C MOTOR

At this point, you have been introduced to the four principal parts that make up the elementary D.C motor. These parts are the same as those you met in your study of the basic D.C generator .a magnetic field, a movable conductor, a commutator and brushes. In practice, the magnetic field can be supplied by a permanent magnet or by an electromagnet. For most discussions covering various motor operating principles, we will assume that a permanent magnet is used at other times when it is important for you to understand that the field of the motor is develop electrically, we will show that an electromagnet is used. In either case, the magnetic field itself consists of magnetic flux lines that form a closed magnetic circuit. The flux lines leave the north pole of the magnet, extend across the air gap between the poles of the magnet, enter the South Pole and then travel through the magnet itself back to the north pole. The movable conductor, usually a loop, called armature, therefore is in the magnetic field. When D.C motor is supplied to the armature through the brushes and commutator, magnetic flux is also build up around the armature. It is this armature flux that interacts with the magnetic field in which the armature is suspended to develop the torque that makes the motor operate.

Fig. 5.1.8 commutator and Brushes arrangement

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5.2 CAPACITORS

It is an electronic component whose function is to accumulate charges and then release it. To understand the concept of capacitance, consider a pair of metal plates which all are placed near to each a battery is other without touching. If connected to these plates one and the negative pole

the positive pole to

to the other, electrons from the battery will be attracted from the plate connected to the positive terminal of the battery. If the battery is then disconnected, one plate will be left with an excess of electrons, the other with a shortage, and a potential or voltage difference will exists between them. These plates will be acting as capacitors. Capacitors are of two types: (1) fixed type like ceramic, polyester, electrolytic capacitors-these names refer to the material they are made of aluminium foil. (2) Variable type like gang condenser in radio or trimmer. In fixed type capacitors, it has two leads and its value is written over its body and variable type has three leads. Unit of measurement of a capacitor is farad denoted by the symbol F. It is a very big unit of capacitance. Small unit capacitor are pico-farad denoted by pf (Ipf=1/1000,000,000,000 f) Above all, in case of electrolytic capacitors, it's two terminal are marked as (-) and (+) so check it while using capacitors in the circuit in right direction. Mistake can destroy the capacitor or entire circuit in operational.

Fig.5.2.1 Different type of capacitors 33

5.3 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

An op amp is a high-gain, direct-coupled differential linear amplifier whose response characteristics are externally controlled by negative feedback from the output to the input. OP amps, widely used in computers, can perform mathematical operations such as summing, integration, and differentiation. OP amps are also used as video and audio amplifiers, oscillators, etc. in the communication electronics. Because of their versatility op amps are widely used in all branches of electronics both in digital and linear circuits. OP amps lend themselves readily to IC manufacturing techniques. Improved IC manufacturing techniques, the op amp's adaptability, and extensive use in the design of new equipment have brought the price of IC ops amps from very high to very reasonable levels. These facts ensure a very substantial role for the IC op amp in electronics. Fig shows the symbol for an op amp. Note that the operational amplifier has two inputs marked (-) and (+). The minus input is the inverting input. A signal applied to the minus terminal will be shifted in phase 180 at the output. The plus input is the non-inverting input. A signal applied to the plus terminal will appear in the same phase at the output as at the input. Because of the complexity of the internal circuitry of an op amp, the op amp symbol is used exclusively in circuit diagrams.

Fig. 5.3.1 Op-amp IC-741

An operational amplifier often referred to as op Amp, is a very high gain high performance amplifier designed to amplify ac and dc signal voltages. Modern integrated circuit technology and large-scale production techniques have brought down the prices of such

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amplifiers within reach of all amateurs, experimenters and hobbyists. The Op Amp is now used as a basic gain element, like an elegant transistor, in electronic circuits.

A symbol used to represent an operational amplifier in schematics is shown in fig. The operational amplifier has two inputs and only one output. One input is called the inverting input and is denoted by a minus sign. A signal applied to this input appears as an amplified but phase inverted the signal output. The second input is called a non-inverting input and is denoted by a plus sign. A signal applied to this input appears at the output as an amplified signal, which has the same phase as that of the input signal.

The availability of two input terminals simplifies feedback circuitry and makes the operational amplifier a highly versatile device. If a feedback is applied from the output to the inverting input terminal, the result is a negative feedback, which gives a stable amplifier with precisely controlled gain characteristics. On the other hand, if the feedback is applied to the non-inverting input, the result is positive feedback, which gives oscillators and multivibrator. Special effects are obtained by combination of both types of feedback.

Fig. 5.3.2 Pin configuration

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NEGATIVE FEEDBACK CONTROL

Fig. 5.3.3 Negative feedback control

The above figure shows the basic circuit, including the negative feedback loop of an op amp. The output is fed back to the inverting input terminal in order to provide negative feedback for the amplifier. The input signal is applied to the inverting input. As a result, the output will be inverted. It is possible to operate the op amp as a non-inverting amplifier by applying the signal to the plus input. In this circuit the feedback network is still connected to the inverting input.

For the circuit of op amp showing negative feedback loop, the output of the amplifier is defined as -RF Vout= -------- Vin RR

Vout

RF = Vin + (1 + ---- ) RR

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OP AMP OPERATED AS NONINVERTING AMPLIFIER

The minus sign indicates that the sign of the output is inverted as compared to the input. The equation for the gain of this amplifier is

RF Gain = ------RR

For the non inverting amplifier

RF Vout = Vin (1 + -----) RR

and its gain is RF 1 + ----RR Equations indicate that the output voltage is dependent only on the ratio of the feedback resistors RF and RR and that the gain of the op amp is dependent only on these resistors.

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Fig. 5.3.4 OP Op amp operated as a voltage follower

VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER:-

A non inverting op amp with negative feedback has a stable voltage gain, high input impedance, and low output impedance. Ideally, this circuit approaches a perfect voltage amplifier described by these equations:Vout Vin Zin = Zout= 0 In an ideal voltage amplifier, the gain is constant. Furthermore, the input impedance is infinite, which means the amplifier will not load the circuit driving it. Also, the zero output impedance means the amplifier can drive the small resistive loads without a decrease in voltage gain. With a 741, we can build a voltage amplifier that approaches the ideal. If AOL/ACL is greater than 1000, the input impedance is in mega ohms and the output impedance is in fractions of an ohm. 38 R2 R1

------- = ------- + 1

Fig. 5.3.5 VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER

VOLTAGE-TO-CURRENT CONVERTER:-

The given figure shows another feedback circuit. Notice that the feedback is negative because the returning voltage opposes the input voltage. A mathematical analysis of this circuit shows that it acts approximately like a perfect voltage-to-current converter, a circuit with these equations:Vin iout = -----R Zin = Zout= 0 In a perfect voltage-to-current converter, the output current depends only on the input voltage and the value of R. For instance, if Vin = 2V and R=1k, then 2V = --------- = 2 mA 1k The infinite input impedance means the voltage-to-current converter will not load down the circuit driving it. Also, the infinite output impedance implies the circuit acts like a current source; it will force exactly 2 mA through any load resistance. iout

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One application of the voltage-to-current converter is in building an electronic voltmeter. The outstanding advantage of this type of voltmeter is its extremely high input impedance. The high input impedance means it will not disturb the circuit whose voltage is being measured.

Fig. 5.3.6 VOLTAGE-TO-CURRENT CONVERTER

CURRENT AMPLIFIER

The figure illustrates the fourth type of negative feedback. Analysis of this circuit shows it acts approximately like a perfect current amplifier with these equations:-

iout ------iin Zin = 0 Zout =

R2 = ------ + 1 R1

A perfect current amplifier provides current gain rather than voltage gain. Furthermore, it has zero input impedance, which means it will not disturb the circuit driving it. Also, the infinite output impedance means it can force a fixed value of current through any size load resistance.

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Fig. 5.3.7 CURRENT AMPLIFIER

CURRENT-TO-VOLTAGE CONVERTOR The figure illustrates a third type of negative feedback. A mathematical analysis shows that this circuit acts approximately like a perfect current-to-voltage converter. One described by these equations:

Vout = R x iin Zin = Zout = In a perfect current-to-voltage converter, the output voltage depends only on the input current and the value of R. For example, if iin=5mA and R = 1 k, then Vout = 1k x 5 mA = 5V The zero input impedance means the converter looks like a perfect current sink (ground). The zero output impedance means the circuit will produce 5 V, no matter how small the load resistance. One application of the current-to-voltage converter is building an electronic ammeter. The outstanding advantage of this type of ammeter is its extremely low input impedance. Since 41

ammeters are connected in series, the almost zero input impedance will not disturb whose current is being measured.

Fig. 5.3.8 Current to voltage converter

In the circuit, the op amp is connected as an algebraic summer. It can be seen that if RF=R1=R2, the output voltage V0= -(V1+V2) The output voltage is the sum of the input voltages with the sign inverted. If the input voltages of with the sign inverted. If the input voltages are of opposite sign, the circuit acts to invert and subtract the input voltages. Fox example, if V1= +3V and V2=-2.5V, then V0= - (+3-2.5)= -0.5 V The output voltage can be made equal to the sum of a desired ratio of input voltages, depending on the values of RF, R1 and R2. For example, if RF=2R1=3R2, then since RF RF - ( ----- V1 + ------- V2) R1 R2

V0=

V0= - (2V1 + 3V1)

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The operational amplifier connected as a summer can be modified to provide three or more inputs.

RF x R R R= --------------RF + RR R is connected to the non inverting input to compensate for possible input-bias error. The resistance of both inverting and non inverting inputs is equalized.

Fig. 5.3.9 Operational amplifier connected as a summer.

OP-AMP SPECIFICATIONS

The manufacturer provides a circuit diagram, a basic diagram and specifications for each op amp type, including performance graphs. The 741 is available in two grades, the military (M) and commercial (C). It also comes in different packages. The manufacturer lists the following maximum ratings for the 741HC:

Supply voltage Internal power dissipation Differential input voltage 43

18 V 500 mW 30 V

The following characteristics are also of interest to the technician and designer.

Input bias current Input resistance Input voltage range Common-mode rejection ratio for RS 10 K Output resistance Output short-circuit current Supply current Power consumption Large-signal voltage gain, RL 2 K and Vout = 10 V Output voltage swing, RL 2K

800nA 0.3 to 2 M 13 V, typical

75 25 mA 2.8 mA, typical 85 mW, typical

15,000 13 V, typical

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Fig. 5.3.9 Equivalent Circuit

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5.4 DIODE

The simplest semiconductor device is made up of a sandwich of P-type semiconducting material, with contacts provided to connect the p-and n-type layers to an external circuit. This is a junction Diode. If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type material (cathode) and the negative terminal to the N-type material (Anode), a large current will flow. This is called forward current or forward biased.

If the connections are reversed, a very little current will flow. This is because under this condition, the p-type material will accept the electrons from the negative terminal of the battery and the N-type material will give up its free electrons to the battery, resulting in the state of electrical equilibrium since the N-type material has no more electrons. Thus there will be a small current to flow and the diode is called Reverse biased. Thus the Diode allows direct current to pass only in one direction while blocking it in the other direction. Power diodes are used in concerting AC into DC. In this, current will flow freely during the first half cycle (forward biased) and practically not at all during the other half cycle (reverse biased). This makes the diode an effective rectifier, which convert ac into pulsating dc. Signal diodes are used in radio circuits for detection. Zener diodes are used in the circuit to control the voltage.

Fig. 5.4.1 Different types of diode 46

Some common diodes are:-

1. Zener diode.

2. Photo diode.

3. Light Emitting diode

ZENER DIODE

A zener diode is specially designed junction diode, which can operate continuously without being damaged in the region of reverse break down voltage. One of the most important applications of zener diode is the design of constant voltage power supply. The zener diode is joined in reverse bias to d.c. through a resistance R of suitable value.

PHOTO DIODE:

A photo diode is a junction diode made from photo- sensitive semiconductor or material. In such a diode, there is a provision to allow the light of suitable frequency to fall on the pn junction. It is reverse biased, but the voltage applied is less than the break down voltage. As the intensity of incident light is increased, current goes on increasing till it becomes maximum. The maximum current is called saturation current.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED) When a junction diode is forward biased, energy is released at the junction diode is forward biased, energy is released at the junction due to recombination of electrons and holes. In case of silicon and germanium diodes, the energy released is in infrared region. In the junction diode made of gallium arsenate or indium phosphide, the energy is released in visible region. Such a junction diode is called a light emitting diode or LED.

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5.5 TRANSISTOR
The name is transistor derived from transfer resistors indicating a solid state Semiconductor device. In addition to conductor and insulators, there is a third class of material that exhibits proportion of both. Under some conditions, it acts as an insulator, and under other conditions its a conductor. This phenomenon is called Semi-conducting and allows a variable control over electron flow. So, the transistor is semi conductor device used in electronics for amplitude. Transistor has three terminals, one is the collector, one is the base and other is the emitter, (each lead must be connected in the circuit correctly and only then the transistor will function). Electrons are emitted via one terminal and collected on another terminal, while the third terminal acts as a control element. Each transistor has a number marked on its body. Every number has its own specifications. There are mainly two types of transistor (i) NPN & (ii) PNP

NPN Transistors When a positive voltage is applied to the base, the transistor begins to conduct by allowing current to flow through the collector to emitter circuit. The relatively small current flowing through the base circuit causes a much greater current to pass through the emitter / collector circuit. The phenomenon is called current gain and it is measure in beta.

PNP Transistor:It also does exactly same thing as above except that it has a negative voltage on its collector and a positive voltage on its emitter.

Fig. 5.5.1 Symbols of transistor 48

Transistor is a combination of semi-conductor elements allowing a controlled current flow. Germanium and Silicon is the two semi-conductor elements used for making it. There are two types of transistors such as POINT CONTACT and JUNCTION TRANSISTORS. Point contact construction is defective so is now out of use. Junction triode transistors are in many respects analogous to triode electron tube.

A junction transistor can function as an amplifier or oscillator as can a triode tube, but has the additional advantage of long life, small size, ruggedness and absence of cathode heating power.

Junction transistors are of two types which can be obtained while manufacturing. The two types are: -

PNP TYPE:This is formed by joining a layer of P type of germanium to an N-P Junction

Fig. 5.5.2 PNP Type

NPN TYPE:- This is formed by joining a layer of N type germanium to a P-N Junction.

Fig. 5.5.3 NPN Type 49

Both types are shown in figure, with their symbols for representation. The centre section is called the base, one of the outside sections-the emitter and the other outside section-the collector. The direction of the arrowhead gives the direction of the conventional current with the forward bias on the emitter. The conventional flow is opposite in direction to the electron flow.

OPERATION OF PNP TRANSISTOR:-

A PNP transistor is made by sand witching two PN germanium or silicon diodes, placed back to back. The centre of N-type portion is extremely thin in comparison to P region. The P region of the left is connected to the positive terminal and N-region to the negative terminal i.e. PN is biased in the forward direction while P region of right is biased negatively i.e. in the reverse direction as shown in Fig. The P region in the forward biased circuit is called the emitter and P region on the right, biased negatively is called collector. The centre is called base.

Fig. 5.5.4 Operation of PNP Type

The majority carriers (holes) of P region (known as emitter) move to N region as they are repelled by the positive terminal of battery while the electrons of N region are attracted by the positive terminal. The holes overcome the barrier and cross the emitter junction into N region. As the width of base region is extremely thin, two to five percent of holes recombine with the free electrons of N-region which result in a small base current while the remaining holes (95% to 98%) reach the collector junction. The collector is biased 50

negatively and the negative collector voltage aids in sweeping the hole into collector region.

As the P region at the right is biased negatively, a very small current should flow but the following facts are observed:-

1)

A substantial current flows through it when the emitter junction is biased in a forward direction.

2)

The current flowing across the collector is slightly less than that of the emitter, and

3)

The collector current is a function of emitter current i.e. with or increase in the emitter current a corresponding is observed.

the

decrease

change in the collector current

The facts can be explained as follows:-

1. As already discussed that 2 to 5% of the holes are lost in recombination with the electron n base region, which result in a small base current and hence the

collector current is slightly less than the emitter current.

2.

The collector current increases as the holes reaching the collector junction are attracted by negative potential applied to the collector.

3.

When the emitter current increases, most holes are injected into

the base region,

which is attracted by the negative potential of the collector and hence results in increasing the collector current. In this way emitter is analogous to the control of plate current by small grid voltage in a vacuum triode.

Hence we can say that when the emitter is forward biased and collector is negatively biased, a substantial current flows in both the circuits. 51

5.6 IC ULN 2003

The ULN2003 is high voltage, high current Darlington arrays each containing seven open collectors Darlington pairs with common emitters. Each channel rated at 500mA and can withstand peak currents of 600mA. Suppression diodes are included for inductive load driving and the inputs are pinned opposite the outputs to simplify board layout.

PACKAGE: -

2003A is supplied in 16 pin plastic DIP packages with a copper lead frame to reduce thermal resistance. ULN2003A: 06 15V CMOS , PMOS

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FIG. 5.6.1 IC ULN- 2003

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APPLICATIONS: -

These versatile devices are useful for driving a wide range of loads including solenoids, relays DC motors; LED displays filament lamps, thermal print heads and high power buffers.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM: -

Fig. 5.6.2 Schematic Diagram IC ULN-2003

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5.7 POWER SUPPLY

In alternating current the electron flow is alternate, i.e. the electron flow increases to maximum in one direction, decreases back to zero. It then increases in the other direction and then decreases to zero again. Direct current flows in one direction only. Rectifier converts alternating current to flow in one direction only. When the anode of the diode is positive with respect to its cathode, it is forward biased, allowing current to flow. But when its anode is negative with respect to the cathode, it is reverse biased and does not allow current to flow. This unidirectional property of the diode is useful for rectification. A single diode arranged back-to-back might allow the electrons to flow during positive half cycles only and suppress the negative half cycles. Double diodes arranged back-to-back might act as full wave rectifiers as they may allow the electron flow during both positive and negative half cycles. Four diodes can be arranged to make a full wave bridge rectifier. Different types of filter circuits are used to smooth out the pulsations in amplitude of the output voltage from a rectifier. The property of capacitor to oppose any change in the voltage applied across them by storing energy in the electric field of the capacitor and of inductors to oppose any change in the current flowing through them by storing energy in the magnetic field of coil may be utilized. To remove pulsation of the direct current obtained from the rectifier, different types of combination of capacitor, inductors and resistors may be also be used to increase to action of filtering.

NEED OF POWER SUPPLY Perhaps all of you are aware that a power supply is a primary requirement for the Test Bench of a home experimenters mini lab. A battery eliminator can eliminate or replace the batteries of solid-state electronic equipment and the equipment thus can be operated by 230v A.C. mains instead of the batteries or dry cells. Nowadays, the use of commercial battery eliminator or power supply unit has become increasingly popular as power source for household appliances like transreceivers, record player, cassette players, digital clock etc.

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THEORY:-

USE OF DIODES IN RECTIFIERS:

Electric energy is available in homes and industries in India, in the form of alternating voltage. The supply has a voltage of 220V (rms) at a frequency of 50 Hz. In the USA, it is 110V at 60 Hz. For the operation of most of the devices in electronic equipment, a dc voltage is needed. For instance, a transistor radio requires a dc supply for its operation. Usually, this supply is provided by dry cells. But sometime we use a battery eliminator in place of dry cells. The battery eliminator converts the ac voltage into dc voltage and thus eliminates the need for dry cells. Nowadays, almost all-electronic equipment includes a circuit that converts ac voltage of mains supply into dc voltage. This part of the equipment is called Power Supply. In general, at the input of the power supply, there is a power transformer. It is followed by a diode circuit called Rectifier. The output of the rectifier goes to a smoothing filter, and then to a voltage regulator circuit. The rectifier circuit is the heart of a power supply.

RECTIFICATION:-

Rectification is a process of rendering an alternating current or voltage into a unidirectional one. The component used for rectification is called Rectifier. A rectifier permits current to flow only during the positive half cycles of the applied AC voltage by eliminating the negative half cycles or alternations of the applied AC voltage. Thus pulsating DC is obtained. To obtain smooth DC power, additional filter circuits are required.

A diode can be used as rectifier. There are various types of diodes. But, semiconductor diodes are very popularly used as rectifiers. A semiconductor diode is a solid-state device consisting of two elements is being an electron emitter or cathode, the other an electron collector or anode. Since electrons in a semiconductor diode can flow in one direction only-from emitter to collector- the diode provides the unilateral conduction necessary for rectification. Out of the semiconductor diodes, copper oxide and selenium rectifier are also commonly used. 56

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

It is possible to rectify both alternations of the input voltage by using two diodes in the circuit arrangement. Assume 6.3 V rms (18 V p-p) is applied to the circuit. Assume further that two equal-valued series-connected resistors R are placed in parallel with the ac source. The 18 V p-p appears across the two resistors connected between points AC and CB, and point C is the electrical midpoint between A and B. Hence 9 V p-p appears across each resistor. At any moment during a cycle of vin, if point A is positive relative to C, point B is negative relative to C. When A is negative to C, point B is positive relative to C. The effective voltage in proper time phase which each diode "sees" is in Fig. The voltage applied to the anode of each diode is equal but opposite in polarity at any given instant.

When A is positive relative to C, the anode of D1 is positive with respect to its cathode. Hence D1 will conduct but D2 will not. During the second alternation, B is positive relative to C. The anode of D2 is therefore positive with respect to its cathode, and D2 conducts while D1 is cut off.

There is conduction then by either D1 or D2 during the entire input-voltage cycle. Since the two diodes have a common-cathode load resistor RL, the output voltage across RL will result from the alternate conduction of D1 and D2. The output waveform vout across RL, therefore has no gaps as in the case of the half-wave rectifier.

The output of a full-wave rectifier is also pulsating direct current. In the diagram, the two equal resistors R across the input voltage are necessary to provide a voltage midpoint C for circuit connection and zero reference. Note that the load resistor R L is connected from the cathodes to this center reference point C.

An interesting fact about the output waveform vout is that its peak amplitude is not 9 V as in the case of the half-wave rectifier using the same power source, but is less than 4 V.

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The reason, of course, is that the peak positive voltage of A relative to C is 4 V, not 9 V, and part of the 4 V is lost across R. BRIDGE RECTIFIER

A more widely used full-wave rectifier circuit is the bridge rectifier. It requires four diodes instead of two, but avoids the need for a centre-tapped transformer. During the positive half-cycle of the secondary voltage, diodes D2 and D4 are conducting and diodes D1 and D3 are non-conducting. Therefore, current flows through the secondary winding, diode D2, load resistor RL and diode D4. During negative half-cycles of the secondary voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, and the diodes D2 and D4 do not conduct. The current therefore flows through the secondary winding, diode D1, load resistor RL and diode D3. In both cases, the current passes through the load resistor in the same direction. Therefore, a fluctuating, unidirectional voltage is developed across the load.

Filtration:-

The rectifier circuits we have discussed above deliver an output voltage that always has the same polarity: but however, this output is not suitable as DC power supply for solid-state circuits. This is due to the pulsation or ripples of the output voltage. This should be removed out before the output voltage can be supplied to any circuit. This smoothing is done by incorporating filter networks. The filter network consists of inductors and capacitors. The inductors or choke coils are generally connected in series with the rectifier output and the load. The inductors oppose any change in the magnitude of a current flowing through them by storing up energy in a magnetic field. An inductor offers very low resistance for DC whereas; it offers very high resistance to AC. Thus, a series connected choke coil in a rectifier circuit helps to reduce the pulsations or ripples to a great extent in the output voltage. The fitter capacitors are usually connected in parallel with the rectifier output and the load. As, AC can pass through a capacitor but DC cannot, the ripples are thus limited and the output becomes smoothed. When the voltage across its plates tends to rise, it stores up energy back into voltage and current. Thus, the fluctuations in the output voltage are reduced considerable. Filter network circuits may be of two types in general: 58

CHOKE INPUT FILTER If a choke coil or an inductor is used as the first- components in the filter network, the filter is called choke input filter. The D.C. along with AC pulsation from the rectifier circuit at first passes through the choke (L). It opposes the AC pulsations but allows the DC to pass through it freely. Thus AC pulsations are largely reduced. The further ripples are by passed through the parallel capacitor C. But, however, a little nipple remains unaffected, which are considered negligible. This little ripple may be reduced by incorporating a series a choke input filters.

CAPACITOR INPUT FILTER If a capacitor is placed before the inductors of a choke-input filter network, the filter is called capacitor input filter. The D.C. along with AC ripples from the rectifier circuit starts charging the capacitor C. to about peak value. The AC ripples are then diminished slightly. Now the capacitor C, discharges through the inductor or choke coil, which opposes the AC ripples, except the DC. The second capacitor C by passes the further AC ripples. A small ripple is still present in the output of DC, which may be reduced by adding additional filter network in series.

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5.8 SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY

A popular type consists of seven small, bar-shaped LED segment arranged so that depending on which combinations are energized, the numbers 0 to 9 light up. All the LED cathodes (or sometimes anodes) are joined to form a common connection. Current limiting resistors are required (e.g. 270 ohms), preferably one per segment.

Fig. 5.8.1 Common cathode method of connecting an array of display elements.

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The main requirements for a suitable LED material are:1) 2) 3) It must have on energy gap of appropriate width. Both P and N types must exist, preferably with low resistivities. Efficient radioactive pathways must be present.

Generally, energy gaps greater than or equal to about 2 are required. Commercial LED materials:: Gallium arsenide (Ga As) doped with Si Gallium Phosphide (GaP) doped with N & Bi Gallium arsenide Phosphide (Ga As1-x Px) Gallium aluminium arsenide (Gax Al1-x As)

LED CONSTRUCTIONS

To reduce reflection losses in LEDs there are two obvious ways: -

a)

The first is to ensure that most rays strike the surface at less than the critical angle. This may be achieved by shaping the semiconductor /air interface into a hemisphere.

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b)

The second technique is to encapsulate the junction in a transparent medium of high refractive index. This is usually a plastic material with refractive index

of about 1.5. Moulding the plastic into an approximately hemispherical shape can minimize the losses at the plastic lair interface.

Fig. 5.8.2 Schematic diagram LED

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5.9 RESISTANCE

Resistance is the conductors represent a certain amount of resistance, since no conductor is 100% efficient. To control the electron flow (current) in a predictable manner, we use resistors. Electronic circuits use calibrated lumped resistance to control the flow of current. Broadly speaking, resistor can be divided into two groups viz. fixed & adjustable (variable) resistors. In fixed resistors, the value is fixed & cannot be varied. In variable resistors, the resistance value can be varied by an adjuster knob. It can be divided into (a) Carbon composition (b) Wire wound (c) Special type. The most common type of resistors used in our projects is carbon type. The resistance value is normally indicated by colour bands. Each resistance has four colours, one of the band on either side will be gold or silver, this is called fourth band and indicates the tolerance, others three band will give the value of resistance (see table). For example if a resistor has the following marking on it say red, violet, gold. Comparing these coloured rings with the colour code, its value is 27000 ohms or 27 kilo ohms and its tolerance is 5%. Resistor comes in various sizes (Power rating). The bigger, the size, the more power rating of 1/4 watts. The four colour rings on its body tells us the value of resistor value as given below. COLOURS CODE

Black ----------------------------------------------------- 0 Brown ---------------------------------------------------- 1 Red ------------------------------------------------------- 2 Orange --------------------------------------------------- 3 Yellow --------------------------------------------------- 4 Green ----------------------------------------------------- 5 Blue------------------------------------------------------- 6 Violet ----------------------------------------------------- 7 Grey ------------------------------------------------------ 8 White ----------------------------------------------------- 9

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Fig. 5.9.1 Different types of resistance

The first rings give the first digit. The second ring gives the second digit. The third ring indicates the number of zeroes to be placed after the digits. The fourth ring gives tolerance (gold 5%, silver 10%, No colour 20%).

In variable resistors, we have the dial type of resistance boxes. There is a knob with a metal pointer. This presses over brass pieces placed along a circle with some space b/w each of them.

Resistance coils of different values are connected b/w the gaps. When the knob is rotated, the pointer also moves over the brass pieces. If a gap is skipped over, its resistance is included in the circuit. If two gaps are skipped over, the resistances of both together are included in the circuit and so on.

A dial type of resistance box contains many dials depending upon the range, which it has to cover. If a resistance box has to read upto 10,000ohms, it will have three dials each having ten gaps i.e. ten resistance coils each of resistance 10k ohms. The third dial will have ten resistances each of 100k ohms.

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5.10 INFRARED LED

Gallium arsenide is a direct-gap semiconductor with an energy gap of 1.4eV at room temperature. A typical GaPs LED is made by solid-state impurity diffusion with zinc as the p-type impurity diffused into an n-type substate doped with tin, tellurium or silicon. The external efficiency at room temperature is typically 5 percent.

A GaAs diode can also be fabricated by liquid-phase epitaxy with silicon as both its n and p dopants. If a silicon atom replaces a Ga atom, it provides one additional electron, thus the resulting GaAs in as n-type. If a silicon atom replaces arsenic atoms, an electron is missing and the resulting GaAs is a p-type. In Si doped GaAs diode, the emission peak shifts down to 1.32eV. Since the emission is in infrared region, GaAs light sources are suitable for application such as the optical isolator. The high switching speed, with a recovery time between 2 and 10ns, makes them ideal for data transmission.

The disadvantages of the GaAs emitter are emitted wavelength and the associated attenuation an dispersion. A critical issue of using an LED for the fibre optics is the coupling of light from the semiconductor to the fibre. Because of the larger refractive index of GaAs relative to air, the internal efficiency of LED can be quite low.

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6. MAKING PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD (P.C.B.)

Making a Printed Circuit Board is the first step towards building electronic equipment by any electronic industry. A number of methods are available for making P.C.B., the simplest method is of drawing pattern on a copper clad board with acid resistant (etchants) ink or paint or simple nail polish on a copper clad board and do the etching process for dissolving the rest of copper pattern in acid liquid.

6.1 MATERIAL REQUIRED:The apparatus needs for making a P.C.B. is :* * * * * Copper Clad Sheet Nail Polish or Paint Ferric Chloride Powder. (Fecl) Plastic Tray Tap Water etc.

6.2 PROCEDURE:The first and foremost in the process is to clean all dirt from copper sheet with say spirit or trichloro ethylene to remove traces grease or oil etc. and then wash the board under running tap water. Dry the surface with forced warm air or just leave the board to dry naturally for some time.

Making of the P.C.B. drawing involves some preliminary consideration such as thickness of lines/ holes according to the components. Now draw the sketch of P.C.B. design (tracks, rows, square) as per circuit diagram with the help of nail polish or enamel paint or any other acid resistant liquid. Dry the point surface in open air, when it is completely dried, the marked holes in P.C.B. may be drilled using 1Mm drill bits. In case there is any

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shorting of lines due to spilling of paint, these may be removed by scraping with a blade or a knife, after the paint has dried. After drying, 22-30 grams of ferric chloride in 75 ml of water may be heated to about 60 degree and poured over the P.C.B. , placed with its copper side upwards in a plastic tray of about 15*20 cm. Stirring the solution helps speedy etching. The dissolution of unwanted copper would take about 45 minutes. If etching takes longer, the solution may be heated again and the process repeated. The paint on the pattern can be removed P.C.B. may then be washed and dried. Put a coat of varnish to retain the shine. Your P.C.B. is ready.

6.3 REACTION:Fecl3 + Cu ----- CuCl3 + Fe Fecl3 + 3H2O --------- Fe (OH)3 + 3HCL

6.4 PRECAUTION:1. Add Ferric Chloride (Fecl3) carefully, without any splashing. Fecl3 is irritating to the skin and will stain the clothes. 2. 3. Place the board in solution with copper side up. Try not to breathe the vapours. Stir the solution by giving see-saw motion to the

dish and solution in it. 4. Occasionally warm if the solution over a heater-not to boiling. After some time the

unshaded parts change their colour continue to etch. Gradually the base material will become visible. Etch for two minutes more to get a neat pattern. 5. Don't throw away the remaining Fecl3 solution. It can be used again for next

Printed Circuit Board P.C.B.

6.5 USES:Printed Circuit Board are used for housing components to make a circuit for compactness, simplicity of servicing and case of interconnection. Thus we can define the P.C.B. as : 68

Prinked Circuit Boards is actually a sheet of bakelite (an insulating material) on the one side of which copper patterns are made with holes and from another side, leads of electronic components are inserted in the proper holes and soldered to the copper points on the back. Thus leads of electronic components terminals are joined to make electronic circuit. In the boards copper cladding is done by pasting thin copper foil on the boards during curing. The copper on the board is about 2 mm thick and weights an ounce per square foot. The process of making a Printed Circuit for any application has the following steps (opted professionally): * * * Preparing the layout of the track. Transferring this layout photographically M the copper. Removing the copper in places which are not needed, by the process of etching (chemical process)

6.6 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD:Printed circuit boards are used for housing components to make a circuit, for comactness, simplicity of servicing and ease of interconnection. Single sided, double sided and double sided with plated-through-hold (PYH) types of p.c boards are common today. Boards are of two types of material (1) phenolic paper based material (2) Glass epoxy material. Both materials are available as laminate sheets with copper cladding. Printed circuit boards have a copper cladding on one or both sides. In both boards, pasting thin copper foil on the board during curing does this. Boards are prepared in sizes of 1 to 5 metre wide and upto 2 metres long. The thickness of the boards is 1.42 to 1.8mm. The copper on the boards is about 0.2 thick and weighs and ounce per square foot.

Fig.6.1 Basic PCB 69

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7. MICROCONTROLLER-BASED TACHOMETER

A tachometer is nothing but a simple electronic digital transducer. Normally, it is used fro measuring the speed of a rotating shaft. The number of revolutions per shaft minute (rpm) is valuable information for understanding any rotational system, For example, there is an optimum speed fro drilling a particular-size hole in a particular metal piece; there is an in a particular metal piece; there is an ideal sanding disk speed that depends on the material being finished. You may also want to measure the speed of fans you use. This easy-to-make photoelectric tachometer measures the rpm of most shop-floor tools and many household machines without any mechanical or electrical interface.

7.1 HOW IT WORKS?


Just point the light-sensitive probe tip atop the spinning shaft towards the spinning blade, disk or chuck and read the rpm. The only requirement is that you first place a contrasting colour mask. A strip of white adhesive tape is ideal on the spinning object. Position it such that the intensity of light reflected from the objects surface changes as it rotates. Each time the rape spins past the probe, the momentary increase in reflected light is detected by the phototransistor. The signal processor and microcontroller circuit counts the increase in the number of such light reflections sensed by it and thereby evaluates the rpm, which is displayed on the 4-digit, 7-segment display.

The phototransistor is kept inside a plastic tube, which has a convex lens fitted at one end. A convex lens of about 1cm diameter and 8-10cm focal length is a common item used by watch repairers and in cine film viewer toys. It can be obtained from them to set up the experiment . the phototransistor is fixed on a piece of cardboard such that it faces the lens at a distance of about 8 cm. The leads from the phototransistor are taken out and connected in the circuit shown in Fig.7. 1. Fig 7. 2 shows the suitable arrangement of phototransistor.

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Fig.7.1 Suitable arrangement of phototransistor

Fig7.2: Pin configuration of transistor BC 557

The detected signal is amplified by transistor 2N2222 (T5) and further amplified by operational amplifier CA3140 (IC3). The reference voltage point for the operational amplifier is obtained by resistor divider network comprising R2 and R3. The output from pin 6 of IC3 is fed to pin 12 of microcontroller AT89C2051. Note that pins 12 and 13 of microcontroller AT89C2051 are the inputs (+and-) of its internal analogue comparator. Pin

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13 is adjusted to nearly half the supply voltage using a potential divider comprising resistor R7 and preset VR1 across the supply.

The pulses picked up by the phototransistor are sensed by the internal comparator of ATC2051 and , through software, each pulse representing one rotation of the object is detected. By counting the number of such pulses, on and average per minute basis, the RPM is evaluated. It is displayed by a software routine to light up the LED segments of the 4-digit, 7-segment display.

7.2 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION


Fig. 7.3 shows the circuit of the microcontroller-based tachometer. The tachometer comprises AT89C2051 microcontroller, ULN2003 high-current Darlington transistor array, CA3140 operational amplifier, common-anode 7-segment (4-digit multiplexed) display and its four anode-driving transistor. The AT89C2051 is a 20-pin 8-bit microcontroller of Inters 8051 family made by Atmel Corporation. Port-1 pins P1L-7 are connected to input pins 1 through 7 of ULN2003. Port1 pins are pulled up with 10-kilo-ohm resistor network RNW1. They drive all the seven segment of the display with the help of internal inverters.

Port-3 pins P3.0 through P3-3 of the microcontroller are connected to the base of transistor T1 through T4, respectively, to select one digit out of the four at a time and to supply anode-drive currents to the common anode pin of respective digit. Pin configuration of transistor BC557 is shown in Fig. 7.2.

When pin P3.0 of microcontroller IC1 goes low, it drives transistor T1 into saturation, which provides the drive current to anode pin 6 of 4-digit, 7-segment, common-an-ode pins 8, 9 and 12 of DIS1. Thus microcontroller IC1 drives the segment in multiplexed manner using its port pins. This is time division multiplexing process.

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Segment data and display-enable pulse for display are refreshed every 5ms. Thus, the display appears to be continuous even though it light up one by one. Switch S1 is used to manually reset the microcontroller, while the power-on-reset signal for the microcontroller is given by C1 and R6. A 12MHZ crystal is connected to pins 4 and 5 of ICI to generate the basic clock frequency for the microcontroller. The circuit uses a 6V battery for supply or alternatively a mains derived low voltage supply.

An actual-size, single-side PCB layout for the tachometer (Fig. 7.3) is shown in Fig. 7.4 and its components layout in Fig. 7.5.

Fig. 7.3 Circuit of microcontroller based tachometer

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Fig. 7.4 A single-side, actual-size PCB layout for microcontroller based tachometer

Fig. 7.5 Component layout for the PCB 75

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8. RESET CIRCUITRY

8.1 Introduction
Pin no 9 of the controller is connected to the reset circuit. On the circuit we connect one resistor and capacitor circuit to provide a reset option when power is on as soon as you give the power supply the 8051 doesnt start. You need to restart for the microcontroller to start. Restarting the microcontroller is nothing but giving a Logic 1 to the reset pin at least for the 2 clock pulses. So it is good to go for a small circuit which can provide the 2 clock pulses as soon as the microcontroller is powered.

This is not a big circuit we are just using a capacitor to charge the microcontroller and again discharging via resistor.

Fig. 8.1 RESET CIRCUITRY

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9. DIRECTION CONTROL OF MOTOR USING CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

9.1 Crystal Oscillator


Pin no 18 and 19 is connected to external crystal oscillator to provide a clock to the circuit. Crystals provide the synchronization of the internal function and to the peripherals. Whenever ever we are using crystals we need to put the capacitor behind it to make it free from noises. It is good to go for a 33pf capacitor.

Fig. 9.1 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

We can also resonators instead of costly crystal which are low cost and external capacitor can be avoided. But the frequency of the resonators varies a lot. And it is strictly not advised when used for communications project.

We connect four switches for increment, decrement, clockwise and anticlock wise option. With the help of these switches we increase or decrease the speed of motor. At the same time we turn the motor for clockwise and anticlock wise operation. Motor is connected to the pin no 21, 22 of the controller via inverter IC and H bridge .For inverter we use IC 4049 and for Motor control we use two transistor circuit. As we vary the speed, PWM is varied and data is to be displayed on the LCD module. Here we use 2 by 16 LCD. Pin no 2 79

is connected to positive line and pin no 1 is connected to the. Data from the controller is connected to the pin no 7 to 14 of the LCD. Pin no 4, 5, 6 is connected to the pin no 26, 27, 28 of the LCD.

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10. CONCLUSION

By controlling speed of DC motor based on temperature it can be utilized for different applications. Speed can be controlled by various methods but PWM technique is the most efficient one and in this project we have used that method. The power consumption is reduced as the fan runs at high speed only at high temperature not always. This paper is the best source to know how speed of DC motor is controlled based on temperature using PWM technique.

9.1 WHAT WE ACHIEVED


We LEARNT a lot. Constructed the mechanism and circuits by applying the basic principles. Got the idea of selecting the suitable rating of components for efficient operation of the circuit. Controlled the speed of DC motor

9.2 APPLICATION AND FUTURE ASPECTS

Industries are using this concept to control the temperature of of high capacity machines from heating. This concept is inexpensive and is widely used by many organization in regulating the surrounding temperature. It is used in automobiles as exhaust fan that controls the temperature of vehicle machinery. PWM technique also eliminates harmonics. In regulating the temperature of computer this technology can be used. The concept is used in telecom industry, textile industry, leather industry, and in heavy plants. 82

REFERENCES

1. Electonics For You, December 2009 2. Fink, D G and H W Beaty, Standard Handbook of Electrical Engineers, 11th edition, Mcgraw- Hill, Newyork,1978. 3. General Electric Co, General Electric SCR Manual, 5th edition, Syracuse,USA,1972. 4. Deltoro ,V, Principles of Electrical Engineering,2nd edition, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi, 1979. 5. Kothari, D P and I J Nagrath, Basic Electrical Engineering, 3rd edition, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi,2010.

6. Websites- google, wikipedia, IEEE.

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