Pemilihan Bahan & Proses

R. Ariosuko Dh.

Modul 13 & 14

TUTORIAL

Dosen:

R. Ariosuko Dh., Ir.

Dosen:

R. Ariosuko Dh., Ir.

Email: musario@gmx.net

Website: www16.brinkster.com/radh Jurusan Teknik Mesin Universitas Mercu Buana Program D3 - PKSM

Dzulhijjah 1423 H
Last update 10 January 2004

Pemilihan Bahan & Proses

R. Ariosuko Dh.

Tujuan Tutorial
Tutorial bertujuan membantu memperkenalkan beberapa ide kunci sbb: What is product analysis? How do we choose between different materials? How are material selection charts used? How is a processing route chosen? Can the likely costs of competing processing routes be compared?

Each of these sections can be accessed individually in any order, but on a first read we recommend starting at the beginning.

Pemilihan Bahan & Proses

R. Ariosuko Dh.

Product Analysis
Everyday we use thousands of different products, from telephones to bikes and drinks cans to washing machines. But have you ever thought about how they work or the way they are made? Every product is designed in a particular way - product analysis enables us to understand the important materials, processing, economic and aesthetic decisions which are required before any product can be manufactured. An understanding of these decisions can help us in designing and making for ourselves.

Getting started The first task in product analysis is to become familiar with the product! What does it do? How does it do it? What does it look like? All these questions, and more, need to be asked before a product can be analysed. As well as considering the obvious mechanical (and possibly electrical) requirements, it is also important to consider the ergonomics, how the design has been made userfriendly and any marketing issues - these all have an impact on the later design decisions. Let's take the example of a bike:
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What is the function of a bicycle? How does the function depend on the type of bike (e.g. racing, or about-town, or child's bike)? How is it made to be easily maintained? What should it cost? What should it look like (colours etc.)? How has it been made comfortable to ride? How do the mechanical bits work and interact?

If you do this exercise for various products, you will very quickly discover something interesting... Systems and components There are 2 main types of product - those that only have one component (e.g. a spatula) and those that have lots of components (e.g. a bike). Products with lots of components we call systems. For example: Product Bike Drill Multi-gym Components Frame, wheels, pedals, forks, etc. ? ?

In product analysis, we start by considering the whole system. But, to understand why various materials and processes are used, we usually need to 'pull it apart' and think about each component as well. We can now analyse the function in more detail and draft a design specification.

Pemilihan Bahan & Proses Some important design questions To build a design specification, consider questions like the following:
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R. Ariosuko Dh.

What are the requirements on each part (electrical, mechanical, aesthetic, ergonomic, etc)? What is the function of each component, and how do they work? What is each part made of and why? How many of each part are going to be made? What manufacturing methods were used to make each part and why ? Are there alternative materials or designs in use and can you propose improvements?

These are only general questions, to act as a guide - you will need to think of the appropriate questions for the products and components you have to analyse. For a drinks container, a design specification would look something like:
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provide a leak free environment for storing liquid comply with food standards and protect the liquid from health hazards for fizzy drinks, withstand internal pressurisation and prevent escape of bubbles provide an aesthetically pleasing view or image of the product if possible create a brand identity be easy to open be easy to store and transport be cheap to produce for volumes of 10,000+

Once we have a specification, the next stage in the process is to understand how the materials are chosen. Choosing the right materials Given the specification of the requirements on each part, we can identify the material properties which will be important - for example: Requirement must conduct electricity must support loads without breaking cannot be too expensive Material Property electrical conductivity ? ?

One way of selecting the best materials would be to look up values for the important properties in tables. But this is time-consuming, and a designer may miss materials which they simply forgot to consider. A better way is to plot 2 material properties on a graph, so that no materials are overlooked - this kind of graph is called a materials selection chart (these are covered in another part of the tutorial). Once the materials have been chosen, the next step is normally to think about the processing options. Choosing the right process It is all very well to choose the perfect material, but somehow we have to make something out of it as well! An important part of understanding a product is to consider how it was made - in other 3

Pemilihan Bahan & Proses

R. Ariosuko Dh.

words what manufacturing processes were used and why. There are 2 important stages to selecting a suitable process:
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Technical performance: can we make this product with the material and can we make it well? ?? Economics: if we can make it, can we make it cheaply enough? Process selection can be quite an involved problem - we deal with one way of approaching it in another part of the tutorial. So, now we know why the product is designed a particular way, why particular materials are used and why the particular manufacturing processes have been chosen. Is there anything else to know? Final remarks Product analysis can seem to follow a fixed pattern: 1. Think about the design from an ergonomic and functional viewpoint. 2. Decide on the materials to fulfil the performance requirements. 3. Choose a suitable process that is also economic. Whilst this approach will often work, design is really holistic - everything matters at once - so be careful to always think of the 'bigger picture'. For example:
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Is the product performance driven or cost driven? This makes a big difference when we choose materials. In a performance product, like a tennis racquet, cost is one of the last factors that needs to be considered. In a non-performance product, like a drinks bottle, cost is of primary importance - most materials will provide sufficient performance (e.g. although polymers aren't strong, they are strong enough). ?? Although we usually choose the material first, sometimes it is the shape (and hence process) which is more limiting. With window frames, for example, we need long thin shaped sections - only extrusion will do and so only soft metals or polymers can be used (or wood as it grows like that!). Next: Choosing between different materials. Back: Goals of the tutorial.

Pemilihan Bahan & Proses

R. Ariosuko Dh.

Pemilihan dari Berbagai Macam Material

There are three main things to think about when choosing materials (in order of importance): 1. Will they meet the performance requirements? 2. Will they be easy to process? 3. Do they have the right 'aesthetic' properties? We deal with the processing aspects of materials in a different part of the tutorial. For now it is sufficient to note that experienced designers aim to make the decisions for materials and processes separately together to get the best out of selection. The choice of materials for only aesthetic reasons is not that common, but it can be important: e.g. for artists. However, the kind of information needed is difficult to obtain and we won't deal with this issue further here. So that leaves us with performance requirements... Most products need to satisfy some performance targets, which we determine by considering the design specification.e.g. they must be cheap, or stiff, or strong, or light, or perhaps all of these things... Each of these performance requirements will influence which materials we should choose - if our product needs to be light we wouldn't choose lead and if it was to be stiff we wouldn't choose rubber! So what we need is data for lots of material properties and for lots of materials. This information normally comes as tables of data and it can be a time-consuming process to sort through them. And what if we have 2 requirements - e.g. our material must be light and stiff - how can we trade-off these 2 needs? The answer to both these problems is to use material selection charts.

Pemilihan Bahan & Proses

R. Ariosuko Dh.

Here is a materials selection chart for 2 common properties: Young's modulus (which describes how stiff a material is) and density. On these charts, materials of each class (e.g. metals, polymers) form 'clusters' or 'bubbles' that are marked by the shaded regions. We can see immediately that:
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metals are the heaviest materials, ?? foams are the lightest materials, ?? ceramics are the stiffest materials. But we could found that out tables given a bit time, although by covering many materials at a glance, competing materials can be quickly identified. Where selection charts are really useful is in showing the tradeoff between 2 properties, because the charts plot combinations of properties. For instance if we want a light and stiff material we need to choose materials near the top left corner of the chart - so composites look good. Note that the chart has logarithmic scales each division is a multiple of 10; material properties often cover have from of

Pemilihan Bahan & Proses such huge ranges that log scales are essential.

R. Ariosuko Dh.

There are a selection charts for many combinations of material properties, e.g. 'strength - toughness' and 'electrical resitivity - cost'. The next section shows how we can take selection chart further...

Next: Using the charts Back: Goals of the tutorial.

Pemilihan Bahan & Proses

R. Ariosuko Dh.

Penggunaan Diagram Seleksi Material

Consider a design problem where the specification is for a component that is both light and stiff (e.g. the frame of a racing bicycle). To find the best materials we need to use the Young's modulus - density chart from amongst the available charts. The charts can be annotated to help reveal the 'best' materials, by placing a suitable selection box to show only stiff and light materials. What can we conclude?
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The values of Young's modulus for polymers are low, so most polymers are unlikely to be useful for stiffnesslimited designs. ?? Some metals, ceramics and woods could be considered - but composites appear best of all. This still leaves quite a lot of choices, so what might be considered next to narrow the choice further?

Pemilihan Bahan & Proses

R. Ariosuko Dh.

It is unlikely that only 2 material properties matter, so what other properties are important? Let's consider strength and cost - these properties are plotted as another chart. What can we conclude?
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The strength of ceramics is only sufficient for loading in compression they would not be strong enough in tension, including loading in bending. ?? Woods may not be strong enough, and composites might be too expensive. ?? Metals appear to 9

Pemilihan Bahan & Proses give good overall performance Once we have identified a promising class of materials, we need to decide which members of this class are the best for instance which metals? Selection charts can also be used to select between members of a given class by populating it with the main materials. For instance, we can do this for metals in the stiffness-density chart. What can we conclude?
??

R. Ariosuko Dh.

Some metals look very good for light, stiff components e.g. magnesium, aluminium, titanium, while others are clearly eliminated e.g. lead. ?? Steels have rather a high density, but are also very stiff. Given their high strength and relatively low cost, they are likely to compete with the other metals.

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Pemilihan Bahan & Proses [View this chart interactively. But don't forget to come back here!] Let's summarise what we've learnt about materials selection.

R. Ariosuko Dh.

Summary:
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By considering 2 (or more) charts, the properties needed to satisfy the main design requirements can be quickly assessed. ?? The charts can be used to identify the best classes of materials, and then to look in more detail within these classes. ?? There are many other factors still to be considered, particularly manufacturing methods. The selection made from the charts should be left quite broad to keep enough options open. A good way to approach the problem is to use the charts to eliminate materials which will definitely not be good enough, rather than to try and identify the single best material too soon in the design process. Next: How are processing routes chosen? Back: Goals of the tutorial

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Pemilihan Bahan & Proses

R. Ariosuko Dh.

Bagaimana suatu jalur proses dipilih?

The selection of a suitable process to manufacture a component is not a straightforward matter. There are many factors which need to be considered, for example: size of component, material to be processed and tolerance on dimensions. Whilst all processes have slightly different capabilities, there is also a large overlap - for many components there are a large number of processes which would do the job okay. So, where do we start? Material compatibility In product analysis (and a lot of design work), the material to be processed is often known before the process to be used has been decided. This makes life a little easier as the first thing we can do now is check what processes can be used for our chosen material - i.e. which are compatible. For convenience, processes can be split up into:
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Metal shaping: e.g. forging, rolling, casting Polymer shaping: e.g. blow moulding, vacuum forming Composite forming: e.g. hand lay-up Ceramic processing: e.g. sintering Machining: e.g. grinding, drilling Joining: e.g. soldering, gluing

We can then use a material-process compatibility table to determine which processes are suitable.
+ : routine
? : difficult X : unsuitable Polymer extrusion Polymer Shaping Compression moulding Injection moulding Blow moulding Milling Grinding Machining Drilling Cutting Fasteners Solder / braze Joining Welding Adhesives Polymer ABS UF (thermoplastic) (thermoset) Wood Pine

+ + + + +
X

+ ?
X X X

+ + + + +
X X

+ + +
X

? ? +
X X

+ +

These tables show whether a particular material-process combination is routine, difficult or unsuitable. Using this table we can usually narrow down our choice of processing options, but how can we go further? Technical performance The next stage is to assess the various technical aspects of each process to see whether they will perform well. For example: 12

Pemilihan Bahan & Proses

??

R. Ariosuko Dh.

Can we make something this size? For instance, you can't die-cast an engine block - it's too big. ?? Is the processes suitable for the shape we need? For example: tubes are long and thin so ideal for extrusion but not casting; and you can't blow-mould a telephone case because of all the holes in it! ?? Will we get the finish we want? Both dimensional tolerance (accuracy) and surface roughness (smoothness) are strongly influenced by which process is used, for instance sand casting is poor for both whilst die-casting is very good. ?? How good will the quality be? This is the most difficult problem to address and usually there is little that can be said without actually trying it! However, we can sometimes make rough comparisons - for instance sand castings can often be porous and so might not be very strong. All this kind of information can only be obtained by reading descriptions of the various processes and then making informed decisions - of course experience helps! Once all the processes that can perform well have been identified, the final step is to compare the costs of the various options... Next: Compare the costs of competing manufacturing routes. Back: Goals of the tutorial.

The approach to process selection given here is, of course, not the only one possible - it is geared towards the processing information provided on the TEP CD-ROM and constitutes a reasonable approach at this level. Many processing routes involve a series of manufacturing steps (e.g. cast, machine, grind and drill), but this is beyond the scope of our discussion.

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Pemilihan Bahan & Proses

R. Ariosuko Dh.

Perbandingan biaya jalur-jalur proses

There are many costs involved in the making and selling of a product, these include:
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Research Advertising Packaging Distribution Manufacturing

For different products, the importance of each contribution will vary. Note that the cost is not the same as the price - the difference is the manufacturer's profit! Here we are only interested in the manufacturing cost - the other costs are not likely to be affected much by our choice of process. So how can we go about estimating how much it might cost to make a product? The easiest way is to notice that the basic manufacturing cost has 3 main elements:
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Material cost The material cost per component depends on the size of the component. We may assume that (for a given component) the same amount of material is used for all processes: Material cost per part = constant (same value for all processes)

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Startup cost All new products have one-off startup costs, such as special tools or moulds which have to be made. This cost only occurs once, so it is shared between all the total number of components made - the 'batch size': Startup cost per part = one-off cost batch size (gets less for bigger batches and is different for each process)

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Running cost Many manufacturing costs will be charged at an hourly rate, such as energy and manpower. In addition the capital cost of the machine must be "written off" over several years, which can also be regarded as an hourly cost - the same would apply if instead a machine was rented. The share of this hourly running cost per part depends on how many parts are made per hour, the production rate: Running cost per part = hourly cost production 14

Pemilihan Bahan & Proses rate (constant, but different for each process) The total cost is the sum of these 3 cost elements.

R. Ariosuko Dh.

Well that's a nice curve, it shows that something will cost less if we make more, but how does it help? Process cost data Each process has a range of values for one-off costs, hourly costs and production rate - these values can be obtained from data sheets. A particular value from this range can be chosen depending on what item is to be made. Factors in this choice include component size and complexity, but choosing sensible values needs some experience. To illustrate how this works, let's compare 2 casting processes - sand casting and die casting. We know from experience that sand casting is only used for small batches and die casting for large batches - plotting the cost curves for these 2 processes should show us why this is the case.

The data (which we have obtained from data sheets) for the manufacture of a small part by each of the casting processes looks something like this... DATA One-off cost Hourly cost Sand casting 100 30/hour Die casting 2,000 35/hr 500 parts/hour

Production rate 100 parts/hour

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R. Ariosuko Dh.

From this data we can see that the running costs and startup costs must be: Batch size 100 100,000 Running costs (= hourly cost production rate) Startup costs (=one-off cost batch size) 100 100 parts = 100p per part 100 10000 parts = 1p per part 2000 100 parts = 20 per part 2000 10000 parts = 20p per part

COSTS

Sand casting:

30/hour 100 parts/hour = 30p per part

100 Die casting: 100,000

35/hour 500 parts/hour = 7p per part

The startup cost varies with batch size, so we really need to work out the cost for each possible batch size. Let's assume that the material costs are 10p and put the whole lot together to work out the total cost... Process Sand casting: Die casting:
100

Material cost Running cost 10p 10p 30p 7p

Startup cost 100 100 = 100p 2000 100 = 2000p

Total cost 140p 2017p

Batch size:

Try entering different batch sizes to see how the total cost varies. At the starting batch size of 100, sand casting is cheaper than die casting. See if you can find out at approximately what batch size die casting becomes a cheaper option than sand casting. A simpler way of dealing with this information is to plot the total cost for each process on a graph...

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Pemilihan Bahan & Proses

R. Ariosuko Dh.

We can see immediately that:

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Sand casting is cheaper than die casting if only 5,000 parts are to be made. Die casting is cheaper than sand casting if more the 50,000 parts are to be made. Sand casting and die casting cost the same if around 9000 parts are to be made.

In practice, there will usually be lots of processes to compare, and so there will be a lot of curves to draw. If this all seems like hard work, then there's some GOOD NEWS! The 'Economic Batch Size' (EBS) Most of the time we can avoid working out the costs as we have just done (although it's helpful to know how it's done!). Instead, we can use the concept of when a process is economic. We can see from the graph above that sand casting is economic for batch sizes less than 9,000 and die casting is economic for batch sizes greater than 9,000. We could say that sand casting has an economic batch size of 0 to 9,000 and die casting has an economic batch size of 9,000+. Obviously this is only true when there are these 2 processes (sand casting and die casting), and they are manufacturing a small part. Even so, it is possible to generate a range of economic batch sizes for which a process is normally cost-effective. For instance forging has an EBS of about 10,000 components for small components and about 500 for larger components (because there are not so many competing processes for large components). So if we want to make 100,000 small components, forging is not unrealistic economically (although it is still possible another process might be even less costly). Although these figures are not as good as the actual costs worked out long-hand, they do provide any easy method of comparing processes to see if they will be cost-effective. There's one more thing to bear in mind...

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Pemilihan Bahan & Proses Final note

R. Ariosuko Dh.

We have assumed in our costing that the manufacturer has no extra reasons for choosing a process other than simple economics. But of course, this is often not the case and factors like:
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machinery that has already been paid for special deals with suppliers finding trained operators environmental considerations

will all affect the choice of the most economic process. For the purposes of product analysis, we can usually ignore these problems - in real life design, however, they can be very important and cannot be ignored. Back: Goals of the tutorial

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