Chapter 1

Introduction Introduction
Th d i A E i i A h 7th diti Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 7th edition
by Yunus A. engel and Michael A. Boles
Mehmet Kanoglu
1
Objectives
Identify the unique vocabulary associated with
thermodynamics through the precise definition of
basic concepts to form a sound foundation for the basic concepts to form a sound foundation for the
development of the principles of thermodynamics.
Review the metric SI and the English unit systems Review the metric SI and the English unit systems.
Explain the basic concepts of thermodynamics such
as system, state, state postulate, equilibrium, y p q
process, and cycle.
Review concepts of temperature, temperature scales,
d b l d pressure, and absolute and gage pressure.
Introduce an intuitive systematic problem-solving
technique
2
technique.
Nomenclature Nomenclature
A area (m
2
)
C specific heat at constant
K Kelvin degrees
k specific heat ratio C /C C
P
specific heat at constant
pressure (kJ/(kgK))
C
V
specific heat at constant volume
(kJ/(kgK))
COP coefficient of performance
k specific heat ratio, C
P
/C
V
k 10
3
k
t
thermal conductivity (W/(m-C))
M molecular weight or molar mass
(kg/kmol)
p
d exact differential
E stored energy (kJ)
e stored energy per unit mass
(kJ/kg)
(kg/kmol)
M 10
6
m mass (kg)
N moles (kmol)
n polytropic exponent (isentropic
F force (N)
g acceleration of gravity
( 9.807 m/s
2
)
H enthalpy (H= U + PV) (kJ)
h ifi th l (h + P )
n polytropic exponent (isentropic
process, ideal gas n = k)
q isentropic efficiency for turbines,
compressors, nozzles
q
th
thermal efficiency (net work
d /h t dd d) h specific enthalpy (h= u + Pv)
(kJ/kg)
h convective heat transfer
coefficient (W/(m
2
K)
done/heat added)
P pressure (kPa, MPa, psia, psig)
Pa Pascal (N/m
2
)
3
Nomenclature cont
X distance (m)
X exergy (kJ)
Q
net
net heat transfer (Q
in
- Q
out
)
(kJ)
Nomenclature con t
X exergy (kJ)
x quality
Z elevation (m)
W
net
net work done [(W
out
-
W
i
)
th
+ W
b
] (kJ) where W
b
=
(kJ)
q
net
Q
net
/m, net heat transfer per
unit mass (kJ/kg)
R particular gas constant
(kJ/(kgK))
}
2
PdV
W
in
)
other
+ W
b
] (kJ) where W
b

for closed systems and 0 for
control volumes
w
net
W
net
/m, net work done per unit
mass (kJ/kg)
W i ht (N)
R
u
universal gas constant
(= 8.314 kJ/(kmolK) )
S entropy (kJ/K)
s specific entropy (kJ/(kgK))
T t t ( C K F R)
}
1
PdV
W
t
weight (N)
inexact differential
c regenerator effectiveness
relative humidity
d it (k /
3
)
T temperature ( C, K, F, R)
U internal energy (kJ)
u specific internal energy
(kJ/(kg K))
V volume (m
3
)
density (kg/m
3
)
e humidity ratio
V volume (m
3
)
volume flow rate (m
3
/s)
velocity (m/s)
v specific volume (m
3
/kg)
molar specific volume (m
3
/kmol)

V
4
molar specific volume (m
3
/kmol)
v
Subscripts superscripts Subscripts, superscripts
A actual
B b d
P constant pressure
REF f i t B boundary
F saturated liquid state
G saturated vapor state
fg saturated vapor value
REF refrigerator
rev reversible
s isentropic or constant
entropy or reversible,
di b ti
g p
minus saturated liquid
value
gen generation
H high temperature
adiabatic
sat saturation value
v constant volume
1 initial state g p
HP heat pump
L low temperature
net net heat added to system
or net work done by system
2 finial state
i inlet state
e exit state
per unit time
or net work done by system
o other work done by shaft
and electrical means
per unit time
5
THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY
Thermodynamics: The science of energy.
Energy: The ability to cause changes.
The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek
words therme (heat) and dynamics (power) words therme (heat) and dynamics (power).
Conservation of energy principle: During an gy p p g
interaction, energy can change from one form to
another but the total amount of energy remains
constant.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
6
The zeroth law of thermodynamics:
Setting the thermodynamic temperature Setting the thermodynamic temperature
scale, if two objects are in thermal
equilibrium with a third reference object,
they themselves are at the same
temperature temperature.
The first law of thermodynamics: An
expression of the conservation of energy
principle principle.
The first law asserts that energy is a
thermodynamic property.
The second law of thermodynamics: It
Energy cannot be created or destroyed;
it can only change forms (the first law) The second law of thermodynamics: It
asserts that energy has quality as well
as quantity, and actual processes occur
in the direction of decreasing quality of
energy
it can only change forms (the first law).
energy.
It introduces the concept of entropy.
The third law of thermodynamics: It
states that at absolute zero temperature
7
states that at absolute zero temperature,
the entropy is zero. Therefore, absolute
zero temperature is unattainable.
Heat flows in the direction of
decreasing temperature.
Conservation of energy
principle for the h man bod
Classical thermodynamics: A macroscopic approach to the study of
thermodynamics that does not require a knowledge of the behavior of
principle for the human body.
individual particles.
It provides a direct and easy way to the solution of engineering problems
and it is used in this text.
Statistical thermodynamics: A microscopic approach, based on the
average behavior of large groups of individual particles.
It is used in this text only in the supporting role.
8
Application Areas of Thermodynamics
9
IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
Any physical quantity can be characterized by
dimensions.
The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions
are called units.
Some basic dimensions such as mass m,
length L, time t, and temperature T are
selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions while others such as velocity V dimensions, while others such as velocity V,
energy E, and volume V are expressed in
terms of the primary dimensions and are
called secondary dimensions, or derived y ,
dimensions.
Metric SI system: A simple and logical
system based on a decimal relationship
between the various units.
English system: It has no apparent
systematic numerical base, and various units
i hi l d h h h
10
in this system are related to each other rather
arbitrarily.
Some SI and English Units
The SI unit prefixes are used in all branches of engineering. The SI unit prefixes are used in all branches of engineering.
The definition of the force units. Work = Force Distance
1 J = 1 Nm
1 cal = 4 1868 J
11
1 cal = 4.1868 J
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ
W i ht W weight
m mass
g gravitational
acceleration
A body weighing
60 kgf on earth
will weigh only 10
kgf on the moon.
The relative magnitudes of the force The relative magnitudes of the force
units newton (N), kilogram-force
(kgf), and pound-force (lbf).
12
The weight of a unit
mass at sea level.
Dimensional homogeneity
All ti t b di i ll h
Unity Conversion Ratios
All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous.
All nonprimary units (secondary units) can be
formed by combinations of primary units.
Force units, for example, can be expressed as
They can also be expressed more conveniently They can also be expressed more conveniently
as unity conversion ratios as
To be dimensionally
Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and
are unitless, and thus such ratios (or their inverses)
b i t d i tl i t l l ti t
homogeneous, all the
terms in an equation
must have the same unit.
13
can be inserted conveniently into any calculation to
properly convert units.
SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES
System: A quantity of matter or a region System: A quantity of matter or a region
in space chosen for study.
Surroundings: The mass or region
outside the system y
Boundary: The real or imaginary surface
that separates the system from its
surroundings.
The boundary of a system can be fixed or
movable.
Systems may be considered to be closed
or open.
Closed system
(Control mass): (C )
A fixed amount
of mass, and no
mass can cross
its boundary
14
its boundary.
Open system (control volume): A properly
selected region in space.
It ll l d i th t i l It usually encloses a device that involves mass
flow such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle.
Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of
a control volume.
Isolated System: An isolated system is one in
which neither mass nor energy can cross the
boundaries of the system.
C t l f Th b d i f t l Control surface: The boundaries of a control
volume. It can be real or imaginary.
15
An open system (a
control volume) with one
inlet and one exit.
PROPERTIES
O S S OF A SYSTEM
Property: Any characteristic of a
system system.
Some familiar properties are
pressure P, temperature T, volume
V, and mass m.
Properties are considered to be
either intensive or extensive.
Intensive properties: Those that p p
are independent of the mass of a
system, such as temperature,
pressure, and density.
Extensive properties: Those
whose values depend on the size
or extentof the system.
Specific properties E tensi e
Criterion to differentiate intensive
16
Specific properties: Extensive
properties per unit mass.
Criterion to differentiate intensive
and extensive properties.
Continuum
Matter is made up of atoms that are
widely spaced in the gas phase. Yet
it is very convenient to disregard the
atomic nature of a substance and
view it as a continuous,
homogeneous matter with no holes,
that is, a continuum.
The continuum idealization allows us
to treat properties as point functions to treat properties as point functions
and to assume the properties vary
continually in space with no jump
discontinuities.
Thi id li ti i lid l This idealization is valid as long as
the size of the system we deal with
is large relative to the space
between the molecules.
Despite the large gaps between
molecules, a substance can be treated as
a continuum because of the very large
This is the case in practically all
problems.
In this text we will limit our
consideration to substances that can
a continuum because of the very large
number of molecules even in an
extremely small volume.
17
consideration to substances that can
be modeled as a continuum.
DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Specific gravity: The ratio
D it
Specific gravity: The ratio
of the density of a
substance to the density of
some standard substance
Density
at a specified temperature
(usually water at 4C).
Specific weight: The
Specific volume
p g
weight of a unit volume
of a substance.
Density is
mass per unit mass per unit
volume;
specific volume
is volume per
18
unit mass.
STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
Thermodynamics deals with
equilibrium states.
Equilibrium: A state of balance.
In an equilibrium state there are no In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving
forces) within the system.
Thermal equilibrium: If the
temperature is the same throughout
the entire system.
Mechanical equilibrium: If there is
no change in pressure at any point
A system at two different states.
no change in pressure at any point
of the system with time.
Phase equilibrium: If a system
involves two phases and when the
f h h h mass of each phase reaches an
equilibrium level and stays there.
Chemical equilibrium: If the
chemical composition of a system
19
p y
does not change with time, that is,
no chemical reactions occur.
A closed system reaching thermal
equilibrium.
The State Postulate
The number of properties
required to fix the state of a
system is given by the state y g y
postulate:
The state of a simple
compressible system is compressible system is
completely specified by
two independent,
i t i ti intensive properties.
Simple compressible
system: If a system involves y y
no electrical, magnetic,
gravitational, motion, and
surface tension effects.
The state of nitrogen is
fixed by two independent,
intensive properties.
20
surface tension effects.
PROCESSES AND CYCLES
Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to y g y g q
another.
Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states,
as well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
Quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium process: When a process proceeds in such
a manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state
at all times at all times.
21
Process diagrams plotted by
employing thermodynamic properties
as coordinates are very useful in as coordinates are very useful in
visualizing the processes.
Some common properties that are
used as coordinates are temperature
T P d l V ( T, pressure P, and volume V (or
specific volume v).
The prefix iso- is often used to
designate a process for which a g p
particularproperty remains constant.
Isothermal process: A process
during which the temperature T
remains constant remains constant.
Isobaric process: A process during
which the pressure P remains
constant.
Isochoric (or isometric) process: A
process during which the specific
volume v remains constant.
Cycle: A process during which the
The P-V diagram of a compression
process.
22
Cycle: A process during which the
initial and final states are identical.
The Steady-Flow Process
The term steady implies no The term steady implies no
change with time. The
opposite of steady is
unsteady, or transient.
D i t d
A large number of
engineering devices operate
for long periods of time
under the same conditions,
During a steady-
flow process, fluid
properties within
the control
and they are classified as
steady-flow devices.
Steady-flow process: A
process during which a fluid
volume may
change with
position but not
with time.
process during which a fluid
flows through a control
volume steadily.
Steady-flow conditions can
b l l i t d b be closely approximated by
devices that are intended for
continuous operation such
as turbines, pumps, boilers,
d d h t
23
condensers, and heat
exchangers or power plants
or refrigeration systems.
Under steady-flow conditions, the mass
and energy contents of a control volume
remain constant.
TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS THERMODYNAMICS
The zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with
each other each other.
By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can
be restated as two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the
same temperature reading even if they are not in contact. same temperature reading even if they are not in contact.
Two bodies reaching
thermal equilibrium
after being brought
24
into contact in an
isolated enclosure.
Temperature Scales
All temperature scales are based on
il d ibl t t h
P versus T plots
of the
some easily reproducible states such as
the freezing and boiling points of water:
the ice point and the steam point.
Ice point: A mixture of ice and water
that is in equilibrium with air saturated
of the
experimental
data obtained
from a constant-
volume gas
that is in equilibrium with air saturated
with vapor at 1 atm pressure (0C or
32F).
Steam point: A mixture of liquid water
and water vapor (with no air) in
ilib i t 1 t (100C
volume gas
thermometer
using four
different gases
at different (but
equilibrium at 1 atm pressure (100C or
212F).
Celsius scale: in SI unit system
Fahrenheit scale: in English unit
system
at different (but
low) pressures.
system
Thermodynamic temperature scale: A
temperature scale that is independent of
the properties of any substance.
Kelvin scale (SI) Rankine scale (E) Kelvin scale (SI) Rankine scale (E)
A temperature scale nearly identical to
the Kelvin scale is the ideal-gas
temperature scale. The temperatures
on this scale are measured using a
t t l th t
25
constant-volume gas thermometer.
A constant-volume gas thermometer would
read 273.15C at absolute zero pressure.
Comparison of
temperature
scales.
Comparison of
magnitudes of
various
temperature
units
The reference temperature in the original Kelvin scale was the ice point,
273.15 K, which is the temperature at which water freezes (or ice melts).
units.
26
The reference point was changed to a much more precisely reproducible
point, the triple point of water (the state at which all three phases of water
coexist in equilibrium), which is assigned the value 273.16 K.
PRESSURE
P A l f d
68 kg 136 kg
Pressure: A normal force exerted
by a fluid per unit area
A
feet
=300cm
2
0.23 kgf/cm
2
0.46 kgf/cm
2
P=68/300=0.23 kgf/cm
2
The normal stress (or pressure) on the
feet of a chubby person is much greater y p g
than on the feet of a slim person.
Some
27
basic
pressure
gages.
Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and
the local atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage
pressure pressure.
Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.
Throughout
this text, the
pressure P
will denote
absolute absolute
pressure
unless
specified
otherwise.
28
Variation of Pressure with Depth
When the variation of density When the variation of density
with elevation is known
Free body diagram of a rectangular The pressure of a fluid at rest
29
Free-body diagram of a rectangular
fluid element in equilibrium.
The pressure of a fluid at rest
increases with depth (as a
result of added weight).
In a room filled with
a gas, the variation
of pressure with
height is negligible.
Pressure in a liquid
at rest increases
linearly with y
distance from the
free surface.
The pressure is the The pressure is the
same at all points on
a horizontal plane in
a given fluid
dl f regardless of
geometry, provided
that the points are
interconnected by
30
y
the same fluid.
Pascals law: The pressure applied to a
confined fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount.
The area ratio A
2
/A
1
is
called the ideal mechanical
advantage of the hydraulic
lift.
Lifting of a large weight
by a small force by the
31
by a small force by the
application of Pascals
law.
The Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small and
Measuring the
y
moderate pressure differences. A manometer
contains one or more fluids such as mercury, water,
alcohol, or oil.
Measuring the
pressure drop across
a flow section or a flow
device by a differential
manometer.
The basic
manometer.
In stacked-up fluid layers, the
P2
32
p y
pressure change across a fluid layer
of density and height h is gh.
Other Pressure Measurement Devices
Bourdon tube: Consists of a hollow metal tube Bourdon tube: Consists of a hollow metal tube
bent like a hook whose end is closed and
connected to a dial indicator needle.
Pressure transducers: Use various techniques
to convert the pressure effect to an electrical
effect such as a change in voltage, resistance,
or capacitance.
Pressure transducers are smaller and faster Pressure transducers are smaller and faster,
and they can be more sensitive, reliable, and
precise than their mechanical counterparts.
Strain-gage pressure transducers: Work by Strain gage pressure transducers: Work by
having a diaphragm deflect between two
chambers open to the pressure inputs.
Piezoelectric transducers: Also called solid-
state pressure transducers, work on the
principle that an electric potential is generated in
a crystalline substance when it is subjected to
mechanical pressure.
33
Various types of Bourdon tubes used
to measure pressure.
p
THE BAROMETER AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
At h i i d b d i ll d b t th th Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the
atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.
A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is defined as
the pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm in height at 0C ( = the pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm in height at 0 C (
Hg
=
13,595 kg/m
3
) under standard gravitational acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s
2
).
The length or the
cross-sectional area
of the tube has no
ff t th h i ht effect on the height
of the fluid column of
a barometer,
provided that the p
tube diameter is
large enough to
avoid surface tension
(capillary) effects
34
The basic barometer.
(capillary) effects.
PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE
Step 1: Problem Statement
Step 2: Schematic
Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations
Step 4: Physical Laws
Step 5: Properties
Step 6: Calculations
Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion
EES (Engineering Equation Solver) (Pronounced as ease):
EES is a program that solves systems of linear or nonlinear EES is a program that solves systems of linear or nonlinear
algebraic or differential equations numerically. It has a large
library of built-in thermodynamic property functions as well as
mathematical functions. Unlike some software packages, EES
35
p g ,
does not solve engineering problems; it only solves the equations
supplied by the user.
Example 1-1
An object at sea level has a mass of 400 kg. j g
a) Find the weight of this object on earth.
b) Find the weight of this object on the moon where the local gravitational
acceleration is one-sixth that of earth.
W mg =
(a)
W mg
t
=
2
1
807 . 9 ) 400 (
N m
kg W
t
=
2
2
807 . 9 ) 00 (
s
m
kg
s
kg W
t
N 8 3922 = N 8 . 3922 =
Note the use of the conversion factor to convert mass-acceleration units into force
units.
36
(b)
mg W
t
=
m
kg
N
s
m
kg
1
6
807 . 9
) 400 (
2
2
=
N
s
8 . 653
2
=
Example 1-2E
An object has a mass of 180 lbm. Find the weight of this object at a location where
the local gravitational acceleration is 30 ft/s
2
. the local gravitational acceleration is 30 ft/s .
W mg
t
=
( )(30 lbm
ft
s
lbf
lbm
ft
s
= 180
1
32 2
2
2
)(
.
)
37
lbf = 167 7 .
Example 1-3
A vacuum gage connected to a tank reads 30 kPa at a location where the
atmospheric pressure is 98 kPa. What is the absolute pressure in the tank?
P P P
abs atm gage
=
kPa kPa
kPa
abs atm gage
=
=
98 30
68
38
Example 1-4
A pressure gage connected to a valve stem of a truck tire reads 240 kPa at a location p g g
where the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa. What is the absolute pressure in the
tire, in kPa and in psia?
P P P
b t
= + P P P
kPa kPa
kPa
abs atm gage
+
= +
=
100 240
340 kPa 340
The pressure in psia is
psia 14 7
P kPa
psia
kPa
psia
abs
= = 340
14 7
1013
49 3
.
.
.
What is the gage pressure of the air in the tire, in psig?
P P P
psia psia
gage abs atm
=
= 49 3 14 7 . .
39
psig = 34 6 .
Check the side walls of the tires on your car or truck. What is the maximum allowed
pressure? Is this pressure in gage or absolute values?
Example 1-5
Both a gage and a manometer are attached to a gas tank to measure its pressure. If
the pressure gage reads 80 kPa, determine the distance between the two fluid levels p g g
of the manometer if the fluid is mercury, whose density is 13,600 kg/m
3
.
h
P
=
A
h
g
=

kP
N m
80
10
3 2
/
h
kPa
kg
m
m
s
kPa
N
kg m s
=
80
13600 9 807
1
3 2 2
.
/ m s kg m s
m = 0 6
/
.
40
Example 1-6
Water boils at 212 F at one atmosphere pressure. At what temperature does water p p p
boil in C.
T = ( ) ( ) T F F
C
F
C =

= 32
5
9
212 32
5
9
100
Like pressure, the temperature used in thermodynamic calculations must be in
absolute units. The absolute scale in the SI system is the Kelvin scale, which is
related to the Celsius scale by related to the Celsius scale by
T K T = C+ 273.15

I h E li h h b l l i h R ki l hi h i In the English system, the absolute temperature scale is the Rankine scale, which is
related to the Fahrenheit scale by
= F+ 459.67 T R T

59.67
Also, note that
T R T K = 1.8
41
Summary
Th d i d Thermodynamics and energy
Application areas of thermodynamics
Importance of dimensions and units
Some SI and English units Dimensional homogeneity Some SI and English units, Dimensional homogeneity,
Unity conversion ratios
Systems and control volumes
Properties of a system Properties of a system
Density and specific gravity
State and equilibrium
The state postulate e state postu ate
Processes and cycles
The steady-flow process
Temperature and the zeroth law of thermodynamics p y
Temperature scales
Pressure
Variation of pressure with depth
42
The manometer and the atmospheric pressure
Problem solving technique