Q. 81.

Explain: (i) Primary and secondary transducer (ii) Passive and active transducers (u) Analog and digital transducers (ii) Transducers and inverse transducers. Ans. (1) Primary and secondary transducers. This will be better explained with the help of Fig. 5.

The Bourden tube acting as a primary detector, senses pressure (P) and converts it into displacement of its free end, which moves the core of L V D T whose output is voltage proportional to the pressure Thus there are two stages of transduction The Bourden tube acts as primary transducer and the L V D T acts or a secondary transducer In most of the cases there is a suitable combination, where a mechanical device (e g Bourden tube) acts as a primary transducer and an electrical device (e g L V D T) acts as a secondary transducer 2. Passive and active transducer (a) The passive transducers are those that denve the power required for transition from an auxilliary

power source They also derive a part of the required power from the quantity under measurement They are also called Externally powered transducers The passive transducers cannot function without an external power source The examples of passive transducers are resistive inductive and capacitive transducers (b) Active transducers are those, that do not require an external power source They are called self generating as they develop their own power The power reeffect required for production of output power is obtained from the quantity under measurement Examples are Taco generators thermocouples, photovoltaic cell, piezo electric crystal etc 3. Analog and digital transducers. (a) Analog transducers are those, that convert the input quantity into an analog output which is a continuous function of time Examples are Strain guage, L V D T thermocouple, thermistor etc (b) Digital transducers are those that convert the input into an electrical output which is in the form of pulses. As a binary number uses only two digits 0 and 1, itcan be easily be represented by opaque and transparent areas on a glass scale (Fig 6) or by non-conducting and conducting areas on a metal scale The complete binary number denoting position is obtained by scanning the pattern across the scale at a stationary index mark The

glass scales can be read by means of light sources, an optical system and the photocells The

metal scales are scanned by brushes making electrical contact with individual tracks The resolution depends upon the digits, comprising the binary number and is n/2 of full scale where n is the number of digits 4. Transducers and Inverse Transducers. Transducers are the devices, which convert a nonelectrical quantity into electrical output. Inverse transducers are the devices which convert an electrical quantity into non electrical output. The examples of inverse transducers are: (i) A piezo electrical transducer: as, when a voltage applied to its surface, it changes its dimensions i.e. it converts the voltage into a displacement. (ii) A current carrying coil moving in a magnetic field produces a rotational torque! displacement. (iii) An ammeter or voltmeter. Converts current into mechanical displacement. (iv) Data indicating/recording devices such as pen recorder, C.R.O. etc. The most useful application of inverse transducers is in Feedback measurement

system. The Fig. 7 shows a block diagram of a feed back measurement system using inverse transducers. The firm lines show electrical devices/signals and dotted lines show mechanical devices! signals.

In this, the output signal (Usually in electrical form) is fed back and converted by passing through an inverse transducer into a non electrical form suitable for comparison with the quantity under measurement (non electrical). The resulting error signal is passed through a transducer into the electrical form and is applied to give output indication. Q. 82. Give examples with applications of active and passive transducers. Ans. (a) Active transducers (self-generatingno external power) Table5 Sr.no Name of tranducers 1. 2. Application (The physical quantities measured) Thermocouple and Temperature, heat Thermopiles Moving coil Velocity, vibrations

3. 4.

generator Piezoelectric transducers Photovoltaic cell

Sound, velocity, acceleration, pressure vibration Phoovoltaic cell

(b) Passive transducers (externally powered) Sr no Name of the transducers Application (The physical quantities measured) Force, torque, displacement Gas pressure Temperature Temperature Humidity Displacement, pressure Speech, music, noise Pressure, displacement vibrations Force, pressure, sound

1.(a) Strain gauge Hot wire meter (b) (c) Resistance thermometer Thermistor (d) Resistance (e) hygrometer 2.(a) Capacitor pressure gauge Capacitor (b) microphone 3.(a) Differential transformer (LVDT) Magnetostriction (b) gauge

4.(a) Hall effect generator Photoemissive cell (b) (c) Photomultiplier tube

Magnetic flux, current Light Light

Q. 83. Explain Gauge factor. Describe working principle and types of wire strain gauges Write about materials used for making wire strain gauges and applications Ans (a) Gauge Factor If a metal conductor (wire) is stretched or compressed, its dimension (length and cross sectional area) change and due to strain, the resistance of the conductor also angages This is also called Piezo resistive effect Note that resistance = p -f-, where p is the resistively, 1 the length and a is the cross sectional area If a wire is stretched and its original length L Let change m the length = & Strain= change in length Original length If the resistance of the conductor wire R Due to strain,, change in the resistance = d R

New resistance = R+ zR . . . (ii) The gauge factor of a strain gauge is defined as the ratio of the change in resistance per unit resistance to the change in length per unit length.

(b) Wire Strain Gauge. This is a device used for measurement of strain/stress. This is also, used as secondary transducer. Type of wire strain gauges. They are of the following types: (1) Unbounded wire strain gauge. It consists of an unbounded wire structure on a platform. These wires have equal length. The four wires form a Wheatstone bridge. See Figs. 8 (a), (b). When the force (or pressure) to be measured is applied to the strain gauge, the resistance wire P and S increase in length while the resistance wires R and Q decrease in length. This unbalances the Wheatstone bridge. The change in the resistance s proportiona1iQtheienth, and the unbalance ridge causes an ps Ue terminals, the output voltage being proportional to the force (or pressure) applied.

Note that the bridge is balanced, only when P/Q = R/S The Fig. 9. shows an unbounded strain gauge.

(ii) Bonded wire strain gauge. It consists of fine wire mesh (about 30 m dia.) which is connected to a thin box of bakelite or paper sheet. The base is bonded to the structure, the bonding material helps in transfer of strain from base to the wires. Figs. 10 (a to d) show different bonded wire strain gauges.

(c) Material for strain Gauges. (i) For wire. Table shows the material used for wire in wire strain gauges and their specifications. Table 7: Materials used for the wire of strain gauges Sr.n Name of Composit Resistiv Max. o material ion ity Permissi (Q m) ble ftmp (C) 1. Nichrom Ni 80% 100 x 1300 e Cr20% 10^8 2. Constant Ni 50% 50 x 10 450 an Cu50% ^8 3. Nickel .. 6x 1000 10^8 4. Platinum .. 9x 1100 10^8 5. Mangnin Cu 85% 48 x 70 e Mn 15% 10^8 6. Iron .. 75 x 1200 (soft) 10^8 7. Carbon .. 400 x 3000 Gau ge facto r 2.5 2.0 -12 5.1 0.48 4.3 2.0

10^8 (ii) For Base. The material used for the base (carrier) of the wire gauges are: (1) Epoxy-up to 150C (2) Bakelite / cellulose / fibre glass up to 300C. (iii) Adhesive materials. The adhesive (banding materials) used are: ethyl cellulose, cement, epoxy, bakelite, etc. They can work up to 200C. They are used as binding materials in bonded strain gauges to bind wire with the base. Applications of Wire Strain Gauges: (a) They are used to analyze stress and strain in bridges, roads, etc. The strain gauge is used in wheat-stone bridge connections, and the output can be displayed on a calibrated C.R.O. and the stress / strain may be measured. See Fig. 11.

(b) They are also used effectively ta measure tension, torque, force, pressure, etc. in a structure. Q 84 Write a note an Rosettes

Ans. The rosettes are a combination of single element strain gauges. They are used for specific stress/strain analysis. An element may be subjected to stresses in any direction and it is not possible to locate the direction of the principal stress. It is not possible to orient the strain gauges along the direction of principal stress, Therefore, necessity was felt to have strain gauge, which measures the value of principal strain and strains without knowing the direction. There are the following types of rosettes.
i.

Two element rosettes. These are used in force transducers. The elements are connected in the Wheatstone bridge configuration. The Fig. 12 shows two element rosette (90) stacked (Foil type) strain guage.

(ii) Three element rosettes. These are used for determination of direction and magnitude of principal strains resulting from complex structural leading.

Generally the three elements are displaced from each other at 45C or 6O. The 45C provide better angular resolution and are used when the direction of the principal strain is known, while 600 rosettes are used when the direction of principal stress is not known. Q. 85. Explain construction and applications of Thermistors. Ans. (a) Thermistors. These are basically thermal resistors, their resistance varies non linearly to the temperature. The Fig. 14 shows the characteristic of thermistors. Infact, these are semi-conductor devices ; with negative temperature co-efficient of resistance.

Thermistor are manufactured from oxides of metals like manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron, aluminium etc.

The temperature of thermistor vary at a very high range from several hundred ohms to mega ohms. They are available in various shapes such as discs, rods, beads etc. The various shapes of thermistor are shown m Fig 15

Applications. (1) The main measurement. application Of thermistors is for temperature

For this, thermistor is connected in series with a battery and a micro ammeter, which may be calibrated m terms of temperature (Fig 16) (2) The other applications of thermistors are (z) For control of temperatures (n) To measure difference in temperatures (iii) To measure composition of gas (iv) To measure flow Q 86 Explain working principle and various types of photo electric transducers

Ans (a) Photoelectric transducers Principal. cThese are used to measure light intensity examples of Photo electric cells Photo voltic cells conductive cells Photo diodes and photo transistors etc These convert the bghtfal1ir them into voltage, which can be mea4yyoltmeter calibrated in units of (b) Types : Below few photoelectric transducers have been described: 1.. Photo Emissive Cell (Photo Tube). The cathode of photo emissive cell emits electrons, when light falls These electrons are accumulated at its anode or plate The fig 17(a) shows construction Fig (b) shows characteristics between negative voltage and leakage current The curves shows electrical intensities in watts per m2 at different currents

The tube is used to measure luminous flux or intensity The circuit arrangement is shown in Fig 18

The voltmeter is calibrated in terms of luminous flux/Intensity. The output voltage may be amplified to drive next stages of measurement. These devices are stable and do not change their characteristics with time but their sensitivity is low 2 Photo conductive cells These are also called Light dependant resistors (LDR) or photo resistors When light falls, their resistance decreases For making these devic germanium, silicon or cadmium suiplude (CdS) are used The construction (Fig 19a) and symbol (Fig b) is shown

These are used for street light control, and automatic Iris control of camera and to operate relays The fig shows its use to control relay operations When the cell receive light, its resistance decreases and current is sufficient to energise the relay When the cell does not get

light, the current is decreased and the relay is de-energised

3 Photovoltaic cell (Fig 21) A solar cell is the most popular example of photo voltaic cells, These cells generate electricity, when light falls on them. Solar cells are used to charge batteries of satellites. These can also be used for reading punch cards in an industry. They can also be used as Infra red detectors. In series parallel grouping they can act as battery charger. Their operating range is from - 80 .C to 120C These do not require any external power source and they have a fast frequency response. 4 Photo diodes A photodiode is a diode made of silicon with an opening at Its cover containing a lens, which focusses the light on the diode A photo diode with no bias operates as a photovoltaic cell, and with reverse bias, it acts as a photo conductive cell

The photodiodes have fast frequency response and time constant of 1 gS. These can be used for reading punch cards and tape.

5. Photo transistors. The photo transistor is a device, whose operation depends upon light and not on the base current. The fig. 23(a) shows symbol of a photo transistor, note that it has no base lead and (b) shows characteristics. The curves show electrical intensity in watt/rn2. The photo transistor does not have response as linear as that of junction transistors, i.e. collector current is not linear to light intensity. A

photo transistor is much more sensitive than a photo diode. Photo transistors find use in the operation of relay, reading punch cards/tapes and control of digital processes.

Q. 87. Explain construction, working, Advantages, Disadvantages and uses of L.V.D.T. Ans. LV.D.. (Linear Variable Differential Transformer):
1. An

L.V.D..is an inductive transducer. Its working principle is shown. When a force is applied to the armature (or core) the are gap changes and as a result inductance of the coil changes which is the measure of the appplied, force.

(b) Construction and Working: An LV.D.T it consists of a primary winding and two exactly similar secondary windings with a magnetic armature or core m between. When an A.C. signal is connected across the primary, the voltages induced in two secondary windings (by transformer action) are V1 and a V2 which are exactly equal in the ideal case and output of the secondary is zero. This occurs when the core is positioned in the centre (null position). But practically, the coil is not at the centre position and the output of the transformer is equal to the difference of V1 and V2, as the secondary are connected in opposition. The differential output voltage of the transformer (produced by the displacement of core) is linear over a considerable range AB as shown. This explains the name L.V.D.T.

As explained above, when the force (or pressure) to be measured is applied at the input of the L.V.D.T., the output of the transformer is the measure of the resultant displacement of the core and hence of the input. (c) Advantages of L.V.D.T: (a) The output of L.V.D.T. is more or less linear. A linearity of 0.05% can be obtained. (b) The L.V.D.T. has infinite resolution, practically a resolution of i0 mm can be obtained. (c) It has considerably high output, hence amplification in not much needed. (d) It has a high degree of sensitivity as high as 40 V/mm. (e) The power consumption is less than 1 W. Signal first causes a change in the resistance of the wire, then this change is converted into an electrical output. But in the case of L.V.D.T., the input is directly converted into the differential electrical output. In this respect, L.V.D.T.s are superior to the strain gauges. (d) Disadvantages of L.V.D.T.:

(a) A relatively high core displacement is needed for appreciable output. (b) They need shielding to minimize the effect of stray magnetic fields. In this respect, these are inferior to the capacitive transducers. (c) They are also affected by vibrations. (d) Their dynamic response is not good, i.e. if the input signal is changing with time, the accuracy of the result is affected. Uses of L.V.D.T.s: The L.V.D.T.s can be used, where displacement is from a fraction of a mm to a few xn. They can also be used to measure force, pressure, weight, etc. But as dynamic response poor, the L.V.D.T.s are not used for dynamic (changing with time) measurements. Q. 88. What is R.V.D.T.? Ans. Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT) : The RVDT can measure angular displacement up to 90. The car diode shaped core is specifically taken, as it gives highly linear output. The typical applications of RVDT is measurement of thickness of hot strip or slab in rolling mills.

Q. 89. Define sensitivity of LVDT. Ans. Sensitivity. The value of rms voltage developed by LVDT for unit displacement is called sensitivity. S = rms output voltage = V Displacement d It is usually specified in V/mm voltage induced in a L.V.D.T. will be given as V =s.d Q. 90. State laws of thermocouples. Ans. The thermocouples are governed by the following laws: (i) Law of homogeneous metals. According to this law a thermoelectric current cannot be sustained in a circuit single homogeneous metal by varying in cross-section and applying heat alone. In simple words, a

thermocouple can be made only of two dissimilar metals. (ii) Law of intermediate metals. According to this law, a homogeneous metal can always be added to a thermocouple circuit and this has no effect on the emf a the circuit.

For example, there is no harm if in a thermocouple made of platinum and platinum rhodium alloy with both copper leads or one of copper and other of aluminium lead I used due to heavy cost of platinum (See Fig. 28). Q. 91. Write note on: 1. Thermocouple 2. Seebeck effect 3. Peltier effect 4. Thomson effect Ans. 1. Thermocouple. This is a simplest device for measurement of temperature. It consists of two dissimilar metals A and B insulated from each other but welded or brazed at their ends making two junctions.

When one end is kept in the fumance whose temperature is to be measured, the meter connected at the other end gives temperature of the fumance. 2. Seebeck effect. This operation of a thermocouple is based on the seeback effect. It states that when two wires of dissimilar metals are joined together at each and end form a complete electric circuit, then a current flows through the circuit when the two junctions are kept at different temperatures.

The current is caused by the potential difference between two thermoelectric emfs e1 and e2 induced at the two ends. The amount of potential difference only depends upon the metals of the device and is independent of other factors like size of wires, are a of contact etc.

3. Peltier effect. This is just reverse of Seeback effect, i.e. when an electric current is made to flows across a junction of two dissimilar metals the heat is either generated berated) or absorbed depending upon the direction of flow of current (Fig. 31). When the current flows in the same direction as the See beck current, heat is absorbed at the hot junction and liberated at cold junction. In this case, if thermocouple voltage is measured with potentiometer no current flows and heating and cooling are not present but if the voltage is measured by a milli voltmeter, current flows and heat is absorbed at the cold junction and heat is liberated at hot junction, however heating and cooling is negligible. This principle is used In instrument amplifier. 4. Thomson effect. According to Thomson effect, when current flows through a conductor having a temperature gradient (and thus a heat flow) along its length, heat is liberated (generated) at any point where the current flow is in the direction as the heat flow, while the heat is absorbed at any point, where these are opposite (i e, the current flow and heat flow are opposite (or in reverse direction to each other The effect is not observed if potentiometer is used to measure the thermocouple voltages, If

even a milli voltmeter is used the effect is negligible In this way, the Thomson effect speaks about the temperatures of the conductors between Junctions rather the Junctions itself

The total emf set up in a thermocouple is partly due to Peltier effect which is localized at each junction and is proportional to the difference in junction temps and parily due to Thomson effect, which is distributed along each conductor between the junclions and is proportional to the square of difference in junction temperatures. If E = Total thermoelectric emf set up in a thermocouple We can write T1 absolute temperature of hot junction T2 = absolute temperature of cold junction

The a and j3 are constants whose values depend upon the two metals used in the thermocouple. Q. 92. Describe how thermocouple output is measured.. Ans. The measurement of thermocouple output involves two steps:
1. To

maintain the cold junction temperature constant. While using a thermocouple to measure temperature (or emf), one junction is kept in the furnace whose temperature is to be measured, the meter calibrated in terms of temperature or in volts is connected at the other (cold) junction gives the output value directly; For this, foremost condition is that temperature of the cold junction should be maintained constant.

Following methods are used to maintain constant temperature.

1. The

cold junction of the thermocouple may be immersed in ice water (Fig. 33)

1. The

temperature of the cold junction may be controlled by automatic temperature control device placed away from hot junction. Note the arrangement carefully. (Fig. 33)

(2) To measure the thermocouple output. The various methods are: (a) By millivoitmeter. This is simplest method. In this a sensitive millivoitmeter is used. A high resistance may be connected in series with the instrument. This will give a sufficient current through the meter and will reduce the errors. This method is not very accurate. This causes loading error and also errors due to variation of resistance.

1. By

potentiometer. This method is widely used as it gives high accuracy, and does not cause any loading error because it does not draw any current from the thermocouple. The problem due to variation of resistance are also eliminated.

A secondary transducer senses the magnitude and direction of unbalance current and moves, a slider to eliminate it the same by employing a servomotor to the null balance position.

(c) Electronic method In this method,. I.C. technology is employed. Art amplifier amplifies the thermocouple output emf and feeds to the meter. This method is free from errors but needs an extra power source. Q. 93. Write note on Thermocouple pyrometer with advantages, disadvantages and applications. Ans. (a) Thermocouple Pyrometer (Radiation Pyrometer). Thermocouples are also employed for making pyrometers which can measure very high temperature, e.g. temperature of furnace and also of the sun. Along with thermoelectric effects these pyrometers are also based on the principle of radiations that all objects emit radiations at high temperatures. This produces two effects (a) The object appears bright. (b) There is change in the colour of the light due to change in the wavelength. (b) Construction: A thermocouple (radiation) pyrometer is shown. It consists of a highly polished concave mirror C which can be moved to and fro along the axis of the tube by means of screw S. In the tube, thermocouple (T.C.) is also kept which is connected to a milli voltmeter

calibrated in the temperature scale. For the purpose of focussing an eye-piece (E.P.) is also provided in the opening of the mirror.

1. Working

Suppose the temperature of a furnance is to be measured The eyepiece of the pyrometer is kept near the eyes and the other en4 towards the furnace. The radiations from the furnace after reflection from C are focused at one junction of the thermocouple (T.C.) whereas the other junction is shielded from radiations. Now the temperature of the furnace is read directly on the millivoltmeter calibrated in degrees Centigrade. (d) Advantages of thermocouples (i) The thermocouples are small and rugged m construction (ii) These are cheaper than resistance thermometers

(iii) The temperature range of thermocouples is about 1400C (iv) These have a time constant of 10 us (e) Disadvantages of thermocouples (i) These axe less accurate than resistance thermometers (ii) Compensation is to be provided for reference junction Applications (1) Pyrometers can used for measurement at a number of points. (ii) Thermocouples can indicate rapid change in temperature. (iii) They can measure surface temp. Q. 94. Write note on Piezoelectric transducer. Ans (a) PIEZOELECRIC TRANSDUCER According to the piezoelectric effect, if a piezoelectric material is subjected to a pressure, an e.m.f appears across its surfaces. Conversely, if an alternating voltage is applied across the crystal, it will change the dimensions of the crystal, i e crystal will be deformed The materials which exhibit this effect are Rochelle salt, quartz, lithium sulphate, ceramics, barium titanate, etc. The crystal of these

materials are used in piezoelectric transducers, which can measure force, pressure, etc.

When force F to be measured is applied, to the transducer, it converts it into voltage Vo, which can be easil9 measured by a voltmeter calibrated in Newton (Fig. 38). (Ii) The equivalent circuit of the transducer can be drawn as shown. In Fig. 39 (a) C is the capacitance of the crystal, R is the leakage resistance of the crystal and Q is the charge generated by the crystal.

Now

Q/C = V

So, the equivalent circuit can also be drawn as shown in the Fig. (b), in which Q has been replaced by a voltage source V. (c) Advantages of Piezo Electric transducers (1) These are small, compact in size and light in weight. (ii) These are active transducers and do not need any external source of power (iii) They have a temperature range from 1500 to 3000 C (iv) They have a good frequency response from 1 Hz to 30 KHz (d) Disadvantages (i) Though leakage resistance of the transducer is very high (1012 ohm). But the charge generated leaks through the leakage resistance very rapidly, when a voltmeter is connected across its terminals for measurement This creates problems in measurement of static displacements. (ii) The output voltage is affected by temperature variations. (e) V Uses of Piezoelectric Transducers: (a) They are more used for dynamic measurements, such as surface roughness etc. (b) They are also used in SONAR (sound navigation and ranging) (c). They are used to measure force, pressure, deformation etc.

(d) They can also be used t measure temperatures. The crystal can give a very linear relation between its resonant frequency and temperature of the order of 1 kHz per second. Q 95 Provide analytical explanation, how force can be measured by a piezo crystal transducer Ans The fig 40 (a) shows a piezo electric crystal used for measurement of force (F) The fig.. (b) shows usually adopted axis numbering system for the crystal. Note that a crystal has six axes.

A crystal used for converting mechanical motion deformation to electrical signal may be taken as a Charge generator and a capacitor. The mechanical deformation generates a charge and this charge appears as a voltage across the electrodes. The piezo electric effect is direction sensitive. A tensile force generates a voltage of one polarity and a compressive force generates a

voltage of opposite polarity. The magnitude and polarity of the charge are proportional to the magnitude and direction of the applied force. In the same way application of electric field may deform the crystal to contract or to expand, depending upon the polarity of the electric field. As told above, the magnitude and polarity of the induced surface changes are proportional to the magnitude and direction of the applied force, we can write down: Q = d.F, where is the charge in coulombs and F is the force. Also, d is a constant is called charge sensitivity of the crystal in coulombs per Newton; and is constant for a given crystal cut. The force F causes a change in thickness equal to zt (in meters) and so, where A is area of crystal in m2, E is the young modulus of elasticity and t is the thickness of the crystal. The charge at electrodes generates an output voltage V0 which can be expressed as where C is the capicatance between the electrodes with crystal is an insulation between two conductor electrodes hence, behaves as a crystal].

where, e is the absolute permittivity (8 854x1042) and er is the relative permattivaty So we can write down by putting the values of Q from e.g. (i) and value of C from eg (ii)

Where note that g is called voltage sensitivity of the crystal and P= F/A is the pressure in pascals applied an the crystal. The e.g. (i.ii) can be rewritten as

Q. 96. (a) Write a note on materials used for piezoelectric transducers. (b) Explain equivalent circuit of piezo electric transducer along with analysis. Ans. (a) the piezoelectric transducer materials are of three types: (i) Natural crystals. Such an Quartz and Rochelle salt. The natural Quartz is the most suitable material ; it has lower lower temperature sensitivity and higher receptivity (about 1012 2/rn3) It gives

large time constant and allows static calibration. It exhibits linearity over wide range of stress level with very low hysterisis. The Rochelle salts performance is affected, if humidity rises above 80% or falls below 30% and so requires a wax coating for protection. The quartz is most stable but its output is small, on the other head, the trochee salt provides highest output but its highest working temperature is 45C and needs a protection against humidity told above.
i.

Polarized ferroelectric ceramics. Such as Barium Titanate etc.

The ferroelectric ceramics, as artificially polarized by applying a strong field as the materials, simultaneously, the material is heated to an temperature above curie point where it looses the perro electric properties. Then it is cooled down with the field, still applied. Now removing the electric field a remnant polarization is retained and the material exihibits piezoelectric effect. As compared to Quartz, piezo electric ceramics have higher sensitivity but have poor temperature characteristics. Barium titanate can be made in any shape and size and it has also a high permittivity.

The crystal axis can be obtained as per requirement by selecting the direction of polarization. It is a polycrystalline and has a higher dielectric constant.

i.

Synthetic materials. Such as Lithium sulphate, ammunium hydrogen phosphate etc. These have in general a higher voltage sensitivity.

1. Equivalent

circuit of Piezo electric transducer along with analysis. The piezoelectric effect can cause mechanical deformation of the material in many modes. Such as thickness expansion, transverse expansion, thickness shear and face shear mode. But the common mode is thickness expansion the mode depends upon the factors:- Such as shape and orientation of the body w.r.t. crystal axis, and location of electrodes. The electrodes are metallic materials and the crystal is an insulator, so when the electrodes are plated on the crystal the arrangement acts as a capacitor/charge generator. A charge produced to mechanical deformation results in definite voltage appearing across the electrodes and is given by V0 = Q/C, where Q is the charge produced

and C is the capacitance of the piezo electric element.

The equivalent circuit of a piezoelectric transducer (charge generator) is shown in Fig. 42. In this, charge is generated by the crystal acorss its capacitance C and leakage resistance. R.

The charge generator can be replaced by an equivalent voltage source having a voltage V m series with a capacitance C and resistance R (Fig. 43).

1. Analysis.

Let the transducer be loaded. The load has a capacitance CL and resistance RL. The CL! Loading effect is the combination of capacitance of the load, capacitance of the cable and the stray capacitance. The fig. 44 shows the loaded

transducer. The value of leakage resistance R of the crystal is very large (about 1011 ). The value of load resistance R1 is comparatively smaller than R, So the leakage resistance R can be dropped. Note that due to high leakage current resistance R, the leakage i.e. power loss will be negligible and the equivalent circuit can be reduced to as shown in Fig. 45.

Impedence of Load,

Total impedence offered to the voltage source

The voltage output of the loaded transducer.

Putting value of V = Q = dF , where F is the force C C The equation (i) becomes:

The eq. (ii) is the output voltage V0 of the transducer with applied force F. At medium and high frequencies,

This is the expression for output voltage of the transducer at medium and high frequencies. The output voltage V0 is independent of frequency but depends upon the load capacitance CL It can be observed that under steady state, force F i.e. when w 0, the transducer provides no output, while the high frequency is imposed by the mechanical resonance of the piezo electric device and the mountings (electrodes). Q. 97. Explain Capacitive transducers. Ans. (a) CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS: The principle used is same as in capacitive microphones which respond to the sound pressure falling on their diaphragm and converting the sound Into electrical pulses according to the pressure of the sound.

The capacitive transducers can, otherwise, be used to measure a force as explained below: The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by:

Where A is the area of each plate and d is distance between the plates. Therefore any variation in distance d between the plates will vary the capacitance of the capacitor. The force F to be measured is applied at the diaphragm of the transducer. (b) Construction : The diaphragm icts as one plate and the static plate act as cont plate of the capacitor. By applying force, the diaphragm shows deflection and the distance between diaphragm and the static plate decreases. The distance decreases Further with increase in the force. The resulting change in the capacitance can be measured by an A.C. bridge and the applied force can be accordingly calculated. Note that the diaphragm and the static plate are separated by a dielectric forms a capacitor; hence the name capacitive transducer.

Fig. 46 (a) shows construction and Fig. (b) shows equivalent electric circuit for a capacitive transducer.

(c) Advantages of Capacitive Transducers: (a) They re very sensitive. (b) They have a good frequency response upto 60 kHz. (c) Their resolution is of the order of 2 x mm. (d) They need very small power to operate. Disadvantages of Capacitive Transducers: (a) Sometimes they shown a non-linear behaviour. (b) They have high output impedance and hence show some loading effect. (c) Their metallic parts are to be properly earthed. Uses of Capacitive Transducers: (a) The capacitive microphones and loudspeakers are available.

(b) They can be used to measure linear as well as angular displacement may 1 small up to 10 mm and large up to 30 mm (c) They can be used to measure force and pressure. (d) They can effectively measure humidity (e) When used along with mechanical modifiers they can be used to measure volume weight and density. Q. 98. Why the gauge factor of a metallic strain gauge is approximately equal to for the most of the cases? Ans G = I + 2 v, Where v is the Poisson ratio, which is 05 for most of the metals, G = 1 + 2 (0.5) 2. This is the reason the Gauge factor, for most of the metallic stress guages is approximately 2. Q. 99. Define a transducer and distinguish between a sensor and a transducer. Ans. Transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into other form. Sensor is a part of transducer, it senses and sends signal to the transduction element.

Q. 100. Why strain guage is passive transducer ? Define sensitivity of strain guage. Ans. Because in strain guage, the electrical parameters change with change. in the input signal, so the strain guage is a passive transducer, moreover it needs an external power source for the operation. Sensitivity of a strain guage is the lowest change in the input, which can be detected/ sensed by the strain gauge. Q. 101. Why the secondary windings of LVDT are connected in series opposition? Ans. The secondary windings of L.V.D.T. (Linear variable differential transformer) are connected in series opposition, so that the output voltage is the difference (or differential) of the two secondary voltages. Q. 102. What is the basic principle of strain gauge based measurements? Ans. In strain gauge based measurements, the mechanical elongation/compression is converted into the change of resistance. The end device is accordingly calibrated to measure the input

Q. 103. Name materials used for wire foil guages. Ans. (i) Nic1ome (ii) Coustantor (iii) Nickel (iv) Platinum Q. 104. Define Poission ratio. Ans. The poission ratio is the ratio of lateral strain and longitudinal strain.

It is negative and approximate value is 0.3. Q. 105. Why are Strain Gauges called piezo resistive strain gauges? Ans. If a metal conductor is stretched, there is change of resistively of the conductor due to change in its dimensions. This is called piezo resistive effect. This is the reason, that strain gauges are also called as piezo resistive gauges.

Q. 106. Why piezoelectric transducers cannot be used for static displacement measurements? Ans. As the voltage developed by application of strain is not held under static conditions, so the piezoelectric transducer cannot be used for static measurements. Q. 107. Explain the measurement of displacement using LVDT. Ans. The displacement is converted into electrical voltage by LVDT, which is proportional to the displacement of the core. This electrical voltage can be measured by a voltmeter calibrated in terms of displacement. Q. 108. What do you understand by piezoelectric effect ? How it can be used to measure pressure? Ans. When a mechanical pressure is applied between two phases of a piezo electric crystal (such as quartz), the output is an electrical signal. The phenomenon is reversible. This is called Piezo electric effect. When pressure is applied across the crystal, we get electrical voltage as output. This electrical

voltage can be measured by an instrument calibrated in terms of pressure. Q. 109. How capacitive transducers are superior to other transducers? Ans. (i) They can be used in smallest systems. (ii) They are exteremely sensitive. (iii) They have a good frequency response. (iv) A resolution of 2.5 x i0 mm can be obtained.

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

Problem 1. The wire of a strain gauge is 0.1 m long has initial reistance of 120 Q. On applying force, the length of the wire increases by 0.1 mm and resistance increases by 0.

Q. 1 Find gauge factor. Sol. 1 0.1 m = 100 mm

& 0.1m=100mm

R =120Q zR =0.2W Gauge factor

= 1.75Ans. Problem 2. A strain gauge with gauge factor of 2 is fastened to a metal and is subjected to a stress of 1000 kg,fcm2. The Youngs modulus of the metal is 2 x io Kg/cm2. Find percentage change in the resistance of the strain gauge. Sol.

Percentage change in the resistance of the strain gauge

Problem 3. A thermistor has a temp. coeff. of resistance as 0.5 for temperature range of 25C to 50C. Find the resistance of the thermister at 40C, if its resistance at 25C is 120i Sol:

Problem 4. A strain gauge is bonded to a steel beam of 0.lm length and 4 cm2 cross section. The modulus of beam material (steel) is 207 x i0 N/rn2. The strain guage has initial resistance of 240 and a gauge factor of 2.2. When a load is applied the resistance of the strain gauge changes by 0.013 Q. Calculate (i) change in the length of the beam and (ii) force applied to the beam. Sol.

Change in length. 2.46x10 m. Ans (ii)

Force on the beam

Problem 5. A thermistor has a resistance temp. coeff. of 5% over a temperature range of 25C to 50C. If resistance of the thermistor at 25C is 100Q, Find its resistance at 35C. Sol. 0.05(35 25)j Resistance at 35C .100 [1 50 Ans.