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arV19277
Elementary algebra,

3 1924 031 261 740

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ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA

J.

A.

QILLET
New York Normal
College

Professor in ike

NEW YORK

HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY

1896
s

Copyright, 1896,

BY

HENRY HOLT &

CO.

KODEKT DRUMMOND, HLECTBOTYPER AND PRINTER, NEW YORK.

PREFACE.

This book
classes of

is

designed to be at once simple enough for

the beginner and complete enough for the most advanced

academies and preparatory schools.

it

The

first

three quarters of
strictest sense of

constitute an elementary algebra in the

the term; the remainder

of the

may be regarded
recol-

as

an intermediate step between elementary and higher

algebra,

and includes the topics

most advanced

quirements in this subject for admission to American

leges

and technical schools. of the main differences between this book and its American predecessors lies in the prominence given to problems and the consequent early introduction of the equation. The statement of problems in the form of equations calls forth the pupil's intellectual resources and develops in him the power of concentrated thought. It is an invaluable mental exercise, and one, moreover, in which as a rule Drill in algebraic operations, on the pupils take pleasure. other hand, tends rather to strengthen the memory, to quicken the apprehension, and to cultivate habits of ac-

One

curacy.

Though

absolutely necessary to secure facility in

drill is

manipulating algebraic expressions, this

be interesting.

apt not to

For the sake, therefore, both of giving varied employment to the mental activities and of maintaining an equilibrium of interest, it seems desirable that

IV

PREFACE.

problems and exercises should proceed together from the very outset. Problems are accordingly introduced at a

much

earlier stage

than usual, and occur with

uncommon

frequency in every chapter.

At

first

they are so simple

that the resulting equations can be solved by elementary

arithmetical processes, and they gradually increase in complication with the pupil's increasing

knowledge

of algebraic

methods.
old

The majority ones with new data;

of

them

are either

new

or else the

the remainder have been selected

from a great variety of sources. The hook further differs from

laws of algebra,
tive,

its

predecessors (1) in

the attention given to negative quantities and to the formal

known

as the

Commutative, the AssociaIn presenting

the Distributive, and the Index laws.

these laws the author has endeavored to be rigorous without

(3) In the fuller development of more extensive application to the solution of equations. The method of solving quadratic equations has been based entirely on the principles of factoring. Certainly this method is more in harmony with the processes of advanced algebra, and it is the author's experience

sacrificing simplicity.
its

factoring and in

that, even for the beginner, it

is

quite as simple as the

method

of completing the square.

first

The

steps in the

book have been simplified for the

pupil by building upon his knowledge of arithmetic and adding, one by one, the distinguishing features of algebra;

the use of

letters as well as figures to express

numbers,

the use of equations in the solution of problems, the more

extended and systematic use of signs, the meaning and use

of negative numbers,

and the general proof of theorems.

sets,

In further recognition of practical requirements, the exercises in

first set

Part

have been divided usually into two

the

being as a rule easier than the second.

is

Careful

provision

made

in both sets for frequent review of topics

already studied.

pubfagr
As the author and publisher cannot hope
to

V
have been

entirely successful in their efforts to keep the text free

from typographical and other errors, they will esteem it a favor to have their attention called to any that may have
escaped their vigilance.
J.

A. G.

Normal College, New York,

December
10, 1895.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
(The numbers refer to the pages of the text.)

PAET

I.

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND OPERATIONS.

CHAPTER
I,

NOTATION AND SYMBOLS.

Symbols of Operation Algebraic Expressions, 1. Exponents Co3. efficients, Numeric Values, 3. Quantitative Symbols Terms Monomials and Polynomials, 4. Similar Terms, 5.

CHAPTER

II.

EQUATIONS AND PARENTHESES.

Members of an Equation Verbal Symbols Axioms, 7. TransposiCollection of Terms Division by Coefficient of x tion of Terms

Solution of
Problems,
tion, 14.
9.

Clearing of Fractions, 11. Symbols of Aggrega-Signs of Parentheses, 15. Parentbetic Factors, 16.
18.
III.

an Equation,

8.

Literal

Coefficients

Solution of

Note on Transposition,

CHAPTER

NEGATIVE QUANTITIES.
Counting Signs of Quality, 21. Scale of Numbers, 22. Absolute and Actual Values Addition and Subtraction of Integers, 23. Corresponding Positive and Negative Numbers Special Signs of Commutative Lavp of Addition Addition and SubQuality, 25. Associative Law of traction of Corresponding Numbers, 26. Addition Oppositeness of Positive and Negative Nnmbers, 27.

CHAPTER

IV.

ADDITION OF INTEGRAL EXPRESSIONS.

Arithmetical and Algebraic Sums, 32. Signs of Coefficients Integral Expressions Extension of the Formal Laws of Addition Addition Definition of Addition of Algebraic Expressions, 33. Simplification of Polynoof Monomials and Polynomials, 34.

mials, 36.

Aggregation of Coefficients, 38.

vii


Vlll

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
V.

SUBTBACriON OF INTEGRAL EXPRESSIONS.

Definition of Subtraction
sions, 41. theses, 45.

Rule for Subtraction of Integral Expres Operations on Aggregates, 43. Compound ParenCHAPTER
VI.

MULTIPLICATION OF INTEGRAL EXPRESSIONS.

Multiplication of Integers Two Cases of Multiplication, 49. Law of Signs in Multiplication Commutation Law of Multiplication, 50. Associative Law of Multiplication, 51. Multiplication of Monomials, 53. Changing the Signs of an Equation, 54. Distributive Law of Multiplication of Integers, 55. Extension of the Distributive Law, 59. Arrangement of Terms according to the Powers of a Letter Multiplication of Polynomials, 61. Multiplication by Detached CoeflBcients, 64. Degree of an Integral Expression, 66. Product of Homogeneous Expressions Highest and Lowest Terms of a Product, 67 Complete and Incomplete Integral Expressions, 68.

CHAPTER
Definition of

VII.

DIVISION OF INTEGRAL EXPRESSIONS.

Division Division of Monomials, 69. Division of Polynomials, 71. Freeing an Equation from Expressions of Division, 77. Synthetic Division, 79.

CHAPTER

VIII.

INVOLUTION OF INTEGRAL EXPRESSIONS.

Definition of Involution Involution of Monomials, 87. Squaring of Binomials, 88. Squaring of Polynomials, 89. Cubing of Binomials, 90.

CHAPTER

IX.

EVOLUTION OF INTEGRAL EXPRESSIONS.

Definition of Evolution Inverse of Involution, 93. Corresponding Direct and Inverse Operations do not always cancel, 94. Extraction of Root of Monomials, 95. Square Root of Polynomials, 96. Squaring Numbers as Polynomials, 97. Square Root of Numbers, 99. Cubing of Polynomials, 102. Cube Root of Polynomials, 103. Cubing Numbers as Polynomials, 104. Cube Root of Numbers, 105.

CHAPTER

X.

MULTIPLICATION AT SIGHT.
Complete Expression of the First and Second Degree Product of Two Linear Biuomials, 108. Product of a; a and x Product of b


TABLE OF CONTENTS.
x-\-a and x
aa;

ix

-\- a Product of x -\- a and x Product of a, 110. cx-\-d, 111. Product of Binomial Aggregates, 113. y'' Product ot X -\- y and x^ xy -\Product ot x y and a' -\~ xy -\- y''' 114.- To coii vert a;'^ -|- ^^^ ii't'O ^ Perfect Square, 115. To convert ic'" ia;" into a Perfect Square, 116. To convert X- -\-bx-\-c into a Perfect Square, 117. To convert ax^-{-bx into a Perfect Square, 118.

+ 6and

CHAPTER

XI.

FAOTORJNO.
Resolution of an Expression into Factors Resolution of an Expression in Monomial and Polynomial Factors, 120. To factor the Difference of Two Squares, 131. Special Cases of factoring Quadratic Trinomials, 133, Functions, 134. Remainder Theorem, 126. To factor the Sum and DifEerenceof the Same Powers of Two

Quantities, 129.

CHAPTER Xn.
HIGHEST COMMON FACTORS.
Definition of Highest Common Factor H.C.F. of Monomials, 132. H. C. F. of Polynomials by Inspection, 133. General Method of finding the Highest Common Factor of Polynomials, 135. GenH.C.F. not neceseral Method for Three or More Polynomials sarily the G, C. M., 139.

CHAPTER

XIII.

LOWEST COMMON MULTIPLE.

Definition of Lowest Common Multiple L. C. M. by Division, 145.

L.
XIV.

C.

M. by Inspection,

144.

CHAPTER
The Symbol
150.

FRACTIONS.

The Denominator of a Fraction Distributive, 151. Theorem = r, 158. Theorem - = Simb mo b b m plification of Fractions, 154. Reduction of Fractions to a Common Denominator, 156. Theorem 158. Corollary X d = b bd X6= X = 159. Reciprocal of a Fraction Theorem b 6 b
t-,

is

-i-

-?-

-r

r-;.

-,-.

a
-=-

-H

c -

=a X b
c
-i-

Corollary

..
:

^c=

b.c

= a-^e -^ b

^.
,

161.

Corollary:
of

=cX b

-, 162.

To

cancel the Denominators

Two

or

More

Fractions, 168.

TABLE OF COSTEyrS.
CHAPTER XV.
CLEARING EQUATIONS OF FRACTIONS.

Three Classes of Equations involving Fractions,

166.

CHAPTER

XVI.

RADICALS AND SURDS.

Rational and Irrational Numbers Radicals Surds, 176. Imaginary Quantities Rational Quantities expressed as Radicals Orders

of Radicals, 177.

Theorem m i/a X i/a^= mnaTheorem The Product of Two Dissimilar Quadratic Surds cannot he Rational Rationalizing Factor, 182. Reduction of Fractional Radicals to Integral Radicals Addition and Subtraction of Radicals of the Same Order, 183. Rule for Addition of Radicals Rule for Subtraction of Radicals Addition and Subtraction of Radicals of Different Orders, 184. Multiplication of Radicals of the Same Order, 185. Simple, Compound, and Conjugate Radi187. Rationalization of Polynomial Radicals, 188. Ra.
Quadratic Surds
:

Arithmetical Roots, 178. Theorem ^(j x ^6 = i/ab, 179. Reduction of Radicals Pure and Mixed Surds. 180. Theorem vT= y'oTft, 181. Similar
:

^/rT-r-

cals,

tionalization of

the Denominator of a Fraction

:

Division
=

of
,

Radicals of the Same Or der, 189. Theorem

191.

y'a )

y'o"

Theorem V
:

\^a

Order to Another, 193.

of Different Orders, 193. Radical Equations by Rationalization, 196.

change Radicals from One Multiplication and Division of Radicals Radical Equations, 194. Reduction of
'"v'rt

To

CHAPTER

XVII.

THE INDEX LAW.

Meaning of Fractional Exponents, 198. ^Meaning of Zero Exponent Meaning of Negative Exponents, 200. The Index Law holds for all Rational Values of m and n, 201.

CHAPTER
Simultaneous

XVIII.

ELIMINATION

Two Unknown and Independent Equation, 207. Quantities require Two Independent Equations for their Solution, Elimination Three Methods of Elimination, 209. n In208. dependent Equations are required to solve for n Unknown Quantities, 316.

CHAPTER
Trinomial and Binomial Quadratics of a, Trinomial Quadratic, 234.

XIX.

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS OF ONE UNKNOWN QUANTITY.

Factors of 223. Factors Quadratic Equation of One

x- -\- c,

tJn-


TABLE OF CONTENTS.
known Quantity
280.
c

xi

Roots of an Equation, 227. Solution of a Quadratic Equation, 228. Formation of Quadratic Equations,

= 0,

Interpretation of Solutions, 234. Solution ax''-\-bx-\238. Solution of Equations whicli are Quadratic in Form,
CHAPTER XX.

243.

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS OF TWO UNKNOWN QUANTITIES.

Special Cases of Elimination, 246.

CHAPTER

XXI.

INDETERMINATE EQUATION!^ OF THE FIRST DEGREE.

Indeterminate Equations Solution of Indeterminate Equations of the First Degree in x and y, 259. Solution of Indeterminate Equations of the First Degree in x, y, and , 363.

CHAPTER
Definition of Greater

XXII.

INEQUALITIES.
and Less Quantities mentary Theorems, 268. Type Forms,

Inequalities,
278.

267.

Ele-

CHAPTER

XXIII.

RATIO AND PROPORTION.

Definition of Ratio Expression of Ratio, 276. Terms of a Ratio Kinds of Ratios Ratio of Equimultiples and Submaltiples, 277. _ a-\-x a a X a . . , ^

Iheorem ;-- < l)-\-x a-\-x X < Theorem -r > b-\-x

:

, ,

and
a

,_,

Definition of Proportion and x < Test of the Equality of Two Ratios, 279. Permutations of Proportions, 280. Transformation of Proportions, 281. Solution of Fractional Equations, 283. Direct Variation, 288. Inverse
b,

278.

Compound

> when a > b X b a X a and < when b X b

.,

and
b

<

Ratios

Variation, 289.

Constant of Variation,
LOGARITHMS.

290.

CHAPTER XXIV.
Definition of a Logarithm Working Rules of Logarithms, 293. Systems of Logarithms Common Logarithms, 295. CharacterLogarithmic Tables, 297. Method of istic and Mantissa, 296. using Logarithmic Tables, 299. Cologarithms, 308. MultiplicaInvolution tion by Logarithms Division by Logarithms, 304 by Logarithms Evolution by Logarithms, 805. Theorem log!,m logaOT \ogba, 307.


xii

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAET

II.

ELEMENTARY

SERIES.

CHAPTER XXV.
VARIABLES AND LIMITS.
Constants and Variables

Axioms

Theorem

Functions,
If c

311.

Limit
:

denote any

finite

of a Variable quantity, then, by

taking x great enough,

< c Theorem

If c

denote any
c,

finite

quantity, then by taking x small enough,

- >

313.

Infinites
: :

Infinitesimals,

313. Approach to a Limit, 314. Theorem If k be any fixed quantity and s denote a quantity as small as you Two please, then, by taking x small enough, kx < s Theorem equal functions must have the same limit, 315. Theorem The

limit of the sum of several variables is the sum of their limits, 316. Theorem; The limit of the product of two functions is the product of their limits, 317. Theorem The limit of the quotient of two functions is the quotient of their limits Defini-

^n
tion of /[.v]
=a

and
X

nil

-Theorem: Lim.

for all values of n, 318. Definition of Series Theorem: The limit of A-\-\- A,,x'' -\-A,x^-\Ao , 320. Theorem In the series An by taking x A,:r' -\- A^^:'' small enough we may malie any term a.s large as we please compared with the sum of all tlie terms which follow it, and by taking .v large enough we can make an\' term as large as we please compared with the sum of all the terms that precede it, Vanishing Fraction, 322. Discussion of Problems, 324. i531.

= Mfl"-^

Aa

=
,

CHAPTER XXVI.
THE PBOGBESSIONS.
A
Arithmetical Series

AKITHMETICAL PROGRESSION.

mth Term, 333. Problem To find the and any other term when two terms are given Arithmetical Means, 334. Problem To find the sum of n terms of an A. P., 3B7. The Average Term, 340. Two Allied
:

The

common

difference,

Series, 342.

B.

GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSION.

Geometrical Series, 344.

Means, 345.

metrical of Repeating Decimals

Problem To find the sum of n terms of a geoseries Divergent and Convergent Series, 347. Value
:

Type

Form

of the Series

Geometrical

Values of Recurring Decimals, 350.


TABLE OF CONTENTS.
C.

xiii

COMPOUND INTBEBST AND ANNUITIES.

Compound Interest Problem

terest, 351.

To To

amount at compound inCompound Interest Problem find present worth, at compound interest, 3.52. Problem find the amount at compound interest of a fixed sum invested Annuities Problem To find the presat stated intervals, 833. Problem To find the amount of ent value of an annuity, 354.

Present

To

find tlie

Wortli, at

amount

at a given sum Problem To find the pf an annuity to begin after years purchasable for a given sum, 355.

an annuity purchasable

D.

HAKMONIC PKOGRESSION.
:

Harmonic Series Theorem

progression,

If three quantities are in harmonic reciprocals are in A. P., 357. Harmonic The geometric mean of two quantities is Mean Theorem the geometric mean of the arithmetic and harmonic means of the quantities Problem To insert n harmonic means between a and 6, 358.

their
:

CHAPTER
Binomial Formula, 360.

XXVII.

BINOMIAL THEOREM.
Binomial CoeflBcients, 362. Recurrence of the CoeflBcients Exponent Signs, 364. Practical Rules, 365. General Term, 366. Binomial Theorem for any Rational Index,

368.

CHAPTER

XXVIII.

PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS.

Symbols of Combination and Combination, 369. Permutation Permutation, 370. Number of Permutations, 371. Problem To find the number of permutations of n dissimilar things r at a Problem To find how many of the permutations time, 373. Problem To find the "Pr contain a particular object, 373 number of permutations of n things all together when u of the

Problem To find the value of "Cr things are alike, 375. Problem To find the number of times a particular object will be present in the combinations "Or 376, Meaning of the Bi:

nomial CoeflBcients, 378.

CHAPTER XXIX.
DEPRESSION OF EQUATIONS.
General Equation of the Kth Degree in x Theorem If a is a root of the equation of- -\-aiX^-^ -\- a.iX^-''-\f(_ix4- a" = 0, the Converse of the Theorem first member is divisible by x a, 881. An Equation of the nib. Degree has n Roots, 882,
:


XIV

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXX.
UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS.

Theorem An integral expression of tlie nth degree in x cannot vanish for more than n values of !r, except the coeflicient of all the powers of x are zero Theorem If Ax" -f Bx'^-^-\= A'x":

for all values of a-.both functions being of finite dimensions, then A', B', etc., 386 Definition of partial fractions, 387. Separation of a fraction into its partials, 388. Theorem If Ax'^ Bx"-^ -]-... A'X^ B'x"-^ for all values of x vcbich make the series convergent, both functions being of infinite dimensions, then A', B', etc., 893. Expansion of Functions, 393.

+ B'x"-^ +

A =

B=

A=

B=

CHAPTER XXXI.
CONTINUED FRACTIONS.
Definition of a Continued

Fraction The Convergent of a Continued

Fraction, 399. -Theorem:

^=
5r

"'''Pr-i

+ Pr-i
-^^zl
?)i-l

^^^

_ p^^^.^j
^

arqr-i-\-qr-2

and Complete Quotients Theorem:

^?

= (niE
to the

402.

Theorem: Each convergent is nearer in value fraction than any previous convergent, 404.
value of a continued fraction differs from
Qn

Theorem:
by
less

QnQn-l continued

The
(?'

last

than

and by more than

;r-^

Theorem:

The

convergent pre-

*? Ji-H ceding a large partial quotient is a close approximation to the value of a continued fraction, 405. Theorem: Every fraction whose numerator and denominator are positive integers can be converted into a terminating continued fraction, 406. Periodic A quadratic surd can be exContinued Fractions Theorem pressed as an infinite periodic continued fraction, 410. Theorem: An infinite periodic fraction may be expressed as a quadratic surd, 413.

PART

FUNDAMENTAL

PRINCIPLES

AND

OPERATIONS

ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA.
CHAPTEK
I.

ALGEBEAIC NOTATION AND SYMBOLS.

1.

erties

Symbols of Operation. Algebra treats of the propand relations of numbers. In this respect algebra
operations of algebra are the same as

agrees with arithmetic.

The fundamental
those of arithmetic.

These are addition, subtraction,

also indicated

multiplication, division, involution, and evolution.

These operations are

algebra as in arithmetic.

by the same

signs in

These are

(plus) for addition, -^ for

(minus) for subtraction,

for multiplication,

division, a figure placed above at the right (called

an ex-

and 4/ (radical) for evolution. These are called operative symbols, or symbols of operation. Multiplication is also indicated by a dot between the factors.. Thus, 4 5 means that 4 is to be mu.ltiplied by 5.
ponent) for involution,
.

2.

Algebraic Expressions.

Numbers

are
is

denoted in

algebra by letters as well as by figures.

in

This

one respect

which algebra

differs

from arithmetic.

When
metic, the

figures are written one after another in arith-

expression denotes the

sum

of

the different

orders of units denoted by the figures separately.

Thus,

334

= 300 + 20 + 4.

AL&EBRAIG NOTATION AND SYMBOLS.

AVhen
letters are written

one after another in algebra,

the expression formed denotes the product of the numbers

denoted by the individual

letters.

Thus, ahc

axi X

c.

When
to

figures are used in algebra, they are

combined

form numbers in the same way as in arithmetic. When figures and letters are written one after another, the expression denotes a product of which the numeral and
literal parts are factors.

Thus, l%hc

= 13

c.

more comprehensive than numeral expressions. Thus, 334 means one number only, while aic represents every product that is composed of three factors, and these factors may be integral, fractional, or surd. Owing to this comprehensiveness
Literal expressions are
of
its

expressions, algebra

is

sometimes

callfed

generalized

arithmetic.

the

To find the value of an algebraic expression is number which it represents on the supposition
stand for particular numbers.

to find

that

its

letters
3.

Exponents.

When the same

is

letter enters

more than
it

once as a factor in a product, the number of times that

enters as a factor
at the top.

indicated by writing a figure after

it

Thus, a<?
read

= aXiXbXcXcXc.
how many
an

The

expression
c third."

is

" a,

b square, c cube," or

"a, b second,

The number used

to denote
is

times the same

factor occurs in a product

4.

called

expo7ient.

Coefficients.

The number used

to denote

how many
is

times a single letter or a product of two or more letters

taken

is

written before the letter or product and on a line

with

it.

The number thus used denotes that the number x

x-^x-\-x-{-x-\-x; while
7abc

is is

called a coefficient.

Thus, bx

taken 5 times.

x^ [x fifth)

=
-\-

That is, 5a; x X x X x X x X

=
x.

~ abc + abc + abc

-f-

ahc

-\-

abc

abc

+ abc.

ALOEBRAIO NOTATION AND SYMBOLS.

"When no
coefficient

3
the

or

exponent

is

expressed,

nmnber one

is to

be assumed.

EXERCISE

I.

Find the value 5, and c = 7

1.

of the following expressions

when =

3,

abc.

ALGEBRAIO NOTATION AND SYMBOLS.

magnitude contains the unit is called the numeric value of the magnitude. This term is also extended to the cases in which the value can be expressed only by a fraction or a
surd.

letters or of both, are called quantities.

;

Numerical expressions, whether composed of figures or Every algebraic that is, it represents some numexpression is numerical

ber.

Hence every
6.

algebraic expression

is

a quantity.

ftuantitative Symbols.

The symbols which

expression
is

express

number

are called quantitative symbols.

In algebra they

are both numeral

and

literal.

7.

Terms.

When an algebraic

made up

of parts separated

by signs of operation, the parts separated

by the consecutive signs are called terms. Thus, in the expression 5a^b -j- c 13 aWc, 5a^b, c, 13, and ab^c are terms. It will be noticed that a term may be a single letter, a number expressed by one or more figures, or a product composed of literal or of literal and numeral factors. The numeral factor of a term is commonly called its coefficient, and

when no numeral
regarded as one.

factor

is

expressed the coefficient

is

to be

Thus, in the expression

of the
first

7*/

5a

-\- b(?,

the coefficient
1.

term

is 7,

of the second 5, of the third

sion

Monomials and Polynomials. An algebraic expreswhich contains no signs of operation is called a monomial, or a one-term expression; one composed of two terms separated by a sign of addition or subtraction, a binomial, or a two- term expression one composed of three terms separated by signs of addition or subtraction, a triExpressions which nomial, or a tliree-term expression. contain more than three terms are sometimes called multx8.
;

ALGEBRAIC NOTATION AND SYMBOLS.

nomials, and
all

expressions which contain

more than one

find the

term are usually classed together as polynomials.

To
values

find the value of a polynomial,

its

we must

value of each of

terms and then add or subtract these

according to the signs before the terms.

of a polynomial

minus term

sum

of the plus terms or

Every must be subtracted from the from some individual plus term.
first

When
nomial

no sign

is

placed before the

term of a poly-

it is

understood to be a plus term.

EXERCISE
Find the value

II.

of each of the following polynomials,

when a
1. -5

2.

= 1/3, and c 2/3 + a^c - 2abc - Wc + l<da?h(?. 9ac2 - 2453c - ^aV- - V&ahc' + ta\.
'd,

Find the values

o

of

the following polynomials

<?

when

2, 5

3, c

4,

and

3.

'oabcd

5a^v

7ab^d-\- Sa^cd'^'

4.

Ba^cd^

+ 6abcd lab^d 5a^c.

7ab^d
-\-

5.

Sa^cd^

6.

hd^c

hc?c. BaJ'cd^ + Gabcd laVd.

-\-

Qabcd

Note that the value

in whatever order
its

of a polynomial rem,*ins the

same

terms are written.

Note also that the value of a polynomial may be found by first adding together the values of its plus terms, and also of its minus terms, and then subtracting the latter sum from the former.
9.

Similar Terms.

Similar

terms are those which

agree both in their letters and in their exponents.

They
similar

need not, however, agree either in their signs or in their

coefficients.

Thus

a^xy', ba^xy^,

Ba^xy^,

are

all

terms.

ALGEBRAIC NOTATION AND SYMBOLS.

The
similar terms of a polynomial

may be combined

into one term by performing

upon

their coefficients the

operations indicated by the signs of the term, and using

the resulting

number

as

the coefficient of the

common

literal factors of

the terms.

Dissimilar terms cannot thus be combined into one.

Similar plus terms are combined into one plus term by

adding their coefficients, similar minus terms are combined into one minus term by adding their coefficients, and a plus and a minus term, when similar, are combined into one by
subtracting their coefficients.

EXERCISE

III.

Reduce the following polynomials combining their similar terms

1.

to simpler

forms by

2.

3.

4.

5.

+ lOa^S^ - ia^js - ^aW + 12. 12a - bV - 6a - 7J2 - 2 - 3 + 6 - &3?y + 8 - d3?y + 15a?y - 10 + 7 - b. la^y - 12a^y + 9ay^ + M^y - a^y - ta^x + I'^a^x - 5aV - &aH + Sa?x + 15-9.
2a%^
3.

7.

CHAPTEE

II.

EQUATIONS AND PARENTHESES.

A.
10.

EQUATIONS.

an Ec[uatioii. an equation. separated by the sign of members

of
of equality
is

Members

An algebraic expression
It is

called

composed

of

two

equality.

The

part be-

fore the sign of equality

is

called \h.e first

member, and the

1x

part after the sign, the second member.

Thus, 7

22:

+ 6 = 26 +

a;

is
a;

an equation.
is its

%x

is its first

member, and 26

second member.

Verbal Symbols. The signs =, >, <, . stand for the phrases "equal to," "greater than," "less than," "therefore" or "then," and are hence called verbal signs.
11.
12.

Axioms.

A mathematical truth
is

so evident as to be

generally accepted without proof

called

an axiom.

The

following are important axioms about equations.

1.

If

the same quantity or equal quantities be added

to equals, the
2.

If the

sums will be equal. same quantity or equal quantities be subby the same quantity or by

tracted from equals, the remainders will be equal.

3.

If equals be multiplied

equal quantities, the products will be equal.

4.

If equals be divided

by the same quantity or by

equal quantities, the quotients will be equal.

5.
f
'

6.

The same powers of equals are equal. The same roots of equal quantities are

equal.
7

EQUATIONS AND PARENTHEBE8.

The two following axioms
are applicable to all algebraic

expressions.
7.

The

subtraction of any quantity from an algebraic

its

expression neutralizes the efEect of

pression.
8.

addition to the ex-

The

division

of

an algebraic expression by any

quantity neutralizes the effect of multiplying the expression

by the same quantity.

13. Transposition of

Terms.

It follows

from axioms

and ^ that a term

may

be omitted from one

member

of

an equation and written with the opposite sign in the other without destroying the equality of the members.
Thus,
if 7a;

3a; + 7a; 3a; 7a; 3a; 7a; - 3a; 7a; - 3a; is

6
a;

26

a:,

then, by axiom 3,
a;
.r,

+ 6 = 26 +
6

and, by ax. 7,

a; -|-

a;

a;

= 36. Again, by axiom 3, + 6 - 6 = 36 - 6, and, by ax.7, = 36 - 6.

member and
is

When

a term

omitted in one
it

placed with

the opposite sign in the other

said to be transposed.

plus term is transposed by subtracting it from each member, and a minus term by adding it to each member. Combining the similar terms in the last equation, we get
4a;

= 30.

14. Collection of

Terms.
is

The combining of the similar

=
Dividing each 20 by 4 we get, by axiom 4,

terms in an equation
15. Division

called collecting the terms.

Coefficient of x.

by the

member
a;

of the equation 4a;

5.

16. Solution of

an Equation.

to find the value in terms of in

it

which represents

To solve an equation is known quantities of the letter an unknown quantity.

EQUATIONS.
It is

first letters

customary to represent known quantities by the of the alphabet and unknown quantities by the
z,

last letters, x, y,

etc.

Among

the steps necessary to the solution of an equa-

tion are transposition, collection,

ficient of the

and

division by the coef-

unknown

quantity.

EXERCISE
explain each step taken
1.

IV.

Solve each of the following equations, and

name and

2.
3.

4.

5.

+ - 12 = + 73. = 99 y. 14y + 8 8z - 6 + 6 + 22 = 32 + 53. l/2a; + 3/2a; + 7 = 27 - l/3a;. 7/52; - l/3a; - 18 = 72 + 3/4a;.

9a; 3a;
5a;

22/

6.

'ix -\-

=
-\-

-\-

ba.

7.

ax-\-l)

Sax

=c

5ax.

17. Literal

Coefficients,

In

the seventh example,

first

may be
3a

considered as the coefficient of x in the

term,

x in the third term, and 5a as the x in the last term. Coefficient means fellow factor, and in any literal product all the factors but one may be taken as the coefficient of that factor.
as the coefficient of

coefficient of

18.

Algebraic Solution of Problems.

To

solve a prob-

lem

algebraically, we-

must

first

obtain an equation in terms

of the

known and unknown

quantities of the problem,

and

then solve the equation to find the value of the

quantities in terms of the
e.g.
1.

unknown

known.

Divide the number 105 into two parts, one of

which shall be six times the other. X = the number in the smaller part; Let . Qx = the number in the larger part.
.

10

EQUATIONS AND PARENTHESES.

and

BquATiom.
contain twice as
as

11
first

many

as the third,

and the

three times

many

as the third.

II.

6.

twice as

130 marbles are arranged in 3 piles so that there are many marbles in the first pile as in the second and

three times as

many

in the second as in the third.

?

How

many
7.

marbles in each pile

times as

In a school there are three grades, and there are three many scholars in the lowest grade as in the middle
five

grade and
highest.

times as

many
school

in the middle grade as in the

The whole

numbers 735.
?

How many

scholars are there in each grade

8.

A man bought
He

a horse, a carriage, and a harness for

450

dollars.

paid three times as

much

for the horse as

as for

for the harness,

the horse.
9.

and twice as much for the carriage What was the cost of each ?

A boy bought
He

a speller, an arithmetic, and a history

for $2.30.

gave twice as

the arithmetic, and three times as

as for the speller.
10.

much for much

the history as for

for the arithmetic
?

How much

did he pay for each

A boy is
who

three years older than his sister, and has a years older than himself.

brother

is five

Their united

ages are 41 years.

How

old

is

he

19. Clearing EcLuations of Fractions.

is

Since a fraction
its

reduced to

its

numerator when
since both

it is

multiplied by

de-

members of an equation may be nominator, and the same number without destioying their multiplied by
equality,

plying both
tion.
e.g.

an equation may be freed of a fraction by multiits members by the denominator of the frac-

Free the equation

32:

=: 6 of its fraction.

12

EQUATIONS AND PARENTHESES.

^X
.-.

5.

(Why

?)

Zx
a;

= 30; = 10.
-2

ISTote

or 8

tiplied

+ 4 multiplied by 2 = either 13 X = 24 + X 2 = 16 + 8 = 24. Also that 8-4 mulby 2 = either 4x2 = 8 or 8X2 4x2 = 10
that 8

-8 = 8.
2b, and J multiplied oy 2 = 2 by 2 = 2 2b. That is, to multiply any algebraic expression by a number, we must multiply each term of the expression by the number.

So in general a
b multiplied

If

freed of

an equation contains two or more fractions it may be all of them by multiplying both its members by
all

the product of
e.g.

the denominators at once.

-|-

Free the equation -^

--

8 of fractions.

Multiplying both members by 12,

we get

^+?^-96
or
8a;

9a;

96.

Instead of multiplying both

all

the denominators,

members by the product of we may multiply by the least common

^3/

multiple of the denominators.

e.g.

Free the equation

SS/
(-

|-

^CC - =
1/0

2 of fractions.

The L. C. M. of 3, 5, and 12 members by this, we obtain

,

is

60.

Multiplying both

180a; 120a; 340a; _ . "T~+^~+32"-^^"'

or

40a;

+ 36a; + 20a; = 120.

EQUATIONS.
Ex.
1.

13
first shall

Divide 150 into two parts such that the

be 2/3 of the second. Let x = the number in the second part; %x

first

3 a

Hence

14

EQUATIONS AND PARENTHESES.

^=
=

o.eo,

and

If

6.00.

Hence the

first

receives $14.40, tlie second $9.60, the

third $7.20, and the fourth $6.00.

EXERCISE
1.

VI.
first shall

Divide 175 into two parts, so that the

be

3/3 of the second.

2. Two men in comparing their ages found that the first was 3/5 as old as the second, and that their united ages were 72 years. How old was each ?
3.

Divide $4.89

shall receive

3/2 as

among much

four boys so that the second

as the
first,

the third 3/4 as

as

much
third.
4.

as the second,

and the fourth 2/5

much

as the

A man

bought four houses for $117,000.00.

for the second as for the
first,

He
for

paid 2/3 as

much

4/5 as

much
each
?

for the third as for the second,

and 3/4

as

much

the fourth as for the third.

How much

did he pay for

5.

A man buys
much

three horses for $325.00, and pays four

times as

for the first as for the second,

first.

much

for the third as for the

How much

and twice as does he pay

for each ?
B.

PAREN'THESES.

20. Symbols of Aggregation.

To

indicate
lies

that any

portion of an algebraic expression which

between non-

PARENTHESES.
consecutive signs
is

15

to be taken together as a

complex term,

we

enclose the portion within parentheses or brackets.

Thus, in the expression 5

4ffc are

-|-

4:ac
is

3(4a

+ 3S),

and

simple terms, 3(4a

+ 25)

a complex term.

The

may

be considered as the coefficient of the parenthesis,

and the minus sign means that three times the quantity within the parenthesis is to be subtracted from what precedes
it.

The

parenthesis does not indicate an operation, but

that certain parts of an algebraic expression are to be taken

together in an operation.
aggregation.

Hence

it

is

called a sign of

bar or vinculum, drawn over or under the parts of

a^-e

the expression which

tion, is often

to be

taken together in an opera-

used instead of a parenthesis as a sign of

aggregation.

Thus,

+ 4ac - 3

4a

+ 35.

When two or more 21. Signs of Parenthetic Terms. minus terms occur in an expression, they are to be subtracted from the remaining terms. Thus, 16 64 means that both the 6 and the 4 are The final result will be 6. This to be subtracted from 16. is the same result that would be obtained by subtracting 10, That is, the sum of 4 and 6, from 16.
16

-4=
a

16

{h

(6

+ 4).

In general, a
Again,

or 16 4 6 means that 6 from the sum of 16 and 4. We may is to be subtracted first take 6 from 16 and add 4 to the result, or we may In first add 4 to the 16 and then take 6 from the result. This is the same reeither case the final result will be 14.

hc= 16 6 + 4

~\- c).

16
suit that

EQUATIONS AND PARENTHESES.

would be obtained by taking the difference between 4 and 6 from 16. That is,
16

-6+4=
i
-\-

16

(6

- 4).

In general, a

{b

c).

That

is, if

a parenthesis have a minus sign before

it,

the sign of every term within the parenthesis must be

changed both on putting on and on taking off the parenthesis. This is a very important rule and should be carefully borne in

mind.

(6 4) means that the difference between 4 and 6 is to be added to 16. The result is 18. This is the same result that would be obtained by first adding 6 to 16 and then taking 4 from the result. That

The

expression 16

is,

16

+ (6 - 4) = 16 -f 6 - 4.

In general,

+ (S

c)

a-{-h

c.

That

is, if

a parenthesis have a plus sign before

it

it,

the

signs of the terms within

are not to be

changed either on

putting on or on taking

off

the parenthesis.

22. Parenthetic Factors.

4(6

-4)

=4X2 = 8 = 4X6-4X4.
- c) = 45 - 4c, 4a(6 c) = 4a5 4ac.
4(5

In general,

and

removing a parenthesis, every term within must be multiplied by the factors without the parenthesis, and on putting on a parenthesis all fac-

That

is,

in

the parenthesis

PABENTHESE8.
tors common to all the terms within the parenthesis placed without the parenthesis.

may be

EXERCISE

VII.

Eemove
expressions
1.

the parenthesis from each of

the following

ia~
3m

U - 2a(3b - id) +

6. c).

2.

3. 4.

5.

6.

+ 4 5c{4:X Sy + 7 + 8(3c - ib) - Ux. 6x a{b + 7a. 18w + 8(2a - 3b + Ic). Sk + 3{%x + 7).
c) -j-

Place the three terms after the

jfirst

of each of the fol-

lowing expressions within a parenthesis,

first

with a minus

and then with a plus sign before the parenthesis

7.

8.

9.

10.

- 3a - + + 9. "tab - 8bc + Wed + 34c2 + 3. 27 + Qah - lOa^b + 12l 10a; + 2,0x^ + 35aV - 35.
5a;
6^1
9t;

EXERCISE

VIII.

1.

Find two numbers whose

difference

is

4,

and such

that three times the less plus four times the greater shall

equal 233 minus eight times the

2.

sum

of the numbers.

Find two numbers whose difference is 6, and such minus five times the less shall equal 156 minus nine times the sum of the numbers.
that seven times the greater
3.

A man

bought a

carriage, a horse,

and a harness for

for the horse as

720

dollars.

He

paid three times as

much

18

EQUATIONS AND PABENTHESEa.

and twice
as

for the harness,

much

for the carriage as for

the horse and harness together.

How much

did he pay for

each?

merchant received 131,640.00 in three months. The second month he received 80 dollars less than three times as much as he received the first month, and the third month he received 40 dollars less than three times as much as he received the first two months. How much did he receive each month ?
4.
5.

What number
will equal 34 ?

increased by one-half

and

one-fifth of

itself

II.

6.

What number
itself,

increased

by two-thirds and three-

fourths of
7.

and 21 more,

will equal three times itself ?

What number
and 17 more,

increased by one-half and one-third

will equal 50 ?

of itself,
8.

What number
itself,

diminished by three-fourths and one-

sixth of
9.

and

6 more, will equal 5 ?

What number
itself,

diminished by two-thirds and onewill equal one-ninth of itself ?

ninth of
10.

and 11 more,

Divide 119 into three parts such that the second

shall

be three times the remainder obtained by subtracting

first,

from the

and the third

shall be twice the

remainder

obtained by subtracting the

23.

first

from the second.

it

Note.

For

the present

will

be necessary to

transpose the terms of an equation in such a

after the terms

way

that,

have been collected, the term containing

difference whether the

the

unknown
It

quantity will be plus.

makes no

is

finally in the first or the

e.g.

second

unknown quantity member of the equation.

In a school of three grades, one-half the scholars

PARENTHESES.
are in the lowest grade, one-third in the middle grade,

19

and

60 in the highest grade.

How many
?

scholars in each

grade, and in the whole school

Let X . l/%x

and

or

= the number of scholars in the whole school. = the number of scholars in the lowest grade, 1/Zx = the number of scholars in the middle grade, 60 = the number of scholars in the highest grade. l/2a; + 1/dx + 60 = 3x + 2x + 360 = 6x, 360 = 6x 3x %x, = whole school. 360 = l/2x- 180; l/3a; = 120.
.

a;,

a;

The equation might have been written

x

l/2x

+ l/3x + 60,

and

all

the terms containing x might then have been transfirst

ferred to the

member.

EXERCISE

IX.

1.

bin contains a mixture of rye, barley, and wheat.

2/5 of the grain are rye, 2/7 barley, and 77 bushels are
wheat.

How many

bushels of grain are there in

all,

and

how many
2.

of each kind ?

In an orchard there are thjee kinds of apple-trees.

3/3 of the trees are bald wins, 2/11 greenings,

pippins.
of each
3.

How many
kind
?

trees are there in

all,

and 35 are and how many

There are four

villages

on a straight road.
is

The

distance

from the
first to

first to

the second

3/8 of the distance

from the

the fourth, the distance from the second

20
to the third

EQUATIONS AND PARENTHESES.

is

the third to the fourth

lages apart
4.

3/5 of that distance, and the distance from How far are the vilis 18 miles.

many stamps as Howard, had bought 80 and Howard had sold 30 they had together 450. How many had each at first ?
Louis had four times as

and

after Louis

II.

6.

Divide 226 into three parts, such that the

less

first shall

be four
third.
6.

than the second and nine greater than the

In an election 70,524 votes are cast for four candi-

dates.

The

losing candidates received respectively 812,

less

532,

and 756 votes

than the winning candidate.

How

many
7.

votes did each candidate receive ?

Four towns M, N, 8, and T are on a straight road. from Jf to ^ is 108 miles, the distance from iVto *S^is 2/7 of the distance from to N, and the distance from Sio Ti& three times the distance from to S. to N, from Find the distance from to S, and from S

The

distance

M N

to T.

CHAPTER

III.

NEGATIVE QUANTITIES.
relations of numbers and the fundamental operations of arithmetic and algebra, when they are performed on integers and result in integers, are simply abbreviated methods of counting.

24.

Counting.

The fundamental

are determined by counting,

Numbers may be counted forward or backward. In the former case the numbers obtained are always increasing and
in the latter case decreasing.

In arithmetic we
zero.

may count

forward indefinitely, but backward only to

Counting forward is counting on, or addition; counting backward is counting off, or subtraction. In arithmetic
subtraction
or counted
is

impossible
contains

off,

when the number to be subtracted, more units than the number from
counted
off.

which

it is

to be subtracted, or

13 rep-

resents an operation

which

is

arithmetically impossible.
is

In algebra the operation

off is

generalized,

and counting

considered to be as unlimited as counting on.

Num-

running only forward from zero as in arithmetic, are considered as running backward from zero as
bers, instead of

well.

25. Signs of Quality.

In arithmetic the
scale a

scale of

num-

bers begins at zero

it

and runs forward only, while in algebra To indicate in runs both ways from zero at the centre.

which part of the algebraic

forward part of the scale
is

number

belongs, the

called the positive part,

and the
31

22 numbers in

NEGATIVE QUANTITIES.
this part of the scale are either written

without
are
is is

a sign or are preceded by a plus sign.

The numbers

called positive numbers, and the plus sign so used

called

the positive sign.

The backward

part of the scale

called

the negative part, and numbers

in this part of the scale are

written with a minus sign before them.

are called
called the negative sign.

These numbers and the minus sign so used is negative numbers,

The signs + and perform a double office in algebra. They indicate the operations of addition and subtraction,
and
or the negative sense.

whether a quantity is to be taken in the positive In the former case they are properly called plus and minus, and are symbols of operation and in the latter, positive and negative, and are symbols of quality or sense. When a term stands alone the sign before it is
also

to be regarded as positive or negative.

term standing alone without a sign

is

understood to

be positive.
26.

The Algebraic Scale

of

Numbers.

Counting along
is

the algebraic scale towards the positive end

counting on,

or in the positive direction, and counting along the scale

towards the negative end

direction.

is

counting

ofE,

or in the negative

line of

algebraic scale may be represented by a horizontal numbers with zero at the centre and the consecutive numbers differing by a single unit, those to the right of zero being distinguished by the positive sign, and those to

The

the left of zero by the negative sign.

Thus,

13,

13,

11,

fo,

9,

8,

7,

6,

5,

4,

3,

i,

1,

0,

+ + + + + + +
1,

+++ ++
8, 9,

+
13.

2,

3,

4,

5,

6,

7,

10,

11,

12,

Counting along

this line

from any point towards the

NEGATIVE
right
is

QtlANTITIMS.

23

counting forward, or positively, and from any point

is

towards the left

e.g.

counting backward, or negatively.

Beginning at minus five and counting positively, we have minus five, minus four, minus three, minus two, minus one, zero, one, two, three, four, five, etc. In this case each new number mentioned is one greater than the last, minus four being one greater than minus five. Beginning at five and counting negatively, we have five, four, three, two, one, zero, minus one, minus two,

minus

three,

minus

four,

minus
is

five,

each new number mentioned

one

Jess
be,

Whatever a
negative unit
is

positive unit

may

etc. In this case than the last. the corresponding

something just the opposite.

27. Absolute

absolute value of

and Actual Values of Numbers. The a number is the number of units in it irits

respective of their sign, while

actual value

is

its

value

due to the number and sign of its unit. value of a positive number increases, its
increases, its actual value decreases.

As the absolute
actual value also

increases, but as the absolute value of a negative numbei-

and Subtraction of Integers. number obtained by beginning 4 means at zero and counting four steps forward, and the number obtained by beginning at zero and counting four steps backward. In general -\- a ov a means the number obtained by bea ginning at zero and counting a steps forward, and means the number obtained by beginning at zero and
28. Algebraic Addition

+ 4 or simply 4 means the

counting a steps backward.

6
-(-

(+

4) m_eans the operation of beginning at plus 6

on the
6

scale

and counting four

steps forward, or in the

direction indicated by the sign of the

number

to be added.

4)

means the operation

of beginning at plus 6

on the

scale

and counting four steps backward.

24
6

NEGATIVE QUANTITIES.

on the

means the operation of beginning at plus 6 and counting four steps backward, or in the opposite direction to that indicated by the sign of the

(+

4)

scale

number
6

to be subtracted. 4)

on the
posite

means the operation of beginning at plus 6 and counting four steps forward, or in the opdirection to that indicated by the sign of the number
scale

to be subtracted.

( 4) having the meanings Note. 6 (+ 4) and 6 given, which are really definitions of addition of a positive and a negative quantity, 6 (+ 4) and 6 ( 4) must have the meanings given them because of subtraction being
the inverse, or opposite, of addition.

In general, the placing of one number after another with a plus sign between indicates the operation of begin-

ning on the scale at the

counting as

first

of the two

numbers and

many

steps as there are units in the

number

to

be added and in the direction indicated by the sign of that

number.

The placing

of one

number

after another

with a minus
as

sign between indicates the operation of beginning on the

scale at the first of the

two numbers and counting

many

steps as there are units in the

number

to

be subtracted, and

in the opposite direction to that indicated

by the sign of

that number.

EXERCISE

X.
scale the values of the

Find by actual counting on the

following expressions

1.

NEGATIVE QUANTITIES.
7.

25

26

NEGATIVE QUANTITIES.
To
indicate that the a

tive or negative

may represent either numbers we may write *a + ^b.

and
b

posi-

31.
1

Commutative
in Exercise
8,

Law

of Addition.
see that

From
b

examples
a; from

and 3
6,

we

-\-

-\-

examples 7 and

that "a

+ "S =

and

that "a -\-b

-\-

b -\-~a;

"; from examples 5 and from examples 3 and 4,

"5

that a

~b

'b

-{- a.

Whence we have

the following general law

+ ^b=

^5

=^0.

In words, the algebraic sum of two numbers

is

the same

no matter in what order the numbers are taken.

This
is

known

as the Gommiitative

Law

of Addition.

32. Addition
bers.

and Subtraction of Corresponding Numscale that

Show by actual counting on the algebraic

8 -f -4

=8=
-8

+4,

or

8-4=4
-4.

-8

+4

-4

-4:^

Also that
8-1-

+4

= 8=
'8

=
"4

12

and

-8 -f +4
In general,
*
-|-

= - 4.
5

-J

= =

*a
'^a

+S,

or

*a

and

"rt -\-

+b
*i

~b.

Whence

='a -f-

*a

n.

same

In words, the addition of any number has precisely the effect as the subtraction of the corresponding number

NEGATIVE QUANTITIES.
tvith the reverse sign.

27

And the
effect

subtraction of any

number

has precisely the same

sponding number most important theorems

33. Associative

as the addition of the correivith the reverse sign. This is one of the
of algebra.

Law

of Addition.

Show

by actual

counting on the algebraic scale that

8

+ 5-3-4 = (8 + 5) -3- 4, = 8 + (5 - 3) - 4, = (8 + 5 - 3) - 4, = 8 + (5 - 3 - 4), == 8 + 5 - (3 + 4) = 6.

*c

In general,

"

+ ^l-

"cZ

= =

(^

*J)

=c
^c)

%
"-d,

*a
(*
='

+ (*i + +
^b~
('^b

= = =
in whatever

=c)

^d,

*c

^d), ^d).

="+

^b- (*c+

In words, the sum of three or more numbers is the same way the numbers may be aggregated. This is
as the Associative Laiv of Addition.

known

N.B.

When terms

are associated with a negative sign

all

before the sign of aggregation, the signs of

the terms
(21.)

within the sign of aggregation must be reversed.

34, Oppositeness of Positive

Positive

and Negative Numbers. and negative signs always imply oppositeness. In

case of abstract numbers, a negative

opposite of a positive

number; that

number is simply the is, a number which

28

NEGATIVE QUANTITIES.

would produce zero when added to its corresponding posiPositive and negative numbers always tend tive number.
to cancel each other.

In the case of concrete numbers, a negative number

the result of a measurement
that which gives a positive number.

is

in the opposite direction to

Thus, distances measured to the right or upward are

usually regarded as positive, and those measured to the left
or

downward

as negative.

Dates after a certain era are

regarded as positive, and those before the era as negative.

Degrees of temperature above zero are positive, while those below zero are negative.
Assets are usually regarded as positive, and debts as
negative.

surplus

is

positive,

The

following quotation

and a deficiency negative. is from Dupuis' Principles of

Elementary Algebra: "If an idea which can be denoted by a quantitative symbol has an opposite so related to it that one of these ideas tends to destroy the other or to render its effects nugatory, these two ideas can be algebraically and properly
represented only by the opposite signs of algebra.

"
s

If a

man buys an

article for b dollars

and

sells it for s

dollars, his gain is expressed

>

b,

this expression is
it s

-|-,

So long and gives the man's gain.

hj
s

b dollars.

as

"But

<

b,
is

the expression

is

It denotes that

now, it is something exactly opposite And as he now sells in character to what it was before. for less than he buys for, he loses. In other words, a negwhatever his gain
ative gain

means

loss.

" Thus, gain and

of oppositeness
If

loss are ideas

is

which have that kind

:

which

expressed by oppositeness in sign.

if

man

gains

he gains

a dollars, he is so much the wealthier a dollars, he is so much the poorer.

or loss
is

" Whether gain

to be considered positive

must

NEGATIVE QUANTITIES.

29

be a matter of convenience, but only opposite signs can denote the opposite ideas. "Among the ideas which possess this oppositeness of
character are the following:

"
to
'

(1)

To

receive

and

to give out;

sell,

to gain

and

to lose, to save

and hence, to buy and and to spend, etc.

To move in any direction and in the opposite direcand hence, measures or distances in any direction and in the opposite direction, as east and west, north and south, up and down, above and below, before and behind,
(3)

tion;

etc.

"(3) Ideas involving time past and time to come;

as,

the past and the future, to be older and to be younger than,

and before, etc. "(4) To exceed and to fall short than and to be less than, etc."
since

ofE;

as,

to be greater

EXERCISE

XI.

Give the meaning of the following expressions:

I.

1,

6 A.D.
B.C.

2. 4.

~n A.D.
"a
B.C.

3.

~40

8.
7.

( 30) B.C. ~50 A.D.

The temperature
is

6.

8.

~b B.C

c)

A.D.

9.

20.

10. 11.

The temperature has

12. 13. 14.

12. The temperature has fallen 16. The temperature has fallen 7). The temperature has fallen ~8. The temperature has risen ~a.
risen
(

30
15.

NEGATIVE QUANTITIES.
It is
It is

16.
17. 18.

It is

17 colder to-day than yesterday.

8

warmer to-day than yesterday.

~13 warmer to-day than yesterday.

lives

Howard

3 miles east of Albert.

II.

19.

Louis

lives

5 miles north of Horace.

20. 21. 22. 23.

24. 26.

Ethel is 4 years older than Edith. Mabel is 6 years younger than Florence. Hilda is ( 2) years younger than Margaret. Hermon owes the grocer 3 dollars. Hilda weighs 7 pounds more than Louis". Mr. Crane is 30,000 dollars richer than Mr.

Weston.

EXERCISE
1.

XII.

A man
left.

having

c dollars

paid out a dollars to one

person and i dollars to another.

Express in two ways what

he had

A man bought at a market tomatoes at a cents a 2. peck and potatoes at b cents a peck, and paid m cents for an equal number of pecks of each. How many pecks did he buy ?
3.

Two
The

cities are

42 miles apart.

Two men

start at

the same time from the two cities and walk towards each
other.
first travels

four miles an hour and the second

three miles an hour.

In

how many hours

?

will they

meet

and how
4.

far will each

cities, are

have travelled
a miles apart.
cities

Two

Two men

start at the

same time from the two

and

travel towards each

NEGATIVE QUANTITIES.
other, the first at the rate of

31

miles an hour, and the

second at the rate of n miles an hour.

will they meet,
5.

and how

far will each

In how many hours have travelled ?

is

Find two numbers whose sum

108 and such that

less shall

10 times the greater minus 5 times the

be

less

than 762 by 4 times the sum of the numbers.

CHAPTER

IV.

ADDITION OF INTEGBAL ALGEBRAIC

EXPRESSIONS.
35. Arithmetical and Algebraic Sums. amount, of two or more integral numbers

The
is

sum, or

the

obtained by counting
ation of finding the
additio7i.

all

the numbers together.

of

number The operis

sum

two or more numbers

all

called

Since the numbers of arithmetic are

addition of a

positive, the

number

in arithmetic will always increase the

of units in the number to which the addition is made, and the sum of two or more numbers will contain as

number

numbers together. The arithmetic more numbers is the sum of the numbers without regard to their signs. That is, it is the sum of the

many units sum of two

as all the

or

absolute values of the numbers.

In algebra, the addition of a positive and a negative

number will tend to diminish the number of units in the number which has. the greater absolute value. The algebraic sum of two such numbers is the arithmetical difference
of the

numbers with the sign

algebraic
is

of the

one which has the

larger absolute value.

The
negative

sum

of t\vo

the arithmetic

sum

numbers both positive or both of the numbers with then

common

sign.

Thus,

+ 10 = 18, -8 -H -10 = - 18, -8 + 10 = + a. 8 + ~10 = - 3,

8

ADDITION OF INTEGEMS.
The
of the
it is

33

algebraic sum of two or more numbers is the sum numbers regard being had to their signs. That is,

the

sum

of the actual values of the numbers.

36. Signs of Coefficients.

The sign of
only.

a term

may be
is,

regarded as belonging to

its coefficient

That

plus
/

terms
tive.

may be

regarded as those whose coefficients are posiThe reason for this will appear farther on, under

Multiplication.
37.

Integral

Algebraic

Expressions.

It

has been

learned in arithmetic that numbers are not only integral,

but also fractional and surd.

the letters

In any algebraic expression

may

stand for any kind of number.

An

algebraic expression such as

x^

or
in

- 4a;8 - Sa;^ l-\-^x- 3x^ - 4:X^ +

52;*

-|- 2a;

5a;*

+ + z%

1,

gers,

which the exponents of the letters are all positive inteand in which none of the letters occur in the denomof fractions, or in the
divisors
of

inators

an indicated

division, are called integral algebraic expressions.

efficients of

The

co-

the various terms

may

be fractional.

38.

Extension of the Application of the Formal Laws

of Addition.
sions
it is

In the addition of

integral algebraic expres-

assumed that the commutative and associative laws already established for integral numbers apply equally to fractional and surd numbers. This is in accordance
with the generalizing spirit of algebra.
39.

Definition of Addition of Algebraic Expressions.

is to

To add integral algebraic expressions

to be

combine their
resulting ex-

various terms into a single algebraic expression, each term

preceded by

its

own proper
its

sign.

The

pression should be given in

simplest form.

34

ADDITION OF INTEGERS.
40. Addition of

Monomials and Polynomials.

Similar
num-

terms are analogous to concrete numbers of like denominations,

and dissimilar terms are analogous

to concrete

bers of unlike denominations.

Similar terms

may

be added by finding the algebraic

sum
and

of their coefficients

and writing

after this the

common

literal factors of

the terms.

Thus, the

sum

of ba?b, 1o?i,

%cj?h

is

4a^J.

Dissimilar terms can be added only by placing

them
its

one after another in a polynomial expression each with own sign. Thus, the sum of 3^5, 4aJ, and 5c is 3a^6 4a5
3^&

+ 5c. + ~4aS + 5c,

The sum

of these dissimilar terms

is

really
is

but, as

we have

seen, to

add "4a5
the

the

same

as to subtract +4a&, or

^4ai

4aJ.

The
Ex.

following examples will

illustrate

working

rules of addition
1.

Zo?x la'x hc^x

- Wy - Wy hWy
- 31%
like signs,

\haH
To add simihir terms with
prefix the

annex the cmnmon

coefficie7its,

literal factors to the arithmetical

sum

of the

and

common

sign.

Ex.

2.

Ix'y^

ADDITION OF INTEGERS.
To add similar terms with
metical

35

tinlike signs, find the arith-

sum

of the coefficients of the plus terms,

and of

the

coefficients

of the

minus

terms,

and

the arithmetical differ-

ence of these tivo sums, annex

literal factors,

to this

difference the

common

and

prefix the

common

sign of the terms

whose

coefficients
3.

produce the larger arithmetical sum.

Ex.

36

ADDITION OF INTEGERS.

terms in the polynomials into single terms, and write these

the remaining terms as a polynomial. In the addition of polynomials, it is convenient to arrange the terms so that the similar terms will fall in vertical

and

columns.
41. Simplification of Polynomials.

When

any polynoit

mial contains one or more sets of similar terms,

may

be

simplified by combining these sets into single terms.

EXERCISE
Find the sum

XIII.

of the following terms:

I.

1.

3fl5,

7a, 2a, a, 13a.

2.

la^x, 9a^a;, a^x, %Qa^x.

8.

4.
5.

6.

7.

8.

- aV, - laW, - \\a, - 4aJ3, - %a. tx, 2x, 8x, X, 13a;, 11a;, 15a;. Sx', - bo?, 8a;S - l'ix\ 5a<?x, a<?x, %af?x, \^a(?x. 5/^ 4ac, ac, 7y^ 5ac, ^y^, 5. 7a'a;. 4a5, ao?, 3a^a;, 8, 5aJ.
5aV^,

Simplify the following polynomials

I.

9.

^x

hob -\-lx \-

-\-

Wab

30a;.

10.
11.

MW l/3a; 2/32/

7a;2 - 5 + Vlx" -

ia^^

+ 12 -

c.

l/2a;

+ 3/4a; + x.
2y

12.

3/4y

l/3y

18.

9{a

+ h) + 10(a + b)

+ 5/Gy + y. (a + b) - 2(a + b).

ADDITION OF INTmBBS.
II.

Si

14.
15.

(a

-\-

b)

+ y)+8a {x + y) + S{x + y)- 16. 2(m +n) + 3{a + i) + {a + b) - {m + n) +

7a

3{x

6(m

-|-

n).

16. 17.

3a{b

+ x) + 5a{b + x) + 7a{b + x) - lla{b + x). 2c{a^ - P) -3c{a^- b^) + Qc{a^ -V")- \c(a^ - P).
the following polynomials:

Add

I.

4Sy 8, 2az + bly + 6, 5az + %by 7, 18. 5. and 8a Iby %cz^, and 4a; Baa; 3cz^, bax 5cz^, ax 19. 4c^. - 3a + 55 + 2<?, - 6b - 3c 8 + 5, 3a - & + 20. + 3d, and 5a + 7c 2d.
3az
-\-\-\-

e,

II.

+ 52 + 3 x 3y 8 g, x + y ~3z-l + 7g, 2x + 3y + 3z - 1 - g, and + 8y-6z + Q+g. 7a^ + 3ab 3xy, 3a^ 3a^ + 5aJ xy,
21.
7a;

6/

5^,

a;

22.

7ab

-\-

bxy,

and %a^
8aH^

ab

%xy.

23.

5aW -

%x^y,

3aW + 3aW -

+ x^y + xy^, 3xhj +

4:aW and 5a;2/^

7aW ^a'b^

3xy^

- a^S^ -

3x^y

3xy^.
A lady bought three
remains due

24.

yards of ribbon at a cents a

yard, 10 yards of tape at c cents a yard, and five spools of

thread at d cents a spool.

She paid x cents on the

bill.

How much

38
25.

ADDITION.

in the thermometer During the next 24 hours it rose i degrees and fell c degrees. The following day it rose d degrees. What was its height then ?

One morning the mercury

stood at X degrees.

26.

father divided his property of 27,000 dollars

among

his four children, giving

500 dollars

less to

each in
did

succession from the eldest to the youngest.

How much

he give to each

"^

u.
27.

father gave his eldest son x dollars, his second

less, his

son 7 dollars

third son 9 dollars less than the sec-

ond, and his fourth son 11 dollars less than the third.

How

much
28.

did he give to

all ?

A father divided his property among his four chilTo each

of the first three

dren.

erty plus 200 dollars,

lars.
29.

and

to the fourth

he gave 1/4 of his prophe gave 1400 dol?

"What was the value of his property

A man left his

and x acres

five

children x bonds worth a dol-

lars each,

of land

owed

dollars to each of q creditors.

worth i dollars each but he What was each

;

child's share of the estate ?

42.

Aggregation of

Coefficients.

When
may be

two or more
collected into

terms of a polynomial contain one or more

common factors,

whether numeral or
the

literal,

the terms

one by enclosing the terms within a parenthesis and placing

common

factors outside.

When

the

common
first

factors are

numeral and

literal, it is

customary to place the numeral factor and the

belong to the
sis,

letters

which

part of the alphabet before the parenthe-

and the

letters

which belong

to

the last part of the

alphabet after the parenthesis.

e.g.

bacx

-\-

5bcx

5cdx

bc{a -{-h

d)x.

ADDITION OF INTBOEMS.

39

EXERCISE
Collect the coefficients of x

XIV.

and y in the following ex-

pressions

I.

1.

ax -{-ly

-{-

mx
-(-

-\-

ny.

2.

mnx
3x

-f-

2iy
-\-

pqx

iy

Aby.

3.

2y

Qbx
-]-

7(i:c -\-

m
X

-\-

n.

4.

Sax

+ 8bx
is

by

-]-

7x

5y

-\-

5y.
If

5.

Howard

twice as old as Albert.

x represents

Albert's age now,

what would represent

?

their respective

ages eight years hence

6.

Howard

is

now

twice as old as Albert, but 12 years

from now he
7.

will be only
cities,

3/2

as old.

How

old

is

each

Two

miles apart.

Two

couriers,

and B. are on a straight road and 18 P and Q, start at the same

cities

time from the respective

tion,

and

travel in the

same

direc-

from

towards

at the rate of eight miles

an
In

hour, and

Q from
?

at the rate of six miles

an hour.

how many hours

have travelled
8.

will

overtake Q, and

how

far will each

Divide the number a into two parts, one of which

shall exceed the other

by

b.

II.

9.

10.

U.
12.

mx ny pz. Mx + 3ey + ifz 2fx 3dy + iez. 2/3ay - 2x + S/Uy + Qax. 2ax by 3bx iay.
ax
-\-

by

-\-

rz

40

ADMTION.

Horace is now twice as old as Herbert, but a years 13. from now he will be only 4/3 as old. How old is each ?

Two towns, A and B, are a miles apart. Two courand Q, set out at the same time from the respective towns, and travel in the same direction. P travels from A towards B at the rate of 5 miles an hoiir, and Q from B at the rate of c miles an hour. In how many hours will P overtake Q, and how far will each have travelled ?
14.

iers,

CHAPTEE

V.

SUBTEACTION OF INTEGRAL ALGEBRAIC

EXPRESSIONS.
43. Definition of Subtraction.

Subtraction

is

the in-

undoing the operation of addition. In addition, two numbers are given and their sum or amount required. In subtraction, the sum of two numbers and one of the numbers are given, and
verse of addition, or the process of

the other

is

required.
is

The given sum

or remainder.

called the

minuend, the given num-

ber the subtrahend, and the required

number

the difference

minuend is the sum of the subtrahend and we may prove our subtraction by adding the subtrahend and difference to see if their sum agrees with
Since the
difference,

the minuend.
44.

Rule

for

pressions.

We

Subtraction of Integral Algebraic Exhave already seen in section 15 that the

number produces the same effect as the number with the reverse sign, or, conversely, the subtraction of any number is equivalent to the addition of the corresponding number Hence we have the following rule with the reverse sign.
addition of any
subtraction of the corresponding
for algebraic subtraction

Add
end,

the subtrahend with its signs reversed to the

minu-

41

42

SUBTRACTION.
In the operation of subtraction
it is

better not actually

change the old signs, but merely to think of them as changed in the addition. If the new signs are written, it is better not to change the old into the new, but to write
to

the

new

as small signs before the terms at the top.

EXERCISE XV.
I.

1.

2.
3.

+ y + 72 take 5x + 2y 7z. From 9 45 4- 3c take 5a 36 + Subtract 3a* - a^ + 7a - 14 from 11a* - 2a^ + So'
From
2a;
c-

8a.
4.

From lOaV
Subtract 1

- 8a^x.
5. 6.

+ 15ax> + 8a^x take - lOa^a^^

_|_

15^3^

7.

8.

a + a^ 3a' from a' 1 + a* a. From 2/3a;S - 5/2z - 1 take - 2/3x' + x- 1/2. Prom a take h What must be taken from 6a + 5 36 to produce
c.

8a

+ 66 + 13 ?
9.

What must be taken from

x^

2a?

3a^a;^

+9

to pro-

duce

5aV
? is

3 ?

10.

What must be added

to

+ 56 + 9

to produce

3a

11.

26

+6
A

Ethel

twice as old as Edith, and six years ago

she was four times as old.

12.

What

is

the age of each

and

give -S 35 dollars,

B have together 150 dollars. If A were to B would have three times as much as .4.
?
II.

How much

has each

13.

What must be added

to

x to produce y

PARENTHESES.
14.

43
3a;

By how much
?

doe^j 5a;
5a;

4/

7 exceed

+4

15.

From what must From what must

2a;^

+ 7a

13 be subtracted

to produce unity
16.

x^

x^ -\-x

1\>q subtracted to

produce
17.
18. 19.

+^

From
From From

7(a
3a(c

+ h)

take 3(a

+ I).
a;).

x) take a(c a5( 7a^(5

a;)

l)

take 5a^(5

a;)

bab{a
20.

I).

Howard

is

x years

old.

How old

was he eight years

ago?
21.

Divide the number

is

when a

taken from the

five

first

into two parts such that, and given to the second, the

second will be

times the

first.

PARENTHESES.

upon Aggregates. Every algebraic exhowever complex, represents a quantity, and may be operated upon as if it were a single symbol of that
45. Operation

pression,

quantity.

When
quantity

an expression

is

to be operated

upon

as a single

it is

enclosed within parentheses or brackets, but

the parenthesis
will result

may be

omitted when no ambiguity or error

from the omission.

Thus, one polynomial

may

be added to another or to a

monomial by writing it, enclosed within a parenthesis and preceded by a plus sign, after the expression to which it is to be added; and a polynomial may be subtracted from a polynomial or monomial expression by writing it, enclosed within a parenthesis and preceded by a minus sign, after the expression from which it is to be subtracted.
Since terms written after one another each with
its

own

44

SUBTRACTION.

sign in a polynomial expression are to be considered as

added, and since in addition there

parenthesis preceded by a plus sign

is

no change of

signs, a

may be omitted without

any change of signs; and since the subtraction of any quantity produces the same effect as the addition of the
corresponding quantity with the reverse sign, a parenthesis

preceded by a minus sign

every term be changed.

may be

omitted

if

the sign of
that the sign
first

N.B.
within

It

must be

carefully borne in
is

mind

before the parenthesis

it,

not the sign of the

term

but of the parenthesis as a whole.

This sign

with the parenthesis when the latter is removed. no sign is expressed with the first term within the parenthesis, the term is understood to be plus, and its sign must be written on the removal of the parenthesis, as plus
really goes

When

when

the parenthesis
is

is

plus,

and

as

minus when the

parenthesis

minus.

EXERCISE
duce the
results to the simplest
I.

XVI.

Clear the following expressions of parentheses and re-

form

1.

2.
3.

4.

2ax) 7ab. al (m Zab X {a x) {x a). 2b + {b- 2c) - (& + 2c). 4:X-3y+2z- (- 7x+5y-\-

-\-

3z)

(x

- y).

II.

5.

tax

6.

7.

8.

2by {Sax + 3by) {8ax {a x) {a x) 2x. {a b) {b -- c) {c a). - (3m + 3) - {3vi 2n) +

-{-\-

3by)

9;ra.

PARENTHESES.
33.

45

Of course iu forming aggregates preceded by a the sign of every term enclosed within the parenthesis must be changed.

minus

sign,

EXERCISE
aggregate)

XVII.

Eeduce the following expressions

to the

form x

(an

1.

46
der from
c,

SUBTBAOTION.
that remainder from d, and so on.

We

shall

have:
First remainder,
i a. {b a). [c (J a)]. e {<? [c (5 a)] Fourth remainder, Fifth remainder, ^ - [e - {(Z - [c - (5 a)] }].

Second remainder, Third remainder,

(Z

}.

Such parentheses are

called

compound parentheses.

Compound

parentheses of addition and suhtraction

may

be removed by removing separately the individual parenWe may begin either theses of which they are composed.
with
flie

outer ones and go inward, or with the inner ones

is

and go outward. It

customary to begin with the inmost.

e.g. Clear of parentheses

a;-[a- {&- [csuccession, the following forms

(<Z-e)]}].

Beginning with the inmost, the expression takes, in

- Ic - d + = X [a {b c d e}] = X [a b-\-c d-{-e'] = X a-{- b c d

X
{i
e'\]']

-\a -

-{-

-\-

e.

Beginning with the outmost, we have

Again,

- [a - {S - [c - - e)]}] = X a-\- \b \c {d e)"]] = X a b [c {d e)] = X a-\-b G->[-{d e) = X a-\-b c-\-d x \^ {a {c d) {e 2)] b)

a;

(Z

-\-

e.

-\-

-\-

-\-

PARENTHESES.
gives,

47

when we begin with

the inner parentheses,

b-\-c-{-d e-{-z\ = x-\-a + i c d+e z;

\^

and when we begin with the outer parentheses,

x+{a + b)-{c + d) +
x-\-a-\-b

{e-z)

d~\-e

z.

EXERCISE

XVIII.

Eemove the parentheses

in the following expressions,

x, y,

and combine the terms containing

I.

and

z:

1.

2.
3.

4.
5.

m+[-(^-g) + (a-5) + (-c + ^)]. m - [- (a - 5) - (^ + g) + (m tax [(2aa; + ly) (3a; hy)-\-{ 'iax + 35y)]. a {a \a\a {a )] }]
/?;)].

6.

p[a b {s-\-t-\-a)-\-{m w)]. A father left 80,000 dollars to his four fhildren.

The

was to receive four times as much as the youngest less 1800 dollars, the second was to receive three times as much as the youngest less 1200 dollars, and the third was
eldest
to receive twice as

much

as the youngest less 600 dollars.

?

How much
7.

did each receive

Divide a into three parts such that the second shall

first
first.
II.

equal the
twice the

minus

and the third

shall be c less

than

8.

2ax

[3aa;
-\-

cz

by

{lax

-\-

2by)

(5ax

Sby)].

9.

ax -{ by

-{-

[2ax

3cz

{2cz -f 5ax)

(7by

3cz)].

48
10.
11.

SUBTRACTION.

X-

12.
13.

3/)] ax hz {ax bz [ax ^ iz (ax iz)] my {x + 3y + \%my 3{x y) 4a5] +

{%xy
{-^x
|.
-\-

-\ix

-\-

5}.

Divide 186 into

shall exceed the first

five parts such that the second by 13, the third shall exceed twice

the first by 24, the fourth shall exceed three times the first by 36, and the fifth shall exceed four times the first by 48.

CHAPTEE

VI.

MULTIPLICATIOH" OF INTEGRAL ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS.

A.

LAW

OF SIGNS, OP COMMUTATION,

AND

OF ASSOCIATION.
is

47. Multiplication of Integers.

Multiplication

the

number is obtained by counting a number over a given number of times. The number to be counted over is called the multiplicand, the number which indicates how many times the
operation of finding what

multiplicand

is

to be

counted over

is

called the multiplier,

and the number obtained

called the product.

as the result of the operation is

The

multiplier

and the multiplicand are

called /actors

of the product.
48.

Two

Cases of Multiplication,

As

there are two

so there are

directions of counting

from zero in algebra,

two cases of multiplication. In addition, as we have seen, the numbers to be added are counted in the direction indicated by their signs, while in subtraction the numbers to

be subtracted are counted in the opposite direction to those

indicated by their signs.
tiplicand
is

The
is

direction in which the mul-

to be counted

indicated by the sign of the

multiplier.

When

this sign is positive the multiplicand is

its sign.

counted in the direction indicated by

multiplicand.

Hence the

sign in the product will be the same as the sign in the

When

the multiplier

is

negative the multi49

50
plicand
is

MULTIPLICATION.
counted in the opposite direction to that indicated

by

its sign.

the multiplicand.

Hence the sign is the reverse of the sign in The former case corresponds to addition
to

and the
counting
49.

latter
is

subtraction.

In

multiplication

the

always understood to begin at zero.

of Signs in Multiplication.

Law

Ex.

= 48. -4 = -48. 12 X 4X12 = 48. -4x12 = -48.

13

-12

-12

= "48. X -4 = 48.
X

4x-12=:-48.

-4x-r2

= 48.

In general,
a a
b

= ab. X~b = ab. X a = ab.

X
b

-h

we

ab.

= ab. -a X'b = ab. b x~a = ab. ~b X~a = ab.

-a

From
1.

the above

see

That

like signs in multiplication

produce ^Zms, and

unlike signs minus.

2.

That interchanging the signs

a a

of the factors does not

alter the sign of the product,

3.

X^b

ab

ab

=~a X
X
a.

b.

That interchanging the multiplier and multiplicand

does not alter the product,

50.

X'b

= ~b

Commutative
signs

Law

of Multiplication.
is

From 2 and
re-

we

see that multiplication

its

commutative both as
Addition
is

gards

and
its

its factors.

commutative

only as regards 12

terms and not as regards

its signs.

+ -4 = -4 + 12,

but 12

+ -4 does not equal "12 + 4.

tors, that

That multiplication is commutative as regards its facis, that the same result will be obtained by count-

LAW OF
ing

ASSOCIATION
n things over

51

m things over n
may
Place

times as by counting

times,

be shown as follows.
sqtiares in a horizontal

row and repeat the row

n times as in Fig. 1. Evidently we would get the numvertically

ber of squares in the figure either

by counting the m squares of the lower row over n times, or by

left-hand

the n squares of the column over m times. Hence m X n = n X mThus the commutative law of multipli-

counting

cation

is

seen to be a consequence
of addition.

commutative laws

52

MULTIPLICA TION.

LAW OF
in a single term.

ASSOCIATION.
all their factors

53
together

expressions together by grouping

This term must therefore contain every factor contained and each factor as many times as in all the terms together.
in the terms multiplied together,
e.g.

Sa^S^c

X ^aWx =

3a.a.h.h.i.c.4:.a.a.a.l>,i.x^=
3
.

i. a

To multiply one monomial by another, multiply together numeral coefficients and ivrite after the product obtained each letter of both monomials with an exponent equal
their
to the sum of its exponents in the tivo terms. multiply coefficients and add exponents.

Briefly,

The

sign of the product must be determined by the law

of signs in multiplication.

EXERCISE XIX.
Find the product
of the following factors:
I.
1.

3a and 5a and

7&.
6a^5.

2.

3.

4.

6.

6.

Sx^y^. a^bx and a^^y^. ~ "ic^T? and 5^a;V. Irr^ny^ and b?*m^a;*.
^a^x and

7.

am X
ax

a5

X
bx

X
ox

ad.

8.

dx.

54
9.

MULTIPLIGATION.
X

ax

y.

abx

abcx.

10.

3aa;

2a^S^

bahnx.

H.
12. 18.

14. 16. 16.

Say X 5a;. 2m X w X a X 3aa; X 2Aw X 7a; X 45ma!. ny X ffy X '^y X 3bm.

7m*/

2Z>.

a;y

^y^

y^x

2ayx^. 2x^

5y^

3gy

aa?z.

II.

17.
18. 19.

bax

X anx X
X

Sz

S^a;y.

452

xz

yz

agz.
bgz^.

3c^w

2a;'

2^ X

20.

21.
22. 23.
24.

25.
26.

X 3a; X cV' X ay. 3e X 2?/ X a X ix. 4aa; X 3a/ X 2a^/ X xy. aa;* X X 1 X 3aa; X a'y. m'a; X rv^x X mn^ X m^. abx X ay^ X ax X v^x?. 'P^ X qy^ X xy X ax.
c'a/^

27. 28.

abc

X d^XaxXlX Sax.
X
3ca;

l/4aa;

l/2nix

29.
30.

6ma; X 2^a; X 1/Qac a X 5c X 1 X 1/4 X Sa^ X

iy^ X 6m. X l/5mK

ixy

y.

53.

braic expression be multiplied

Changing the Signs of an Equation. If an algeby 1 its signs will all be

reversed, and, of course, the value of the expression will be


LAW OF
changed.
into the corresponding
If

ASSOCIATION.

65
1 will

To multiply any number by

number with the

change

it

reverse sign.

both members of an equation be multiplied by 1, member will be changed, but their equality will not be destroyed. (Why not ?)
the value of each

Hence in working with equations, it is legitimate to change the signs at any stage of the operation, provided
that the sign of every term, simple and complex, on both
sides of the equation be changed.

EXERCISE XX.
1.
a:

80

(a;

(a;

30)

+ {Zx 30

120).

Tind the value

of X.
3.

'340

40)

(5a;

60)

{%x

80).

Find the value

3.

of x.

father left his property of 47,000 dollars to his

four children, giving the eldest four times what he gave

the youngest less as

second three times as

much much

as
as

he gave the second, to the

he gave the youngest
less as

much

he gave the third, and to the third twice as much as he gave the youngest less 3000 dollars. What did he
as

give each
4.

Divide 81 into

five parts

such that the second shall

be twice the
the
first less

first less eight,

the third shall be three times

the second, the fourth shall be four times the

first

first less

the third, and the fifth shall be five times the

less

the fourth.
54. Distributive

Law

of Multiplication of Integers.

Ex.

1.

(13

and

13

+ 8) X 4 = 30 X 4 = 80, 4 + 8 4 = 48 + 33 = 80.
.

(13

8)

=4X

16,

56

MULTIPLICA TION.
12

and

and

and

and

- 32 = 16. (- 12 + 8) X 4 = - 4 X 4 = - 16, - 12 X 4 + 8 X 4 = - 48 + 32 = - 16. - 8) X 4 = - 20 X 4 = - 80, (- 13 X 4 - 8 X 4 = - 48 - 32 = - 80. (13 + 8) X - 4 = 20 X - 4 = - 80, 12 X - 4 + 8 X - 4 = - 48 - 33 = - 80.

.

48

l-:2

In general,
(*a

+ *J)

*c

"a

*c

*Zi

*c.
is

The product of a polynomial and a monomial factor

the

sum^of the iwoducts of its several terms and that factor. This is known as the DistriMitive Law of 3h(lfiplication. It is a law controlling the combination of multiplication
with addition and subtraction.

The
surface.

truth of the Distributive

Law may

be shown by

the following conventional arrangement of units on a plane

If a vertical

and a horizontal
a

line intersect each other

on
or

plane,

they will divide the

four
quarters,

plane
II

into

quadrants.
are

These
as

quadrants
in Fig. 3.

numbered

shown

By
III

general agreement, units

counted to the right of the ver-

IV

whether above or below the horizontal line, are regarded as positive; while those
tical line,

Fig.

3.

counted
line,

to the left of

the vertical

line are regarded as negative.

Also units counted upward

left of

from the horizontal

vertical line, are

whether at the right or

the

regarded as positive, while those counted

LAW
downward from the
tive.

OF ASaOClATION.

61

horizontal hne are i;egarded as nega-

The
is

quality of the units arranged in the four quadrants

4,

shown in Fig.
iV

the units being

II
I

represented by the small circles.

rectangle of units in any quad-

o +6 o o o o o

rant, as

shown

in Pig.

5,

represents

+6 o o o o o o

-a
-a
o o o o o o
III
Fig.
i.

a product of two factors.

angle in the
first

rect-

quadrant repreit is

sents a positive product, since

o
-6 o

composed of two positive

factors; a

IV

rectangle in the second quadrant represents a negative product (why?);

a rectangle in the third quadrant represents a positive prodII

uct (why?); and a rectangle in the fourth quadrant represents a

negative product (why?).

'ab

To
i)

represent the case of {a

-\-

c,

mark a

-\-

b units in a
first

horizontal row in the

rant,

quad-

and repeat the row

c times
6).

one above the other (Fig.

two

These rows represent the product oi a -\- b and c, and the vertical dotted line between the units shows that this product is the products ac

be

LAW OF
3.

ASSOCIATION.

59

or

Arrange the units to represent {-a 6) X c, and show that it equals ac

a.

+ -b) +

"c,

be.

Ex.

(6

+ 4)(3 + 2) = 10

50,

and

6.3

+ 4.3 + 6.2 + 4.2 = 18 + 12.+ 12 + 8 = 50.

+ ^i){^c + *(?) =
the
-{-

In general,
(*

-ac

+ ^bc + *a5 +
ac2

*5t?.

To
(ff

represent

case
-\-

+ b){c
in
8).

5(i

d), arrange c
-{-

o o o o

o o o
.

rows containing a
each
(Fig.
will

units

'0000

000

the

first

quadrant

+
ac

The
c -\- d.

(Z

rows

represent the product of

a-\-b and
uct
is

This prod-

evidently equal to
-{-

o c o o -o o o o o o

o o o o
o o
he

o o
o o

ac

ic

-\-

ad

-\-

bd.

~
polyis

+
8.

The product

of

Fig.

nomial and a polynomial

the sum of the products of the term of the second.

first

polynomial and each

55. Extension of the Application of the

Distributive

law of multiplication which we have demonstrated for integers is assumed to hold for all

Law.

The

distributive

kinds of numbers which can be expressed by

the last two definitions hold for
all

letters.

Hence

integral algebraic exis

pression in which the multiplicand

mial.

an integral polyno-

M
60

MULTIPLICATION.
EXERCISE
I.

XXII.

1.

Arrange the units

{a

to represent the case

+
it

l)){c

+ -d),
-\-

or (a

b){c

d),

and show

that

equals

ac

Ic

ad

id.

Show by a
2.

similar arrangement that

{a-\-h){^c-{-d), or {a-]-h){r.-\-d)

3.

= achc-\-ad-\-bd. {a-\-b){~c-\-~d), or {a-\-b){rd) = acbcadM.

{a-\-~b){c-\-d), or

4.

{ab){c-\-d)=ncbc-]-adbd.

5.

{a-\-~b){c-\-~d), or

{ab){cd)=ar~bcad-\-bd.

6.

(a+^J)(~c4-^)j or (a Zi)( c+<Z) =

II.

c+5c-|-a(Z M.

7.

(a+~5)(~c+~(Z),or(a &)( c <?) = ac+5c a^Z+StZ.

(~a-i-b){c-\-d),

8.

or

ft+J)(c+?) ac+Sc a<Z+M.

9.

(~a+J)(o+""f?), or {a-\-'b){cd)

= ac-\-bc-'radbd.

10.

(~a+5)(~c+fZ), or {a-\-b){ c-\-d)=^acbcad-\-bd.

(~a+*)('<^+~'^)'Or( +5)( c fZ)=ac Sc+a^
(~a+"S){c+fZ), or

11.

12
13.
14.

{a b){c+d) = acbcadbd.

(~a+~*)(<'+~<^)jOi'( *)(c (?)

= c 5c+rtf?+M

{~a+-b){-c+d),OT{ a b){c+d)=ac-t-bcad~bd.
(~a+~S)(~c+--(?),or( rt S)( c (^)=ac+5c+a(Z+M.
Ifote that the

15.

numbers in the adjacent quadrants tend

quadrants

to cancel each other, while those in the opposite

tend to augment each other.

The

expression finally ob-

tained will be positive or negative according as the

sum

of

LAW OF
the units in the
less
first

ASSOCIATION

61

than the sum

of those in the second

and third quadrants is greater or and fourth quad-

rants.

56.

Arrangement of Terms according

to the

Powers

of a Letter.
to the
letter

A polynomial
letter

is

said to be arranged accord-

powers of some

when

the exponents of that

magnitude in regular '3cx^ ia^x^ is arranged accordThus, 5a 6to ing to the ascending powers of x and Sx^ Aax^ -]- ex 7 is arranged according to the descending powers of x.
either ascend or descend in
order.

57. Multiplication of Polynomials.

(a)

To multiply a

polynomial by a m.onomial, multiply each term of the polynomial hy the monomial, and write the result as a poly-

nomial reduced

to its

simplest form.

EXERCISE
Multiply together
I.

XXIII.

1.

Sxy
ab

+ iyz
be

and

l^xyz.

2.

and
y

d^bc^. z

3.

a^

J^

c^

and

abc.

3a;.

4.

and

5.

ab -\-bc

ca and

abc.

6.

-%a^ 5x^y

4:a and

'7dW.

7.

Gxy''^

+ 8a^y^

and Sxy.

8.

9.

'Ha^y

oxy^ and

8x^y^-

5xyh

+ 3xyz^
Sxyz and

87?yz and xyz.

I'ix^y^.

10.

'^x^yh^

U,

13a;/^

152;^^

and

iT^y^.

62

MULTIPLICATION.
II.

12. 13.

^xyz
ahc

14.

lOa^y^ and xyz. aHc aVc and ahc. c^hc + J^ca &db and a&.
of

Find the product

15. 16.
17.

2
3a;

3J
2</

+ 4c

i/65

and

4 and

3/3a. 5/62;.
and 3/8a.

3/3a

18.
19.

6/7aV - 3/2?;3 and - l/?,aH. - 5/3aV and - 3/2a2 + aa; -

S/Sa:^.

20. 21.
22.

7/3a:/

and

3/2a:/2
4/7a;=.(/3

and

Sa;^ + %/1xy. - l/3a;2 and 7/4a; - 4/7?/8.

_|_ ^.^a.

(5)

the first polytiomial by each the partial

To multiply a polynomial by a polynomial, multiply term of the second, and add

products thus obtained.
it is

In multiplying polynomials

convenient to arrange

the terms of both factors in the same order according to the

powers of some
in columns.
e.g. (1)

letter, to

write the multiplier under the

multiplicand, and to place like terms of the partial products

Multiply

4a;

+3+
bx""

Sa^^

6a;S

by 4

&a?

Sy.

Arrange both multiplicand and multiplier according

the ascending powers of x.

to

3+
4 12

4a;
5a;

+
-

Qm?

Qx^

+ 16a; +
-

20.^^ - Ua? - 203? - 253? + 15a; - 18a;2 _ 24:3? -

30?;* 30a;*

12

+ X-

I83?

7S3?

+ 36a;" + 36a;

LAW OF
(3) Multiply 1

ASSOCIATION.
3a;2

63

2a;

+ * -

by

a;'

-2-

2a;.

Arrange according to the descending powers of

x.

x^
x'^

Za? -^ %x

+1
a;

2x

2
2a;*

x'

a;7

- 3a;= + + - 2a;5 + 6a;3 - 4a;3 - 2a; - 2a;* 6a;2 - 4a; _ 5a;5 + 7a;^ + 2a;2 - 6a; -(_

3
3

EXERCISE XXIV.
Multiply together
I.
1.

x
a;^

2.

+ 1 and X + a;y + and

i/^

1.
a;y.

3.

a;^

-\-

3x^

-\-

4:

and

3a;^.

4.

a^
a;^

-\-

and and

a;^

8.

+
~

2a;

+3
-\-

1. x^ x
a;^

-\- 1.

6.

3?
a;^

5x
a;/

%
2/^

and

+
+

5a;

+ 6.

7.
8.

+
-{-

^nd x and
a;

y.
/
a;?/

a?
a;^

xy
a;^/

y^
/^

9.

10. 11.

+ X? +

3a;2

+ +

and

a;^

3a;

3(a; -

4)

+ 1 and 361 + 8(3a; - 12) - 5(4a; + 40).

a;^

+ ^^. + +
3a;

1.

Clear of parentheses and find the value of x.

12.

A man
first,

ond 8000
for the

dollars less

bought three houses. than three times

five

as

He paid much

for the secas

he paid

and for the third

times what he paid for

the

first less

the cost of the second.

Five times the cost of

64
the
first

MULTIPLICATION.
minus the cost of the second is equal minus three times the cost of the third.
?

to 192,000

dollars

What was
some begleft.

the cost of each house

13.

A man

started to give 50 cents apiece to

gars and found he had not money enough within 7 cents.

He

then gave them 45 cents apiece and had 18 cents

beggars were there
II. ?

How many

Multiply together:
14. 15. 16.
17. 18. 19.

x^ x^

2aa^ + %(^x.~ 3fl^ and .(* 2a^x + a^ and x^

a;^

ax

2>ax

-\-

2a^.

-\/*

x^

ci?.

x^

^x?y

+
-\-

6af*/^

+
x^

^.xy^ -\-

and

Ixy

-\- y^.

a. a,

X X

a,

and

0?,

c^c.

-{- b,

and x

l-\-x-\-x^, 1

a^

x-{-

and

-\- x*.

20.

b,

a-\-

b,
-\-

ab

-\-

W, and c?
4/.

-\-

db

-\- b^.

21. 22. 23.

16/^ and 3a; 9a:^ + 12xy 35aV - IbaWxy^ + 9 jy and

-(-

ba^x
422

+ 3iy.
5*8^;.
first,

16aV A man bought 24. less than twice as much

of the second.

20ab^xzi

+ 25b^a?

and

three horses.

He

paid 60 dollars

for the second as for the

and

for the third three times the cost of the first less the cost

Seven times the cost of the

is

first

minus
?

twice the cost of the second twice the cost of the third.
25.

equal to 1700 dollars minus

the cost of each

What was

A man gave
left.

12 cents
to enable

He found
to
?

him

some beggars 30 cents apiece and had that he needed four cents more give them 32 cents apiece. How many

beggars were there

58. Multiplication

by Detached

Coefficients.

When
and both

two expressions contain one and the same

letter

LAW OF
are

ASSOCIATION.

65

arranged according to the ascending or descending

letter,

powers of that

much
a;^

labor of multiplication can be

saved by writing

down

the coefficients only.

Thus, to multiply

5a;

+ 6 by +
a;^

Sx:

+ 6, we write

1-5+6
1

+ 5+

1-5+6
5-25 + 30 6-30 +
1

36

+ 0-13+

+ 36
is *,

The

highest power of x in the result

and the
is

rest

follow in order.
a;"

Hence the required product

0a;3

13a;^
13a;'

or

+ +
3a;^

Oa;

36,

36.

When some
coefficients

of the powers of the letter are wanting, the

as zeros in their proper

must be written down

to multiply
a:*

places.

Thus,

3a;

by

a^

2a;^

1,

we write

1+0+3+
1

+1 1+0+3+ 3+1 2 + 0+ 6 + 6 + 2 0+ 0+0+0+0 + 2+

1+0+3+3+1
1

+ 2 + 3 + 10 + 7 + 5 + 3 + 1
is

Hence the product

a;'

2a;

3a;S

+ 10a;* + Is? +
is

5a;2

3a;

1.

The method
detached

illustrated above

known

as the

method of

coefficients.

66

MULTIPLICATION.
EXERCISE XXV.

Do
tached

the following multiplications by the

coefficients.

method

of de-

Multiply
I.

1.

2.

3.

a;=

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

3a;2 + 2 by ia?-\-2x- 3. '^t' + x S hy x* + x^ x 3. x^ - 5a;2 1 ^y ^a^ 5^; i. 20^ -3x^ + x -% by 3^ - 2x^ - x + 2. 1 - 2a; + by 1 + 2a; + 3a^ + ia^ + 5x\ 1 + 2a; + 3a;2 + + Sa;* + 6a: by 1 - 2a; + 1 - 2a: + 3a;2 by 1 + 3a; 2 + 3a; - 2x^ by 2 - 3a; + 2a;l 2a;^ + + 1 by a? + ! - 2a;3 + 3 by 2a;* - 3^.
a;

_j_

_|_

_|_

a;^

4a;='

a;^.

Sa;^.

a;^

a;

a;=

II.

Examples 1-10 of Exercise XXIV.

59.

Degree of an Integral Expression.

letter
is

The degree of
of times that
is

an integral term in any

letter is

the

number

contained as a factor in the term, and

integral
all

equal to

the exponent of the letter.

the

The degree of an number of times

term in two or more

letters is

together that these letters occur as

is

factors in the term,

and

equal to the

sum

of the expo-

nents of the letters in the term.

The degree
letters.

of a term in

any

letter or letters is often

called the dimension of the term in that letter or those

The degree

of

any integral algebraic expression in any

LAW OF

ASSOCIATION.
term in
it

67
which
is

letter or letters is the degree of the

of

the highest dimensions in that letter or those letters.

e.g.

The term

ba?b*'oi? is

of the fifth degree in x, of the

ninth degree in bx, and of the twelfth degree in abx.

The

expression 5a

V+

6a^a;^

lla^

is

of the sixth

degree in x and of the seventh degree in ax.

example every term is same degree in az. When all the terms of an expression are of the same degree in any letters, the expression
It will be noticed that in the last

of the

is

said to be homogeneous in these letters.

60. Product of

Homogeneous Expressions.

The prod-

uct of two
ous.

homogeneous expressions must be JiomogeneFor each the terms of the product is obtained by

multiplying some one term of the multiplicand by some one

term of the multiplier, and the number of dimensions of the product of two terms is clearly the sum of the number Hence, if all the of dimensions of the separate terms. terms of the multiplicand are of the same degree, and all the terms of the multiplier are also of the same degree, it follows that all the terms of the product must be of the

same degree.
It also follows

from the above consideration that the

is

degree of the product

tors.

the

sum

of the degrees of the fac-

When
ous, there

the two factors to be multiplied are homogene-

must be some

error

if

the products obtained are

not homogeneous.
61.

Highest and Lowest Terms of a Product.

It is

im-

portant to notice that, in the product of two algebraic expressions, the term which is of the highest degree in any
particular letter
is

the product of the terms in the factors

which are of the highest degree in that letter, and the term which is of the lowest degree in that letter is the product of the terms which are of the lowest degree in that letter in

68
the factors.

MULTIPLICATION.
Thus
there can be obtained only one highest-

degree term and one lowest-degree term.

62.
is

Complete and Incomplete Integral Expressions.

important to notice that
complete in any
letter,
if

It

also
is

each factor in multiplicais,

tion

that

contains every degree

to zero, the

of that letter

from the highest one given down

letter.
-\-

product will be complete in that

Thus the product

is
a;"

of
3.t^

xf^ -\-

x^

a?

-\-

and

x''-

-\-

-\-

2.7-'

-f

Sa;'

Sa;^

2a; -|- 1.

If an expression is incomplete in any letter it may be completed by filling in the blank spaces with terms of the Thus proper degree having zero as their coefficients.
a;^

+ + 1 may be written a?
a;''

-{-

Ox^ -{ Oa?

-\-

a?

-\-

Ox

-\- I.

CHAPTEE

VII.

DIVISION OP INTEGBAI. ALGEBEAIC EXPBESSIONS.

63.

Definition of Division. Division

is

the inverse of

multiplication, or the process of undoing multiplication.

In multiplication two factors are given and their product

required.
are given

is

In division the product and one of the factors

and the other

of the

factor

is

required.
is

The product
quotient.

two factors

called the dividend,

the given factor the divisor, and the required factor the

Since the dividend

quotient,

is

the product of the divisor and

division
if

we may prove our

by multiplying together

the divisor and quotient to see

the dividend.
64. Division of

their product agrees with

Monomials.

The
of

rules for division are

obtained by studying the corresponding cases of multiplication.

Take the following

monomials

pases

the

multiplication

of

Note

1.

That the sign

of one factor

is

+ when
69

the

signs of the product and of the other factor are alike, and

70

DIVISION.

when
2.

the signs of the product and of the other factor

are unlike.

That the coeflBcient of one factor is the quotient obtained by dividing the coefBcient of the product by the
coefficient of the other factor.

That the exponent of any letter in one factor is the between its exponent in the product and in the other factor, and that when this difference is zero the letter does not appear in the other factor. When any letter which
3.

difference

appears in the product does not appear in one factor,

its

exponent in that factor

is

to be regarded as zero.

From

these observations

for the division of a

we obtain the following rule monomial by a monomial

Divide the coefficient of the dividend hy that of the divisor for the coefficient of the quotient, subtract the exponent
of each letter in the divisor from its exponent in the dividend for its exponent in the quotient, and place before the term in the quotient the plus sign when the signs of the divisor

and dividend are

alike,

and

the

minus sign

ivhen the signs

of the divisor and dividend are milike.

EXERCISE XXVI.
Divide
I.

1.

20a;8/

by

4a^.

2.

21a'5 by 75.

3.

5iaVc by GaWc.
51axh by

i.

49a;y by 7xyh.

8.

3azx^.

6.

132a^yh by 12yh.

II.

7.

35a^yh^ by

- 7a;y

8.

27a^c*hy

- SaSc^.
l/12ab\

9.

l/5a;*/=

by l/lO^y. by

lo.

1/ia^* by

n.

2/Sa''y^

5/6a^y.

12.

Qx^yh^ by 2/3xz^.

DIVISION. 11

Multiply:
I.

13. 14.

&{x

+ y)h by
-

3(2;

+ 2/)V.
3(

13(a

Ifx by

bfx^.

15.

5c(a

+ hyxY by 6<?(a + i)^^^.

II.

16.

"-la^lic

d)y^ by

8aJ8(c

dfx.

Divide
17. 18.

46(rt

+ 5)V by 9(a + h)x^.

_
^)4^2/^

63ae2(j

19.

_ 7c(j _ ^)2^2^. - 42c2^(J + c)V by - 3c2(5 +

by
c)a;.

Simplify
I.

20.

a^b^c

21.
22. 23.

- 4aSV. X (_ i2a;y) .^ _ 4a;y. 360 - 3(a- - 2) = 14 + 4(a; + 3) X (Sa'SV)

-4-

7a:2/'

12a;2

42;.

Divide 180 into two parts sucb. that 80 minus three

times the

sum

of the smaller part

and 12

shall be equal to

the larger part minus 8 less than five times the smaller
part.
65. Division of Polynomials.
a.

"We have seen in multiis

plication that,

when one
is

of the factors

a monomial and

the other a polynomial, the product will be a polynomial,

and that
division,
is

this

product

obtained by multiplying each term

of the polynomial factor

by the monomial
is

factor.

Hence

in

when

the dividend

a polynomial and the divisor

a monomial, the quotient will be a polynomial, and this

quotient will be obtained by dividing each term of the divi-

72 dend by the
divisor.

DIVI8I0N.

Of

course, the law of signs

must be

carefully obseryed.

EXERCISE XXVII.
Divide
I.

1.

Q^y^

+ a;'^ + a?y^ by a?^^.

%ah.
Sa;?/^.

2.

3.

a^i aW + a^b^ by a^b. - 3a*5 + Ga^S^ - 2aJ* by 24a;*^2

_|_

4.

iQ^^y^

_|_ gla;?/^

by

6.

a=52 -

6/25a*J3

2/5a'&* by 6/5a&.
II.

6.

14a*J=
ISaj'^/"

+ 28a35* by - laW.

18:c^/'

7.

24a;'/^

by

3a;y.

8.

9.

Sa^

+ 9/3aJ +
5/3.r/

Qac by

3/2.

b/2x^

+ 10/3x by - 5/6a;.

3/8aca;

10.

1/4A
b.

l/16aJ.r

by

3/8aa;.

66.

In multiplication, we have seen that, when each

is

factor
tial

is

a polynomial, their product

the

sum

of the par-

product obtained by multiplying the whole multiplicand

In this case the product
a polynomial,
is

by each term of the multiplier.

a polynomial.

Hence

in division,

when

the divisor

is

we

obtain a set of partial subtrahends by multiplying the whole

divisor (the multiplicand)
it

by each term of the quotient, as

is

found.

These
is

partial subtrahends are subtracted in

succession from the dividend.

until there

The

operation

is

continued
is

no remainder,

or, in case

the divisor

not an
is

aliquot part of the dividend, until the remainder

of a

lower degree than the divisor.

DIVISION.

73

The method of procedure in division will be readily understood by examining a case in multiplication of polynomials, and the corresponding case in division.
e.g.
ie*

3a;*

+
-

4a^
7

Zx^-2x
3a;
93,-s

+ 13^
7a;*

3a;

+ %lx^ - 28a;3 lla;5 + llr' + ISa;^ - %So?

Note that the first term of the first partial product is term of the complete product, and that it is the product ot tlie first term of the multiplier and multiplicand. Hence, in dividing the product by one factor, the first term of the other factor will be the quotient obtained by dividing the first term of the dividend by the first term of the divisor, and the first partial subtrahend (partial product) will be obtained by multiplying the whole divisor by Thus this first term of the quotient.
also the first
3x1=

dx^

- lla;5 -f lla;^ + 13a;= 9x^ + 13a;* 2x'

14a;
|

a:*

Zx^ -f ^a?

33?

a;*

4-

13a;s

lix^

Note again that the first term of the remainder just obis also the first term of the second partial product in the corresponding multiplication, and that it is the product of the first term of the factor used as a divisor and the second term of the other factor or quotient. Hence in division the second term of the quotient will be obtained by dividing the first term of the first remainder by the first term of the divisor, and the second partial subtrahend
tained

14:

DIVISION.

(partial product) will be obtained,

divisor

by

this second
lla;=

by multiplying the whole term of the quotient. Thus

|

SajS
3a;6

_ -

+ 11a;* + 13a;' - 283;^

_|_

9^5

12a;*

- daf + 4a;2 dx^ - 2a; - 7

x*

Sic^

a;*

+ Ida? -

DIVISION.
be supplied by terms with zero
the dividend to be x^
a;6 _|_

16
Thus, suppose

coeificients.

37

it

may

be written

Oa;=

Oa;* -\- Oa-'

+ Ox^ + Ox - 27.
by a polynomial

This
venient.

is

not absolutely necessary, but will be found conof a polynomial

The rule for the division may be stated as follows

Arrange
larly ;

the terms of the divisor and dividend simidivide the first term of the dividend hy the first term

of the divisor for the first term of the quotient, and multiply the divisor by this term for the first partial subtrahend; divide the first term of the remainder by the first term of
the divisor

the divisor by this

for the second term of the quotient, and multiply term for the second partial subtrahend ;
the process until there is no remainder, or

and continue
first

until the first term of the remainder does not contain the

term of the divisor.

EXERCISE
Divide?
I.

XXVIII.

1.

a.
3.

4.

6.

6.

7.

8.

6 by + 3. 4a; 21 by 7. 5. 3? 12a; + 35 by - 6 by %x + 3. 2a;2 6a;2 - 13a; + 6 by 3a; - 2. 12a;2 + 11a; - 56 by 4a; - 7. 16a;^ 24a; + 9 by 4a; 3. 25a;2 - 16 by 5a; - 4.
a;^
a;

a;

a:^

a;

a;

a;

9.

49k=^ -f 70a;
a;'

+ 25
a;

by

7a;

5.

10.

^'

by

y.

76
11. 12.
a;'

DIVISION.

+ y^ by x^ xy
-

-\- y^.

27a5a;3

64*= by 3aa;

- 45.

11.

18. 14.

8oV 14a;*

37c&9
45a;Sy

by

4V +

QaW<?a?
453.^3
_|_

+ 9g*S.
i^yi ^y
2a;3

78a;2^2 _|_

bxy

+ 72/^
15.
16.

17. 18. 19.

20.

21.

-5a^+9a^- ex' -x + 2hjay'~3x + 2. - 4a;* + 3a;' + 3a; - 3a; + 2 by _ _ 2. 3?y^ x^ if h^ a? x y. a^ x^y x^ a;*y x^y^ 7? 2xy^ y^ hy 7? xy y^. - 2a; - ^a? lOa;^ - 31a; + 15 by - 7a; + 5. 2a;' - 8a; 4 + 12 - 7a;^ by + 2 14* - 45a'5 + 78a252 _ ^^glfi + 14S* by %a^ a^
a;= a;2
a;

-j-

-\-

-\-

-\-

-\-

a;=

-\-

a;'

a;*

a;^

3a;.

bab

+ 75*.
Find the remainder in each
of the following

examples

22.

jiiviaioN.
II.

77

SI.

30a;* + 11a;' -

9,%a?

5a;

+3

divided by

Sa;

32.

6a;

5x8

_|_

-^^^

+ 20 - 33a;2

divided by

a;

+ ix^

-5.
33.

30a;
6.

+9-

71a;=

+ 28a;* - 35a;2

divided by 4.0?-

Vdx

Divide
34.

35.

36.
37. 38.

+ 7/6x + 1/6 by 2x + 1/2. l/3a;s + 17/6a;2 - 5/4a; + 9/4 by l/3a; + 1 by 1 + 1 + by 1

2a;3
a;.

3.

a;

a;.

4(a;

2(a;

yf

yf 16(a; y)^ 4(a; - y) + 1.

8{x

y)"

(a;

y) by
may
be

The

division of a polynomial by a polynomial

indicated by writing the divisor after the dividend, each

enclosed within a parenthesis, with the sign of division between. Thus, (x^ 13a; 35) -i- (:c a; 5. 7)

= +

Since
ply both

67.

To Free an Equation from Expressions

multiplication

of Division.

by any quantity neutralizes the

effect of division

members

by the same quantity, and since to multiof an equation by the same quantity does

not destroy their equality, an equation

may

be freed from

an expression of division in either member by multiplying

both members by the indicated divisor.
e.g.

or or

- 3) = 5a;, 4(a; - 3) + 5a;2 - 40 = 6a;^ - 15a;, 4a; - 12 + 5x^ - 40 = 5x^ - Ux, 4a; + 15* + 5*^ 5a;^ = S^j
4

(5a;2

40) -^ {x

78

DIVISION.

SYNTHETIC BIVI8I0N.
68. Division
if

T9

by Detached

Coefficients.

It is evident

the dividend and divisor are both homogeneous, the de-

gree of the quotient will be that of the dividend minus that

of the divisor.

Also
letter,

if

the dividend and divisor are complete in any

the quotient will also be complete in that letter.

In finding the quotient of two integral algebraic expressions

which are arranged

in the

the powers of some letter,

much

labor

same order according to may be saved by the

method
e.g.

of detached coefficients.

Divide
3a;^

ISa;^
4.

+ ^x^ - 16* +

4a;'

+ l%x^ + 16a; -24

by

+ + 6-16+ 4+12 + 16-24|4 + 2 + 0-4 3 + 0-4 + 6 12 + 6+0-12 0-16 + 16 + 12

4a;'

13

80

DIVISION.

69. Synthetic Multiplication. In the first place let us examine some cases of what may be called synthetic multiplication ; that is, multiplication of complete integral al-

gebraic expressions in which the coefiBcients of the several

powers of the
is

letter are built

up one

after another.

This

efEected

by a kind

of cross-multiplication,
little practice.

with which

one

may be made
e.g.
1.

familiar by a
-\-

Multiply ^a;*

qx^

-\-

rx

-\-

hy

<

-\-lx-\-

c.

pci? -\- q3? -\-

rx }-

aa? -^-hx

-\-

apa?

+ aq

SYNTHETIC DIVISION.

81

Then one initial coefficient is dropped from both multiplicand and multiplier till none are left. In every case, the
formed out of the by cross-multiplication.
partial products are
coefficients

employed

When

there are more coefficients in the multiplier than

till

in the multiplicand, proceed as above

you reach the

last

coefficient of the multiplicand, then, retaining all the coefficients of the multiplicand,

drop the

initial coefficients of

the multiplier, one by one, and take in one at the end, till you reach the last, and then drop one initial coefficient

from both multiplier and multiplicand till none are left. The partial products are formed as before by cross-multiplication.
e.g.
3.

px^

+ qx+ r az^ + i^^ + cx^

-\-

dx

-{- e.

82
1.

DIVISION.
In Example 1

ap
lp

= A, =B

.
aq,

a= A

-^ p.

.-.l^B

aq)
{ar

-^ p.

cp
Now
and

G~

{ar

+ bq),
and
a,

.:

c=[G

+ bq)] ^ p.

since

found; then B, p,
finally,

C, p, a,

p are known at starting, a can be and q being known, b can be found; b, r, and q being known, c can be

found.
2.

In Example 2:

ap

A, bp=- B aq, cp G {ar + bq), dp D {br-\- cq), dq), ep = E {cr

-{-

a= A -i-p. b = {B aq) p. c = [G {ar bq)] d= [D- {br + cq)] e = [E {cr cq)]

-i-

-\-

-i-p.

-h p. -^ p.

-{-

In this

case, a, b,

c,

d,

and

can be found in the same

of the quotient

manner

as in the first.
first coefficient
is

Observe that the

the
first coefficient of

ob-

tained by dividing the

first

coefficient of the dividend

by

the divisor, and that the remaining

by subtracting cerfrom the coefficients of the dividend which follow the first, and then dividing the remainders by
coefficients of the quotient are obtained

tain partial products

the

first coefficient

of the divisor.

Observe also that the partial products to be subtracted

from the

coefficients of the

dividend are those above the

dotted line in the two examples worked out, and that they
are obtained
described.

by a cross-multiplication in the way already

In this process the coefficients of the quotient (multiplicand), are used as found, and only those coeffi-

cients of the divisor (multiplier)

which follow the

first

are

employed.

STNTHETIO DIVISION.
If the signs of all the

83

terms of the divisor which follow

the

first

are reversed, the signs of the partial products to be

subtracted would be reversed, and the partial products

would become

additive.
coefficients of the quotient

This process of finding the

from those of the dividend and

thetic division, because

divisor

is

known

as syn-

we

build

up the

coefBcient of the

dividend by getting the partial products which enter into

their composition,

and through

this synthesis

we

obtain the

coefficients of the quotient.

cess

The following example will serve to show how may be carried out systematically.
Divide
6a;"'

this pro-

-:?-

I'^x'

38a;

+ 12a; + 4 by
First,

2a;

3a;*

4a;2

+ 18= - 16a;^ + Ux^

with
first

2.

write
all

down the

coefficients of the divisor

the signs of

the terms after the

changed, the coef-

ficients of the

missing terms being represented by zeros.

Under

this write the coefficients of the

completed dividend,

so arranged that each coefficient

ficient of the

as

fall under the coefterm of the same degree in the divisor, and a matter of convenience draw a vertical line after the first

may

coefficient of the divisor.

Then

obtain the coefficients of

the quotient by gradually filling in the partial products to

be added to the coefficients of the dividend.

cients of the quotient are written in the
left of

The

coeffi-

bottom line to the

the vertical line, thus

2
6

+ 0-1-12-28 + 9 + + 12 0+ 0+ + 12
2

3+0+4- 6-

84

DIVISION.

The
1.

coefficients in the last line are obtained as follows Divide 6 by 2 and write the quotient in the bottom
first coefficient

line

under the

of the dividend.

2.

Multiply 3 by

(the second coefficient of the divi-

sor) for the first partial product, write the result

second coefficient of the dividend, add, divide by

place the quotient underneath in the bottom line.
3.

under the 2, and

Form

the next set of partial products by using the

two

coefficients of the quotient already obtained

two of the divisor immediately after the

multiplying crosswise,
add, divide the

vertical line,

and the and

thus:

3x3=9

and

0x0 = 0.

Write these under the third coefficient of the dividend,

sum by

2,

and write the quotient beneath in

the bottom
4.

line.

Form

the next set of partial products by using the

three coefficients of the quotient already obtained

and the

three of the divisor immediately following the vertical line,

and multiplying crosswise, thus: 3x0 = 0, 0x3 = 0, and 4x0 = 0. Write these under the fourth coefficient of the dividend, add, divide the sum by 2, and write the
quotient beneath.
5.

Form

the next set of partial products by using the

four coefficients of the quotient already obtained and the four of the divisor immediately after the vertical line,

and multiplying crosswise, thus = 0. 4 X 3 = 12, and

12,

0,

6x0

Write these under the

fifth coefficient of
-

the dividend, add, divide the

sum by

2,

and write the

result underneath.

We have now reached

the vertical line and have obtained

the coefficients of the integral part of of the quotient.

The

remaining part of the work

or not there
is

is

merely to ascertain whether

a remainder, and in case there be a remainthe remaining partial products and addto be zero in each case, there is

der, to obtain its coefficients.

If,

on

filling in

ing,

we

find the

sum

no

re-

8TNTHETIC DIVISION.
mainder.
If,

85
find

however, on
all

filling in
is

and adding, we

the sums are not

zeros, there

a remainder, and the

of these partial

sums obtained

are

the coefficients of the corresponding

terms of the remainder.

For the addition

products will subtract from the portion of the dividend

which comes
obtained.

after

the vertical line the corresponding

portion of the

product of the divisor and the quotient

if

Hence,

the result

is

zero, there

is

no

difEer-

ence between the dividend and the product of the divisor

and the quotient obtained and if the result obtained is not zero, it must be the difference between the dividend and the product of the divisor and the quotient obtained.
;

6.

To

obtain the

first set

of partial products after the

vertical line, use the five coefficients of the quotient already

obtained and the five of those of the divisor immediately

after

the

vertical

line,

multiplying

crosswise,

thus:
18,

3x0=0, X -2x0 = 0.
7.

= 0,

X
set,

= 0, -

=-

and

To

obtain the next

use the five coefficients of

the quotient and the five of the divisor which follow the
first

after

the vertical line,

obtain the next
set

thus

3X3 = 6, 0x0 = 0,

4x4 = 16, -6X0 = 0, -2 X 3 = - 6.

8.

To

from each
9.

used

last,

set, omit the initial coefficient and multiply crosswise, thus:

0x3 = 0, 4X0 = 0,
To
from each set used - 2 X 4 = - 8.
10.
efficient,

-6X4=- 34, -3X0 =

set,

0.

obtain the next

omit the

initial coefficient

last time.

Thus:
set,

4x3=8, 6X0=0,
initial co-

To

obtain the next

and use the remainder.

0.

omit again the Thus:

6x3= 13,
initial coeffiset.

-3X0 =
11.
cient,

To

obtain the

last,

omit again the

and use the one remaining in each

3

Thus:

_3X

= - 4.

86

DIVISION.

The degree
dend and
quotient

of the first

term of the quotient will be the 4 in this example.

difference between the degrees of the first terms of the diviof the divisor, or
3x^-\-4:X^

Hence the

is

6x 2.
let it

With

a little practice the coefiicients of the quotient can

be obtained with great ease and rapidity by this method.

As a second example

be required to divide

+0+1+0-1 1+0+0+0+1 +3-2+0+3 +0+1+0-1 +0-1+0-1 +0+0+0 +0+0+0

+ +1 + +1 + +

1+0+1+0+1 +3-2+0+2
Quotient.

Remainder.

x^

+ a^ + l

3a^

2x

+2
is

The above method

all cases

of synthetic division

applicable to

of integral algebraic expressions

which contain only

one

letter.

EXERCISE XXXI.
II.

Exercise

XXVIII, Examples

1-9, 15, 16, 19, 20, 22-33.

CHAPTER

VIII.

INVOLUTION OP INTEGRAL ALGEBRAIC

EXPRESSIONS.
71. Definition of Involution.

Involution
ai'e

is

a case of

multiplication in which the factors

all

alike.

The
is

product obtained by using the same factor a number of

times
is

called a

power of the
is

factor.

When

the factor

used twice the product

square ;

called

the

second power, or

when
etc.

three times, the third power, or cuie ;

when

four times, the fourth power;

when

fire times,

the fifth

power;

Involution

may be
is

defined as the operation of finding

powers of numbers, or quantities.

The

operation

indicated by placing the quantity

it.

within a parenthesis with an exponent after

Thus, {Za^h^y indicates that Sa'J^

raised to the third power.
72. Involution of Monomials.
tains every one of its factors as

is

to be

cube^

or

Since

a product conas each of these

many times

factors

is

contained in the several factors counted together,

is

a monomial

raised to a given

power by raising

its

nu-

meral coefficient to that power and multiplying the exponent

of each letter

by the exponent of the given power.

Thus

(2,a^b^f

= Sa^js x 3aW
is

X daW =

3.B.d.a.a.a.a.a.a.b.b.b.b.b.b.b.b.b

= %7a^bK
it

When
is

the quantity which

to be raised to

any power
87

positive, it

must be borne

in

mind

that every power of

88
will be positive,

INVOLUTION.
and
that, if the quantity to

be operated
be positive

upon

is

negative, every even

power of

it will

and every odd power negative. The raising of an expression to a power is called expanding the expression.

EXERCISE XXXII.

Expand
1.

{ab^f.

2.

{a?y^Y.

3.

(3a%)*-

4.

(:

\'i(?d:?f.

5.

(- bxYf.

6.

(-

2ary)=.

Write down the square of each of the following expressions

7.

Za%.

8.

a(?.

9.

ba^l^.

10.

- 9aV.
:

11.

la^^.

12.

- 2/3aV.

Write down the cube of each of the following expressions

13.

3fl8J*.

14,

-Sffl^a;.

15.

-aWx.
but
it is

le.

- 3/4a;'.
may
be

73.

Squaring of Binomials.
it

Any polynomial
_,_

squared by multiplying
to square
e.g. {a

by

itself;

easy to learn

any polynomial at
.

sight.

+ bf = ( + 5)
by

+ J) =

^ab

V>.

= {a-b).{a - b)=a^- 2ab + P. {x + 3y={x + 3).{x + 3) = 3? + 6z + 9. {x - 3) =(x-3).{x-3)=^x^-Qx + 9. {-a + bY=:{-a + b).{-a + b) = a^- 2ab + P. {-a-bY={-a-b).{~a-b) = a^ + 2ab+ P.
(a

Note that in every case the square of a binomial is a and that two of the three terms of this trinomial are the squares of the two terms of the binomial which we are squaring, and that the third term is twice the product
trinomial,

INVOLUTION.
of the

89

two terms of the binomial, regard being had to the

signs of the terms.

Hence the following

rule for squaring

a binomial at sight

Square each term of the binomial and take twice the product of the two terms, and write the three terms thus obtained as a polynomial, each with its own sign. It is customary to write the double product as the middle

term in the

result,

but this

is

not necessary.

EXERCISE
Write down
sions :

XXXIII.

the square of each of the following expres-

1.

do

iNVOLUTtON.
Note that in each of these
cases the square consists of

the square of each term of the polynomial and, in addition,

twice the product of the terms of the polynomial taken two by two in every possible way, regard being had to the signs
of the terms.

The

surest

way

to get every possible

combination of the

terms two by two is to combine each term of the polynomial with each term which follows it.

The law

stated above holds whatever be the

the terms in the polynomial to be squared. the following rule for squaring a polynomial

number of Hence we have

the

Square each term of the polynomial, and tahe twice

sum of the products of each term and the terms which follow it, and write the terms thus obtained as a polynomial, each ivith its own sign.
EXERCISE XXXIV.

Form
1.

the squares of
2a; 2a; 2a;

2.

3. 4.
6.

+ 1 + 1 +
1

+ + +

3a;.

3a;2 3a;2

+ ia?. + +
4a;'

b:?.

al-\-c
3a

d.

+ 2& - c + d + hf = (a + h)(a + l){a + 1) = a' + Za^ + ia + 1\

- If = (a - h){a - b){a - I) = - Wh + ZaW - h\
ffl=

75.

Ciibini^ of Binomials.

Ex. (a

(a

(^-a+hf={-a + b){-a + h){-a + h) = - a^ + 3d^b - 3aP + .

{-a- bY=: {-a- b){- a - b){- a-h) = ~a^- 3a% - 3aS - 5^

INVOLUTION.

91

Note that in each case the cube of a binomial is a quadand that two of its four terms aie cubes of the two terms of the binomial, and each of the other two terms
rinomial,
is

three times the product of one of the terms of the bino-

mial and the square of the other.

Hence we have the

:

fol-

lowing rule for cubing a binomial

Cube^tjie first term, take three times the product of the square of the first term, and the second term, also three tim.es the product of the first term and the square of the

second,

and

the cube of the second term,

its

obtained as a polynomial, each with

e.g.
(3a;

and write own sign.

the terms

- 2aY = =

i3xf-S(3xY
27x^

2a^

+ B{3x){2aY-{%a^f
8a\

- 54V + Sda^x -

EXERCISE XXXV.
Write down the cube
sions
:

of each of the following expres-

I.

1.

92

INVOLUTION.

Find two numbers which shall differ by 3, and 4. such that the square of the smaller plus 15 shall equal the
square of the larger minus 24.
5.

Find two numbers that

be 44
less

shall differ

by

2,

and such
its

that the cube of the smaller increased by six times

shall
6.

square

than the cube of the larger.

farmer bought some cattle at 30 dollars a head.

three more for the same money, they would
less

Had he bought
buy?

have cost him 2 dollars

a head.

How many

did he

CHAPTER

IX.

EVOLUTION OP INTEGRAL ALGEBRAIC

EXPRESSIONS.
76. Definition of Evolution.

Evolution

is

the inyerse

In involution we have given the factor and the number of times it is employed, and are required to find
of involution.

the product, or the power, of the factor.

In evolution we

have given the power, or product, and the number of times a factor must be employed to produce it, and are required
to find the factor.

The number

factor whose involution will produce a power or

is

called the root of the

is

of times the factor

to be

number, and the number employed is called the index of

is

the root.

The

operation of finding the required factor

called extracting the root of the

number.
is

The
sign,

operation of evolution

indicated by the radical

V , with a bar extending over the expression whose root is to be extracted, unless that expression be a numeral or single literal factor. The index of the root is written in
front of the radical at the top.

Thus

Va*,

V&i-

When
may

the index

is

it is

ordinarily omitted.

parenthesis

be used in any case instead of the bar.

77. Inverse of

Involution.

Involution
5^.

mutative, that

is,

2' does

not equal

is not comIn subtraction, the

inverse of addition, there are two questions that

may

be

For example, we may ask what number must be added to 5 to make 9, or to what number must 5 be added
asked.
93

94
to

EVOLUTION.

make

but as addition

is

commutative, there

is
is

only
an-

one inverse operation.

swered by subtraction.

Each

of the above questions

Also in division, the inverse of

questions

multiplication,

two

may
is

be asked.

For example,

we may

ask

how

many

4 contained in 20, or what number is contained 4 times in 20. This is equivalent to asking "20 is how many times 4, or 20 is 4 times what number." But
times
since multiplication
is

commutative, there

is

only one inis

verse operation.

Each

of the above questions

answered

by

division.

In evolution, the inverse of involution, two questions

may
is

likewise be asked.

For example, we may ask what

is 2.

is

the fifth root of 32, or what root of 32

As

involution

not commutative, these questions cannot be answered by

one and the same operation.

evolution,

and the

latter

by logarithms.

The former is answered by The former is the

only inverse operation that we shall consider here.

78.

not always Cancel

Corresponding Direct and Inverse Operations do each Other. Corresponding inverse

and direct operations usually cancel each other. Thus the addition and subtraction of the same number cancel each other, the multiplication and division by the same number cancel each other, also the extraction of a root and raising to the corresponding power cancel each other. Thus

{Va-\-iY

a-\-b.

It must, however, be borne in mind that roots are more than one-valued, and hence the statement with reference to

the inverse operations of extracting roots and raising to

powers need restriction.

versally, that
( y'fl!

It is true, necessarily
a,

and unia.

)"

but not that

^0^=

For

instance,

Va^

=
is

tion of a root

While the statement that the extraccancelled by raising the result to the cor"a.

EVOLUTION.
responding power
is

95

true necessarily and universally, the

inverse statement that the raising an expression to a power

is

cancelled by the extraction of the corresponding root of

is

the result
79.
is

not necessarily true.

Extraction of Roots of Monomials.

Since evolution
in finding

the inverse of involution,

we

extract the root of an ex-

pression by doing just the opposite to

what we do

a power.

Thus, we find the power of a monomial by raising its numeral factor to the power indicated by the exponent, and multiply the exponent of each literal factor by the exponent
of the power.
e.g.
{4:X^z^Y

64a;V.

Hence we

extract the root of a

monomial by extracting
of the root.

the indicated root of the numeral factor and dividing the

exponent of each
e.g.

letter

by the index

|/64a;V

=
.-.

AiX^x^,

JSr.B.

Since
is,

{^af

a^,

Va^

'a.

That

or

the square root of a positive quantity is either and the square root of a negative quantity is im-

possible, or

imaginary.

The same

is

true of any even root.

is

The odd root

negative quantity

of a positive quantity

+, and

of a

EXERCISE XXXVII.
I.

Find the indicated

1.

roots of the following monomials:

96

EVOLUTION.
80. Extraction of the

Square Root of Polynomials.

let

To

obtain a rule for extracting the root of a polynomial,

us examine the square of a polynomial.

e.g.
_|_

{a+b+c + df
_|_

= 3 J2 c2 + <Z2 + 2ab + 3at; + 2a?+ 2Sc + 2S?+ 2crZ = + %ab + 52 + 2ac + Uc + (? + 2ad+%bd-\-%cd-^ d'^ = d^-\-{2a-\-b)b-\-{%a + 2b-\-c)c-\-{%a-\-%b + ^c-\-d)d = a2 + (2a + 5)5 + [2(a + S) + c]c + [3(a + J + c) + <?]<Z.
=*

From
nomial
:

the last of the above equations

we may

derive the

following rule for writing at sight the square of any poly-

Write the square of the first term, then the product of twice the first term plus the second multiplied by the second,
then the product of twice the first tioo terms plus the third multiplied by the third, then the product of twice the first three terms plus the fourth multiplied by the fourth, etc.
If

now we

take the second

it

member

of the second equa-

tion

and compare

with the second

member

of the last,

we may

readily obtain a rule for extracting the root of a

polynomial.

/..2

'

Za

+b

Zab-\-
206

2a

-1-

26

-|- c

2ac 2ac

+ 26c + + 26c 4-

c* c"

2a

+ 26 + 2c

-t- fi

Zad-\-^d
Zed

+ Zcd-\-cP + 2bd + 2cd + d'

the

First arrange the terms of the polynomial according to powers of some letter ; then tahe the square root of the
or more terms; then double the root

first term, place it in the root or quotient, square, subtract,

and bring down one

EVOLUTION.
already found

97

and place

the result in the divisor, find

how

many

times this is contained in the first term of the re-

mainder, place the result in both the root and in the divisor, multiply, subtract,

root already found

and bring doivn; then double and proceed as before; and so on to

the the

end.

EXERCISE XXXVIII.
Extract the square roots of
I.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

+ 43-f 2a2-4ff+l. 2xy^ 2x^y + 4a - VZa^x + + GaV + aV. 9x^ - 12xY + IGxY - 'ZixY + %^ + 4as + 16c8 + IGa^c^ - 33aV. + 9 - 30a; - 20x^ + 37a;l - 8aP + 45*. 16a;* - IGabx^ + 16x^ +
a*

3a;^/^

-\- y*.

5a*x'^

ISa;^/^-

4a;*

4:a''P

II.

8.

a;

9.

10. 11. 12.

4:

a;*

13.

.-s*

+ 25a;2 + 10a;* - ix^ - 20x^ + 16 - 24a;. 4:X^y 4txy^ + 8xY lOxY + f + -12a- 11a* + 5a^ - ia^ + 4a + Ua\ 35a; 31x*y^ + 34a;y 30x^y+y^8xy''+10xY x^y 7/4a;y + + -^+^ - ia^y + &xY - 6xy^ +
8a;*/2
a;/^
/*.

5/*

81. Squaring

nomial.

composed of Thus; 25

Numbers as Polynomials. Every number two or more digits may be written as a poly-

20

+ 5,

334

200

+ 30 + 4,

etc.

98

EVOLUTION.
Hence
(234)'

= (200 + 30 + 4) = {200)H (3;200+30) X 30+ (2. 280+4)4. 40000 + 12900 + 1856 = 54756.
EXERCISE XXXIX.

In a similar way find the squares of the following

numbers
I.

1.

327.

2.

3789.
II.

3.

845.

4.

5006.

6.

19683.

6.

5083.

Observe that the square of a number contains either

twice as

many
itself.

or one less than twice as

many

places as the

number

Ex. .234

= .2 + .03 + .004. (.234)2 ^ (2 + .03 + .004)2 = (.2)2+(2x.2+.03).03+(2x.23+.004).004 = .054756.

In a similar way find the square of

7.

.0304.

8.

.0028.
is

Observe that when a number

a decimal
ber.

a decimal,

its

square

is

and contains twice

as

many

places as the

num-

Ex. 23.4

20

+3+
-

.4.

(23.4)2=(20+3+.4)2=(20)2+(2x20+3)3+(2x23+.4).4
547.56.

100
3
1

EVOLUTION.

- 87 - 43 00
00

04 00

891

10000

+ 9000 + 600 + 80 + 3

oo'

20000 9000 39000

EVOLUTION.

101

Divide the number into periods of two places each, heginning at the decimal point; find the largest perfect
it from this period in the quotient, and iring down the next period; do^iUe the root already found for a trial divisor,

square in the left-hand period, suUract

and place
and
seek

its root

how many times

this is contained in the

remainder

exclusive of the last figure,

and place

the result in lyoth the

divisor and the quotient; multiply, sxCbtract, bring down, and proceed as before. As the trial divisor is smaller than the real divisor, we must guard against taking too large a figure for the quotient. Of course this figure can never exceed 9.

Should the
in the divisor

trial divisor

not be contained in the remain-

der after the last figure has been excluded, place a cipher

and quotient, and bring down the next period and try again, and so on till a significant figure is obtained.
In the actual work, after the number has been separated
into periods, the decimal points

may

be disregarded.

It

should be placed in the quotient, or root,

has been reached, but farther than this
neglected.

when

its

position

it

may

be entirely
root

When

the

number

is

not an exact square,

its

may

be obtained to any required degree of approximation by bringing down two ciphers for each new period. Of course
care

must be taken

to place the decimal point in the right

position in the quotient.

EXERCISE XL.
Find the square
roots of
I.

1.

14356531.

8.

35060036.
16803.9369.

3.

35836889.

4.

102
J

BVOLUTtON.
84. Extracting the Cube Root of Polynomials.

103

If

we

arrange the terms of {a-\-l)-\- cY according to the descending powers of a and the ascending powers of c, we have
a^-{-?,a%+Za+-\-id^c-\-Qahc+^l^c-\-dac^+dbc^-\-(?.

Comparing
a'

this

with
l))c

(3fl2

+ 3fl5 + W)b + [3( + J)^ + 3( +

+ c^c,

we may
Thus:

readily extract the cube root of the

first

expression.

a=+3a6-|-3aftH''*+3a'c+6aJc+36c-|-3ac5+36c'+c3|a+6+c

3a+3aft+6'

3a'^6+3a62+63
Za?b+'daV-\-ti'

3a-'+6a6+36=+3ac+36c+c-''

3a'c-|-6a6c+36'c+3ac'+ 3Jc'+c'

The rule for may be stated as

Arrange
or letters
;

extracting the cube root of a polynomial

follows:

powers of some letter extract the cube root of the first term and place
the terms according to the

the root in the quotient

and subtract

the cube from the poly-

nomial, and bring down a part of the remainder; use three times the square of the root already found as a trial divisor,

and

seek

how many times

this is contained in the first

term of the remainder, place the result as a new term in the quotient, and place three times the product of this term and

and also the square of this term, as a netv term in the divisor, multiply, subtract, and bring down; and so on till there is no remainder, or until the
the root already found,

desired degree of approximation has been reached.

104

EVOLUTION.
EXERCISE
XLII.

Find the cube

1.

roots of:
I.

2.

3.

8a!=

4.

27a;'/8

+ 1 + + 12a;2 %x^. - mx^y + b^xy^ - 27y^ - 27x>yh^ + 9xyz* - z\

1
3a; 6a;
3a;2

x^.

-|-

II.
5.

24.25

+ a^
-

_)_

512^3 _^ igaaS^.

6.

108a;

7.

1 1

3a;
a;

+ Qix^ + 6x^ + 7x^ + +

lUx*
27x''
6a;*

3a;=

a^.

8.

to four terms.

85.

Cubing Numbers as Polynomials.

of 83.

Any

number

may

be written as a polynomial and then cubed by the

method

Thus:
1000

1854 =

and (1854)3= (1000

+ 800 + 50 + 4, + 800 + 50 + 4)^ = 1000^+ [3(10002 + 1000 x800)+8002]800+

[3(1800-^+1800x50)+503]50+[3(18502+1850x4)+42]4

= 1000000000 + 4 832 000 000 + 499 625 000 + 41 158 864 = 6 372 783 864.
EXERCISE
XLIII.

Cube the following numbers by the process

I.

of 46

1.

135.

2.

228.

8.

106.
46.8.

4.

258.

6.

478.
II.
.

6.

7.

^.36.

8.

27.55.

9.

.384.

EVOLUTION.
86.

105

Extracting the Cube Root of Numbers.

Observe

in each of the above cases that the cube of a

tains three times as

many

figures as

one or two less than three times as number cubed is an integer, the cube is an integer; that when the number cubed is a decimal, the cube is a decimal
that

number conthe number cubed, or many; that when the

when the number cubed

is also

and a decimal, the cube

a decimal.

composed of an integer composed of an integer and

is

Observe also that

three
places each,

if

we

divide the cube into periods of

beginning at the decimal point, the

number

of periods in the cube will equal the

number

of

figures in the

number cubed

and that the cube root of the

largest cube in the left-hand period will be the left-hand

number cubed. Hence the first step in finding the cube root of a number is to divide the number into periods of three figures
figure of the

each, beginning at the decimal point.

The

periods thus obtained correspond to the terms of a

is

polynomial whose cube root

to that of finding the
e.g.

to be found,
is

and the process

of finding the cube root of a

number

precisely analogous

cube root of a polynomial.

Extract the cube root of 12 977 875.

200'

13-977-875 300 8 000 000

|

+ 30 +5 = 235

3x2002
3

200

= 120000 = 18000 30^ = 900

30

4 977 875 4 167 000

138900
3

230

= 158700

3X230X5=
52=

810 875 3450 810 875 25

162175

106
It appears

EVOLUTION.
from the above example
cube root
is

that, after the first

step, the extraction of the

a case of division,
is

in

which the exact or complete

is

divisor

unknown.

It

also appears that the incomplete or trial divisor in

each

case

three times the square of the part of the root already

found.

As
pact,

in square root, the process

may be made more comroot,

by omitting the ciphers in the

and writing
also

it

at

once in the usual form.

The

ciphers

may

be omitted

from the partial subtrahends, and only one period need be brought down at a time. One cipher must, however, be employed for the next place in finding the trial and complete divisors.

This

is

necessary because the significant

figures in the additions to the trial divisor often overlap

those of the trial divisor.

As regards decimal points and imperfect

same remarks apply
as to square root.

cubes,

the

As

the

trial divisor in

cube root
is

is

considerably smaller

than the real divisor, there

great liability to

make the

next figure too large, and the right figure often can be
ascertained only after two or three
trials.

EXERCISE XLIV.

EVOLUTION.

107

13.

Divide %1a^7?
(a;

- Sby by

3a^x

14.

1)2- {x'-l)^x{2x-\-l)
of a

- Wy. - 3(a; + 2)(2:+l)

its

+ 20.
15.

The length
its

room exceeds

breadth by 3

ft.

Were
ished

length increased by 3 feet and the breadth dimin-

same.

by 2 feet, the area of the room would remain the Find the dimensions of the room.
II.

16.

Divide
25a;

M+
19

640"
[3

by ^a^
(4*

Sa^c^

+ 16c^.
(6a;

17.

6)]

3a;

5).

The length of a room exceeds its breadth by 8 ft. 18. Were each increased by 2 feet, it would take 26f yards
more of carpeting 3/4 of a yard wide Find the dimensions of the room.
19.

to cover the floor.

In a

cellar

one

fifth of the
it

wine

is

port and one

third claret.

Besides this

contains 16 dozen bottles of

sherry and 30 bottles of

spirits.

How many

bottles of port

and

of claret does it contain ?

30.

boy bought some apples at three a cent and 5/6

as

many

at four a cent.
cents.

He

sells

them

at 16 for 6 cents
?

and gains 3^

How many

apples did he buy

CHAPTER

X.

MULTIPLICATION AT SIGHT.
87. Complete Algebraic Expressions.

A complete
first

al-

gebraic expression of the

first

degree in any one letter

is

binomial, one of whose terms contains the

power of
all.

the letter and the other does not contain the letter at

Thus, X

-{-

5,

dx

a are complete expressions of the

first

degree in

z.

The term of an expression which does not contain the letter or unknown quantity is called the constant or absolute
term.

A complete algebraic expression of the second degree in any one letter is a trinomial, one of whose terms contains the second power of the letter, another the first power of
the
letter,

Thus,

x^

-\-

and the third does not contain the letter at all. 5x 6, 3x^ ix -\- a are complete expressions

of the second degree in x.

88. Product of

Two

Binomials of the First Degree.

first

The product
in any letter

of
is

two binomial expressions of the

it is

degree

generally a trinomial of the second degree

in that letter,

though

in one case a quadratic binomial.

The student should be

letter.

able to write with facility at sight

the product of any two first-degree binomials in the same

Suppose we are required to obtain the product of 3a;+4 6a; 7. The literal factor of the first term will be x^, of the second term x, and the third term will not contain x,

and

108

MULTIPLICATION AT SIGHT.
The annexed diagrammatic arrangement
us to obtain the
coeflftcients.

109
will

enable

by the connecting
the coefficient of

The coefficients are to be multiplied together as indicated lines. The product

^^'^

of the left-hand coefficients will be

x',

the

sum

of the

two cross-products will be the coefficient of X, and the product of the

right-hand factors will be the absolute g^ term. Care must be taken to use the
right sign with each coefficient of x

and with the absolute

found to be

term, and also with each product.

The product
15a;2

of the above binomials will be

a;

28.

We would advise using the diagrammatic arrangement in

all

cases at first

till

the pupil has acquired facility in obtain-

ing the
carded,

The diagram may then be disand the product written down at once, the work of new
coefficients.

obtaining the result being entirely mental.

EXERCISE XLV.
Find by the above method the products of the following
pairs of first-degree binomials

1.

110

MULTIPLICATION AT SIGHT.
II.

15. 17. 19.

7a;

and bx
8a; 4a;

+ 13.
- 35. 5.
h.

16. 18.

6a;

and

13a;
9a;

8.

3a;

+ 7 and
b
c

3a;

ax
aa;

and

20.

+ 6 and - 30. 3aa; + c and +

6a;

8.

21.
22. 23.

and

5ffla; -|-

6)a;

9a;

+ c and 3a; and 8 +

13a;.

i.

24.

+ 4a; and 7

8a;.

6. a and x Observe in examples 89. Product of a; 5-10 that when the coeflBcient of x in the factors is unity, the coeflBcient of a;^ in the product will be unity, that the

coeflBcient of

x in the product will be the algebraic

sum

of

the constant terms of the factors, and that the constant

term in the product will be the algebraic product of the constant terms of the factors. Also that the constant term
of the product will be positive

when

the constant terms of

the factors have like signs, and negative

when the constant

terms of the factors have unlike signs, and that the sign of the term in x in the product is that of the constant term of
the factors which
is

numerically the larger.

The

cases illustrated

by these

six

examples are of very

common
them.
90.

occurrence, and careful attention should be given

Product of

a;

+ and x

-\-

a.

Observe in examples
is

11 and 13 that
binomial.
91.

when

the two factors are alike, the result

the same as that obtained by the formula for squaring a

Product oix

-\-

a and x

a.

Observe in examples

of the two binomial factors are alike in absolute value but different in their connecting sign, the product is a Mnomial, and that

13 and 14 that,

when the corresponding terms

the two terms of the product are the squares of the corre-

MULTIPLICATION AT SIGHT.

11

spending terms of the factors, and that the sign between the terms of the product is minus.
This
nomials
is.

the only case in which the product of two bi-

is

a binomial.
is

In

all

other cases

it is

a trinomial.

This case
is

and is known as the "product of the sum and difference of two quantities," and
particularly important,

usually stated thus

is

equal

The product of the sum and difference of tivo quantities to the difference of their squares. 92. Product of any Two Binomial Factors of the same

Degree.Any two binomial factors which are of the same degree in the same letter, and each of which has a constant term, may be multiplied at sight by the method of section The literal factor in one term of the product will be 88.
the square of the factor in the given binomials, in another

term of the product

occur at
all.

it

will be the

same as in the given

it will

bi-

nomials, and in the third term of the product

not

The coefficients and

con-

stant term of the product

may be

found by the diagrammatic arrange-

ment given in section 88. Ex. Find the product

and
4:X^

of 3x^

-{-

8.

Ans.

12a;6

ix^

40.

EXERCISE XLVI.
Write at sight the products of the following pairs of
binomials
I.

1.

ix^
5a^
32^

7 and 5x^

3.

+ 4 and
+ 5 and

Qsfl -

3. 8.

2.

7x*

4.

5.

8 and 7z^

7.

Vx

+ 12. Vx +
7.

6.

+ 4 and 3x^ + GxP - 2 and 7x^ + 3. 9tf + U and 6/ 5.

7.

8.

Vx

- 6 and 3 t^

-j- 8.

112
9.

MULTIPLICATION AT SIGHT.

Vx-1
X
-\-

and Vx-\-

7.

lo.

V'^+ 4 and

3 4^^

+ 4.

11.

Vb and x

Vb.

12.

Vm +
w*

Vb and Vto

Vb.
II.

13.
16. 17.

19.

2 and 5m^ 8. s' 7 and s' + 8. 7 and + 7. ^ar* 4 and 2a;^ + 4.

a:* a;*

14. le.
18.

w'

+ 12 and 3w^
and
a'

15.

a? -\-'d

20.

11. in^ + 6 and w' 6. ba^x^ 3 and 5aV + 3.

21.
22.

3 6

4/+5 V7'and3 4/^- 5V7-

23. 24.

V^+ 7 4/3. X + V 4 and V 4. 2a;2 + 3 V^^ and 2a;2 - 3 i^^^.

7 1/3

V^ -

and 6
a;

93. Products of

Binomial Aggregates.
literal factor in

Any aggregate

may

take the place of the

the preceding bi-

nomials and the product obtained by the same methods.

radical index in the

Of course the aggregate must have the same exponent or two binomial factors.

EXERCISE
binomials
I.
1.

XLVII.

Write at sight the product of the following pairs of

(a

a;)

+ 4 and

(a-\- x)

7.

2.
3.

4.
5.

6.

% and (m + -f 9. {x-b)-b and {x - J) + 9. {x m) 12 and {x m) + 7. X \/{in 5) and x ^/{m 5). X |/(3 a) and x 4/(3 a).
{m-\- x)
a;) -\-

-\-

MULTIPLICATION AT SIGHT.
7.
(a;

113

4)

(a;

a)

and

(a;

4)

(a;

a).

8.

\/{i^

9.

\/{\
4/(a;

+ 2a;' + 3a;* + 4a;3 + 3a;^ + 3a; + 1) = ? - 9a;2 + 33a;*-63a;+66a;8-362;"'+ 8a;i2)= - 6) +8

a;

11.

alone can do a piece of work in nine days, and

B
do

alone in 13 days.
it

How many

days will

it

take them to

together

18.

cistern could be filled in 13 minutes

pipes which

empty

into

it,

and

it

could be

minutes by one of these pipes alone.

How
fill it

by two in 30 many minutes

filled

would

it

take the other pipe alone to

11.*
13. 14. 15.
(a;

5)

(a;

+ 6)

and

(a;

5)

5.

(a;

+ 6).
5).

(a;

4/(3;

16.
17. 18. 19.

+ 7) - - 5) and {x + 7) + + 3) + 5 and \/{x + 3) - 7) - 4. y(a; - 7) + 4 and

(a;

(a;

|/(a;

-\-

\/{x

5)

and x

\/{x

5).

20.

+ 4) + ^{x 7) and y{x + 4) - \/{x - 7). + 5) and y(x + 8) + 5). Vi^ + 8) + - 7) and 3 ^{5 + x) 5 3 4/(5 + +
|/(a; 4/(a; |/(a;
2;)

4/(a;

V{x 21.

7).

4 4/(7

a;)

^{x

4)

and

4 ^{7

+
.,

x)

3 i/{x
22.

4).

34/(22; + 4) -i^l.^It_l

-10 ____^ =
3a:
i

^,_

6 4/(3a=

+ 4).
,

* Unless otherwise stated, directions for

apply

to 11 also.

114
23.

MULTIPLICATION AT SIGHT.

by one pipe alone in six and it could be emptied by an outlet pipe in twelve hours. In how many hours would the cistern be filled were all three pipes
cistern could be filled

hours, and by another pipe alone in eight hours

opened together when the cistern was empty

94. Product oi

-\-

y and
y^
vs,

x^

xy

-\- y^.

The product

ot x-\x^
-\-

y and
-\- y'^

xy
)

xy is 7?
x^

-\-

3?

-\-

y^,

/'.

(Show

these

y and by actual multiplicaand of x

tion.

sum of two terms and the minus their product is the of the cubes of the terms, and the product of the difference of two terms and the sum of the squares of the
In words, the product of the
of the squares of the terms

sum sum

terms plus their product

the terms.

is

the difference of the cubes of

EXERCISE

XLVIII.

Write at sight the product of the following pairs of

factors
I.

1.

X -^ a and
a;

a?
a;^

ax-\- c?.
"3a;
-j-

2.
3.

+ 3 and

9.

4.
6.

t and o? -\-'tx-\- 49. x c and o? cx-\1x^ - 3a and 4a-* + 6aa^ + 9al

x
-\<?.

Write at sight the missing factor of the two following

examples
6.

{x

4)(

=
)

a;3

64.
-|-

7. 8.

(2fla;2

+ 7)(
a;^

= SaV
1

343.

Square

a;^

+ +
a;

by the method of section

73.
9.

Cube

3a;^

3a;*

by the method of section 75.

MULTIPLICATION AT SIGHT.
II. 10.

115

a^

1/35 and

a*

l/3a^
and

+ 1/951
1/4V

U.
4/95ar'.
12.

l/2ffl2a;3

_ 3/35V

+
-

l/SaWa^
l/SOa^JV

+ +

1/5V

1/65V and 1/35V

l/SeS^a;!''.

Write at sight the missing factor of the following

examples
13.

{3a^x^

l/3ax){

(1/4V U. 1/2165^1.
95.

+ 1/65V)(
x^

= 27aa;' - 1/27 a^x^ = l/64-aV= +

)

To Convert
of one

5a;

into a Perfect Square.

The
-{-

square of a binomial of the

that
is,

first

degree of the form x

a,

efficient

having a constant term and unity as the coof its first-degree term, is a complete quadratic

trinomial.

The

first-degree

term of
is

this trinomial is twice

the product of the two terms of the binomial, and the constant term of the trinomial

the square of the constant

coefficient

term of the binomial, or the square of half the

of the first-degree term of the trinomial.
e.g.

{x

+ 4)2 = a^ + 8x+ 16.

1/3)2

Here 16 Here 1/4

1^1

{x

a;3

a; _(_

1/4.

= (1/2)2.
may

Hence
is,

a quadratic binomial of the

first-

one having a

form x^ -\- bx, that and a second-degree term in a letter

and unity

as the coefficient of its second-degree term,

be converted into a perfect square by adding as a constant

term the square of half the

term.
e.g.

coefficient of its first-degree

The

quadratic binomial x^

it

6x becomes a perfect
as a constant term.
9.

square on the addition of (3)^ to

When

thus completed

it

becomes the trinomial a;^ 6a:-|-

116

MULTIPLICATION AT SIGHT.

MULTIPLICATION AT 8IQST.
II.
6.

117

8.

10.

- 2l w" - 3/4l {x - bf - 3(a; *

7.

a;W
(cK

3/3a;^

9.

+ 3) + 6(a; + 2).
a Perfect Square.
-\-

6).

97.

To Convert

x^ -\-hx-\- c into

Quadratic trinomials of the form x^ -{-Ix

may

be con-

verted, without change of value, into perfect squares plus

or minus a term which may be either simple or complex, by the addition and subtraction of the square of half the It is best to make the addition and subcoefficient of x. traction immediately after the second term, and then to combine the last two terms into one.
'

e.g.

.r^

4a;

= =

.1-3

a;2

+ +

4a; 4a;

+4-4-8 + 4 - 12.

The
square.
x^

first

three terms of the last polynomial are a perfect

+ Qx -\-10-a?-\+
I

6.

+ 9-9 + 10 =
OK
OK

a;^

6a;

+9+

1.

a;2

5a;

:r;2

+ +

+''44 5a;

-r

a;^

5a;

+-
LI.

EXERCISE

Convert each of the following trinomials into a perfect

square plus or minus a constant term, without change of
value
I.

1.

a;2

8a;

2.

2.

3.

x^+'Tx^

3/4.

4.

5.

Divide l/32a;=

1024 by

- 12x + 30. - 7a; + 3/5. l/2a; - 4.

x^
a;2

118
6.

MULTIPLICATION AT SIGHT.

A workman was

tion that he should

receive

employed for 60 days, on condi3 dollars for every day he

evei-y

worked, and forfeit 1 dollar for

day he was absent.

At

the end of the time he received 48 dollars.

?

How many
B
can do

days did he work

7.

A
B

can do a piece of work in 10 days, and

After

it

in eight days.

A has been at work on it for three

In how

days,

comes to help him.

many

days will they

finish?
II.

8.

f-9y-\x' -\-bX'\-

3.
c.

9.

z^

+ llz - 7.

by

10.

11.

y^

5.

c.

12.

Divide 32/243a^

3125 by 2/3a;

running at the rate of 10 miles an 13. hour, discovers a ship 18 miles off running at the rate of 8 miles an hour. How many miles can the ship run before
privateer,

she

is

overtaken

two supply-pipes respectively capable 4^ and 6 hours. It also has a leak capable of emptying it in 5 hours. In how many hours would it be filled when both pipes are on ?
14.

cistern has

of filling it in

98.

To Convert as?

^-^

into

^ Perfect Square.
-\-

Quadratic binomials of the form 03?

into perfect squares of a?

ix

may be

converted

by first dividing them by the coeflBcient and then adding the square of half of the resulting
d3?
-\-

coefiBcient of x.
e.g.
12.r

becomes, on division by

3, a^
a:^

then, on addition of the square of half of 4,

+ + 4z

4.r,

and
4.

-(-

which
h/Zx

is

a perfect square.
3.r^

Similarly,
-\-

5x becomes
is

x^

5/3.r,

and then

7?

25/36, which last

a perfect square.

MULTIPLICATION AT 8IQET.
EXERCISE
and
Lll.

119

Convert the following quadratic binomials into perfect

squares,
solve the given equations
I. 1.

6a;2

18a;.

3.

5x^

15a;.

CHAPTER

XI.

FACTORING.
99. Resolution into Factors.
is

To factor
factors.

an expression

to resolve

it

into its

component

To be

able to

factor algebraic expressions readily

ter of Tery great importance.

and accurately is a matOther things being equal,

is

the one most skilful at factoring

1.

the best algebraist.

To Resolve an Expression into a Monomial and a Polynomial Factor. When every, term of a polynomial

contains a

common

factor, it

may

be resolved into a mono-

mial and a polynomial factor.

The

factor

common

to all the terms will be the

mono-

mial factor, and the quotient obtained by dividing the expression by this factor will be the polynomial factor.
e.g.
6a;2

+ 12a; -

a^x

= Q{x^ -f 2a; a^ = a\x 1).

18

3).

EXERCISE

LIV.

Resolve each of the following expressions into a mono-

mial and a polynomial factor

1.

6a5

+ %ac.
5S3c8.

2.

^d^by?

- Mbx +
7a*

3.

b(?x -f 5SV/
6a;3

4.

7a

+ 14a*.
120

5.

2ar*

4a;5.

FAOTOBINQ.
II.
6.

121

15a^

225a*.

t.
9.

8.

38a^x^
2x^y^
2.

+ 57a*x\
3x^y^
-j-

dx^ 53^

lOa^x^
x'

- X5aV.

+ x.

10.

2xy^.

difference of

To Factor the Difference of Two Squares. The two squares is equal to the product of the sum
roots.

and difference of their

EXERCISE

LV.

Factor each of the following expressions

I.
1.

x^

3.

5.

^. 4a2 - 64. 81 - 16aV.

{x?
(^2

2.

x^

9.

4.
6.

7.

+
_

la.^:

+ 36)
_

49.

8.

2/^

- 2551 49a*a;2 - l&a^}. - 8/ + 16 9a2a;2

81.

9,

4 _^ 4)

16.

10.

(5^

+ 345 + 144) - 121.

tail is

11.

The head

of a fish

is

9 inches long, the

as long as the

long as
the fish

head and half the hody, and the body is as What is the length of the head and tail together;
?

digits,

In solving problems concerning numbers composed of the student must bear in mind that a number composed of two digits is equal to 10 times the left-hand digit plus the right-hand digit; that a number composed of three digits is equal to 100 times

Note.

the left-hand digit plus 10 times the middle digit plus the right-hand
digit. 12.

Thus, 46

= 10 X

6,

and

387

100

3 -f 10

8 -f

7.

A number is composed of two digits, and the left If 18 be subtracted from the 4/3 of the right. number, its digits will be reversed. What is the number ?
digit
is

II.

Factor
13

12

- UK

14.

488

IQ^abK

122
15.

FAGTORING.
27a=

lbax\

16.

135a%'

45a;y.

Convert the following trinomials into the difference of

-two squares
17.
a;

and then factor:

18.

+ 14a; + 40.

x^

16x

17.

19.

a?
21.

hours,

x^ + 302; + 29. -lOx- 11. 20. A and B together can do a piece of work in 12 A and C together can do it in 16 hours, and A
it

alone can do
it

in 20 hours.

In what time can they

all

do

together,

and in what time could

and C

together do

it?
22.

A
if

number
9 be

13,

and

is composed of two digits whose sum is added to the number its digits will be

reversed.
3.

What

is

the

number

^We have seen that

first

Special Cases of Factoring Quadratic Trinomials. the product of two binomials of the
is,

degree in any letter

letter,

in general, a quadratic trinocoefficient of the sec-

mial in the same

and that the

is

ond-degree term of the letter

the product of the coeffi-

cient of the first-degree terms of the letter in the binomials,

the coefiicient of the first-degree term of the letter in the

product

is

the

sum

of the products of the coefficient of the

term of the letter in each binomial multiplied by the constant term of the other binomial, and the constant term of the product is the product of the constant
first-degree

terms of the binomials.

Hence
letter

a quadratic trinomial in any letter

first

may

be

re-

solved into two binomial factors of the

degree in that

whenever we can discover four numbers such that the first two will be the coefiicient of the seconddegree term of the trinomial, the product of the last two will be the constant term of the trinomial, and the algeproduct of the
braic

sum

of the cross-products of the

numbers

will be the

FACTORING.
coefficient of the first-degree
first

123

term of the trinomials.

last

The

two numbers

will then be the coefficients of the first-

degree terms of the factors, and the

two numbers will

be the constant terms of the factors.

It is best to arrange diagrammatically the four

selected for trial, as in the corresponding case of sight

tiplication.
e.g.

numbers mul-

Resolve 6^ -\-lx
6,

%0 into binomial factors.

3x3 =
3

the coefficient of x^;

^^

2x-4=-8;
X
5

15;
7,

15
5

+ ( 8) =
X (
Hence
4)

the coefficient of x;
20,

the constant

term.
Qx^

+ 7 - 30 =
first
"'

{2x

+ 5)(3a; - 4).
two
e.g.
trials,
if

Notice that the complete

test involves

be unsuccessful:

above

and

2 below as well as 2 above

and 3

below.

Again,

resolve

3a;^

12a;

63

into binomial factors.

The required
and {Zx
Resolve
ir^

factors are {x

7)

-f-

9).

2a;

63 into bino-

mial factors.

The
{x

factors

are

{x

-\-

1)

and

9).

The
nomial

case in

which the
is

coefficient

of the second-degree term of the triis

unity

of frequent occur-

rence and of great importance.

124

FAOTOBING.
EXERCISE
LVI,

FACTORING.
e.g.

125
-\-

The value

of the expression a?

Qx

b depends

upon the value of x and changes with the value of x. Hence the expression a;^ + 6a; 6 is a function of x. The symbol f{x) means any algebraic expression containing X. This is a very convenient notation when we
wish to indicate any expression containing x without designating

any particular expression.

if /(a;)

/() indicates the

for x in

algebraic expression obtained f{x).

by substituting a

Thus

a;^

3a;

6,

then

f(a)

a2

_|-

3a

-I- 6.

EXERCISE
I.

LVII.

1.

If /(a;)
If /(a;)

2.

3.

lff{x)
x.

= + Sa;^ - 10, find /(3). = + Sa;^ - 10, find/(- 3). = x^ 5x 6 and y = 3 x, find/(/)
a;3
a;3

-\-

in

terms of
4.

If /(a;) If /(a;)
If /()

5.

6.

7.

If /()
If/(a;)

8.

= + x+l, find /(a; - 1). = x^+2x-7, find/(5). = {a + b + cf-a^-b^- c\ =x^ y^, find /(?/). = a;-2^, find/(t/).
ci^

find/(-5).

II.

9.

If /(a;)

10.
11. 12. 13.

+ y\ find/(If /(a;) + find/(y). If/(a;) + 2/^find/(-2/). If/(a;)=:a;^ + /, find/(2/).

If/(a;)
a;^

= = = =

a;"

y\

find/(y).
/).

a;'

/=,

a;'

126
14. 15.

FACTORING.

16.

= A" + y" and n is odd, find/( y). If /(a;) = and is even, find/( y). If/(a;) = + y, find/(2/).
If /(a;)
a;" -|- /"

re

a;

101. Remainder Theorem.

a,

When f{x) is divided by the process of division being continued till the reif

mainder,
will

there be one, does not contain x, the remainder

=/().
Proof.

Denote the remainder, which

R and
X
the quotient by Q.

is

supposed not

to contain x, by

Then we have

a
a)
-\-

or
If

f{x)

Q{x

R.

now we

substitute a for x in each

it

remain unaltered since

does not contain

member, x, and x

R must a will

become a
e.g.

a = 0. Let /(a;) =

Hence /(a)
a;^ -(- 2a;^

= R. 5a; 6,
64

and

let

a.

= 4.

Then
/(a)

= 43 + 3X4^ -5x4-6 =
division.
a;3 _|_

+ 33 -20- 6=70.

By

2a;2

5a;

FAOTOBING.

127

By

division,
a;'

+ 32

2a;*

\x -2,
a^

0?

2a;''

4a;2 -|- 8a;

+ 16

2a;* 2a;*

+ 32
4a;3 4a;3 4a;'

+ 32

8x^
8a;2

+ 32
_
16a; 16a;

8a:2

+ 32
2.

16a;

32

64
Again,
let

f{x) f{a)

Then

= =

a;'

32, and let a = 32 - 32 = 0.

By

division,

a;5-32

128
expression
therefore
a;

FACTORING.
is

divisible

by

a;

a;

a without remainder, and

it.

is

a factor of

expression
therefore
a;

is

not divisible by

In the latter case the a without remainder, and

it.

a is not a factor of
EXERCISE
of the following
is

LVIII.

Find in each

examples whether or not

the given binomial

1.

a factor of the given expression

5.

X X

-10?+ T.r + 15. 2. + 1 of 2a:^ + 1. 1 of + 2. 3. X - 3 of 2a;5 + lO.c^ - 8a: - 40. 4. b oia? P. X 4- 5 of 6. +

X
5 of x^
a; a; a;

a;'

a:^

a;"

b''.

7.

-\-

b ot a^ b ot b of
a,-'

9.

H.

X
13.

b^.

8.

X X

&
-\-

of

a.'*

b^.

10.
b^.

b of x^

b\

.('*

12.

X -{-b otx^

-{- 5*.

14. 15. 16.

17. 18.

b of r" + b" when n is odd. X b of x" b" when is even.

-\-\-

b ot

of' -\-

b"

when n
when
ii

is is

odd.
even.

X
X

-\-

b of x" b of
;r"

-\- b"

19.

20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

5" when n is odd. S" when is even b of + 5 of x" b" when n is odd. J" when n is even. X -\-b of b. Divide x' J^ by S' by + 5. Divide Divide + 5* by 5.
a;"
?i

a;

.r"

a:

a-'

a;

a;*

a;

Divide

a,-*

5^

by x

&.

FACTORINO.
26.

12y

Divide

a;^

+
-\-

5^

by

a;

b.

26.

Divide x' Divide

a;*

V \>y
&*

x
a;

-\- 1.

27.

by

5.

28.

Divide

a;*

6*

by

a;

b.

102. Factors of the

Powers of Two
pears
:

ftuantities.

Sum and Difference of the Same From examples 13-20 it ap-

1.

tities is divisible

That the sum of the same odd powers of two quanby the sum of their roots, but not by the
That the sum
of the same even powers of two quanby neither the sum nor the difference of

difference of their roots.

2.

tities is divisible

their roots.
3.

That the
is

difference of the

quantities

divisible

same odd powers of two by the difference of their roots, but

not by the
4.

sum

of their roots.

That the difference of the same even powers of two quantities is divisible by both the sum and difference of
their roots.

From examples 21, 1. That when the

tient are all positive
;

26, 27, 28, it appears:

difference of the

same powers

is

di-

vided by the diflerence of the roots, the terms of the quo-

and that when the sum

divided by the

or difference

of the

same powers

is

sum

of the roots, the

terms of the quotient are alternately positive and negative.

2.

That

in

the letter of the

first

any case the first term of the quotient is term of the dividend with its exponent
letter de-

diminished by one, and that the exponent of this

creases by one in each of the succeeding terms of the quotient and that the letter of the second term of the dividend
;

occurs in the second term of the quotient with unity for

its

exponent, and that the exponent of this letter increases


130

FACTORING.
till it

by one in each subsequent term its exponent in the dividend.

write the quotient at sight.

becomes one

less

than

These two laws enable us in these cases of division to

EXERCISE

LIX.

Write at sight the quotient in each of the following

cases:
1.

(a;5

3.

(a;'

5.

7.

(a;*

- y^) - f) ^ (= - 27) -H - 16) --r-

(a;

y).

2.

(a? ('

y^) -^ {x
y'')

- y).

(a;

+ y)- 3).

46.

+
-

-^ (
(a;

+ y)3).

(a;

("
(a;^

81) -^

(a;

+ 3).
when

8.

+ 32) ^

(a;

+ 2).

Find the remainder

I.

9.

(x
(a;

2)'

(2a;

a;^

a)^ is divided
is
a;

by

a;

a.

10.
11. 12.

(a;

divided by + a. + a + &)^ + - 2a^" divided by + o. + 2a)^ + + af" divided hj a ( + 5 + c) a^ b^ -

(3a:
is
a;

(^ is

-\- b.

II.

divided by a + + b cy a' {a + b + cy-{b + cY -{c + ay -{a+ by + * + i* + divided hy a-\13. 14.

{a

-\-

b''

c' is

&.

c* is

b.

15.

a{b

c)+ b"{c a)+ c"{a b)

is

is

divided by bc.

Show

that the given binomial

a factor of each of the

following expressions, and find the other two factors

I.

16. 17.
18.

+ 3? + +
3a;3
a;3

a;2- 22a;- 24; a;-

3.

2a;2
2a;2

13a;

+ 10;

a;

3.
l.

11a;- 12;

a;

FAOTOBING.
II. 19.

131

Zt?
4a;3

20.

+ 36a; - 16; - 4. + 13a; - 32a; + 15 +

%07?
a;
;

a;

5.

EXERCISE LX.
I.

A cistern can be filled by one pipe in five hours and 1. by another in eight hours, and it can be emptied by a third
pipe in four hours.

Were the

pipes opened together, in

cistern empty and all three what time would it be filled ?

Suppose the cistern in the last example could be 2. emptied by the third pipe in three hours. Were the cistern
full
it

and

all

three pipes opened together, in

what time would

be emptied ?
3.

A man
calls in

does 3/5 of a piece of work in 30 days and

then
days.

another

man and
II.

they together finish

it

it

in 6

In what time can they do

separately

4.

rate of

marketwoman bought a number two for a penny, and as many more

and found she had made 34 kind did she buy ?

of eggs at the at the rate of

three for a penny, and sold the whole at the rate of four
for 3 cents,
of each
5.

cents.

How many

A person hired
many
sum

a laborer on condition that he was

to receive 2 dollars for every

75 cents for every day he was absent. times as

day he worked and forfeit He worked three

days as he was absent, and received $47. 26.

?

How many
6.

days did he work

of

A and B, so was to that of B as 5 to 4. The share of A exceeded 5/11 of the whole by 300 dollars. What was each man's share ?
A
money was divided between
that the share of

CHAPTER

XII.

HIGHEST COMMON FACTORS.

103. Highest Common Factor. A common factor of two or more expressions is a factor which is contained in each of them, and the highest common factor of the expresThus, sions is the product of all their common factors. 2a^5V and &a'^c have 2, a^, , and c as common factors,

and

'idFtP'c

as their highest

common

factor.

The
factor.

abbreviation H. C. F. stands for highest

common

The
greatest

highest

common

factor

is

sometimes called the

common
The H.

measure, and denoted by G. C. M.

C. P. of

104.
spection.

monomials may be found by

in-

It is necessary

merely to factor the expression,

select the

common

factors

and

find their product, using

it

each of these factors the least number of times that

occurs in any of the expressions.
e.g.

Factoring,

Find the H.C.F. we have

of \'i,a^Wc''d;<!iaWe',

and Vla^Wd}.

3.3.2.a.a.5.5.S.c.c.c.c.(^,

Z.Z.a.a.a.h.h.c.c.c.c.c,
and

i.1.%.a.a.a.a.T}.t).l}.l).l).d.d.d.

The
and
5.

factors

common
number
is.

to all the expressions are, 3, a,

The

least

of times that 3 occurs in

any of

the expressions

once; that a occurs in any of the expres133

HIGHEST COMMON FACTORS.

sions
is
is

13'3

twice; and that h occurs in any of the expressions

twice.

Now

da^b"^,

and

this

is

the

highest

common

factor of the expressions.

at once that the highest

Of course we
factor of

might have seen

the coefficients

common

is 3,

that the

common

letters are

a and

b,

and that the lowest dimension of these letters in any of the Hence the H. C. F. would be ZaW. expressions is 3.

EXERCISE
5'ind the H. 0. F.

LXI.

of the following expressions:

I.

1.

5x^y, Ibx^y^z.

2.

Ix^y^z, %^x^y^z^.

3.

ISaJ^c^J,

36a^aP.

4.

2xy,

Zx'y', '^x^z.

6.

lla^bV, 5Wbh*, 68ff5V.

II.

7.

Multiply

ga;"

8.

Divide

G.-c'"

+ - 5x^y'^ by + 6a;/. + + Qa; + + 12a;" + + 18.t" + 6a;"

3a;"
^

4a;2

'

Sa:^

12a;*

by %x^

3a;.

To Find Highest Common Polynomial Factor by In a similar way we may find the H. C. F. of two or more polynomial expressions by inspection when we We have are able to resolve them into polynomial factors.
105.
Inspection.

simply to resolve the expressions into their polynomial facthe factors common to all the expressions, and combine them into a product, using each factor the least number of times that it occurs in any of the expressions. a; - 6, a;^ 6a; e.g. Find the H. C. F. of a;^ 9, and
tors, select

x^

-x-1%.
Factoring,
{x + 3)(a; -

we obtain
2), {x

+ 3)(a; + 3),

and {x

+ 3)(a; - 4).

134

EI0HE8T COMMON FAOTOM.

factor
is
a;

The only common

Hence the H.

3,

and the

least

number
is

of times that this occurs in any of these expressions

once.

0. F. of these three expressions

of the polynomial expressions

\%

-\- d.

When any
monomial

contains

factor, this factor

should be
;

searching for polynomial factors

and

if

removed before this factor is com-

mon

to all the expressions, or contains a factor

common

to

them, the
e.g.

common

factor should be set aside to be

made a

factor of the

H. C. F. Find the H. C. F. of 3aV Sa^a; and ViaHa? - 10M%x UOa^h. 96S Eemoving the monomial factors, we have

ma\ 6aV -

id\a? -\-x- 20), &a\a?

Za^
is

16),

and

I'Ha'bia?

9a;

+ 20).

the H. C. F. of the monomial factors thus re-

moved.

Factoring

now
{x

the three polynomial expressions,

we have
{x

i){x

+ 5),

4){a;

+ 4),

and {x
is
a;

the highest

common
Za%x

factor of

which

- 4)(a; - 5), 4. Therefore

is

the H. C. F. of the three given expressions

4)

Sa^a;

12a^

EXERCISE
Find the H.

LXII.

C. F. of the following expressions:

I.

1.

x^

1,

a;2

3a:

2.

2.

a?-\-5x-\-Q,x'^-\-lx-\- 12.
a;^

3.

-\-

9a;

10,

a;^

+
-

2a;

-\-

120.

4.
6.

a?-{-7x0?
01?

18, a?
-\-

8.

{a-\- V)x
-\-

db, 0?

{a

i)x

db.

6.
7.

Ixy &y^, 3? xy^. x^ X, 2a? 4:X 2, x^

-{-

-\-

x^

2x.

mQSMST COMMON FAGTOMS.

II.

135

8.

x^

-\-

2/S

{x

-\-

yY, x^

9.

12(a;

1)2, 6(a;

+ ^^^2/ + ^^^^ + if- Xf, \%{x + 1).

Sa.r'^

10. 11. 12.

0^

a:^

- f, 3(2:* - if), t{y? - y^). x^ 3A 3^, ' + 4a^, x^ ax Za^. + + 2/^ 7? 3x^y
a;?/

2/^,

a;

S.-cii/^

-\-

4/^.

106.
of two or

The method
is

of finding the highest

common

factor

more expressions which cannot

readily be resolved

into factors
1.

based on the three following theorems:

tiples

If two exjiressions have a common factor, any mulof these expressions will contain this factor.

Let
a
let J?

and

represent any two expressions which have

common

factor,

and

let this factor

be represented by /;

A hjf, and q the quotient obtained by dividing B by/. Then A = pf and B = qf. Let m and n be any integral expresThen mA will represent any multiple sions whatever. whatever of A, and nB any multiple of B. But mA = mpf and nB = nqf. Hence / is a factor of both mA and nB.
denote the quotient resulting from dividing
2.

If

tivo

expressions have a

and

difference of the expressions or of

letters as in 1.

common any

factor, the

sum

multiples of the

expressions will contain this factor.

Use the

Then
which contains the factor/.

A B = pf qf
Also
J_
-\-

{p

q)f,

jB

= pf

-{-

qf = {p

+ q)f, which contains the factor /.

nqf = {mp nqf = {mp

Again,

mA nB = mpf
mA
-\-

nq)f,
-\-

which

contains the factor /.

Also

nB = mpf

-\-

nq)f,

which

contains the factor/

136
3.

HIGHEST COMMON FACTORS.

If two expressions have a common factor, and one

of them ie divided by the other and there be a remainder, this remainder will contain the common factor.

Let
a

and

B represent the

common factor, Q

the quotient obtained by dividing

two expressions which have B by

A, and

R the remainder.

Then

B=
1,

QA

+ R.

/,

By hypothesis B and A have a common factor /, and by QA contains /as a factor. But since B is divisible by and one term of its equivalent expression {QA -\- R) is
by/, the other must be
as a factor.
also.

divisible

Hence the remainder

must contain /
CoK.

If

der by S, then the

now we divide ^ by i? and denote the remaincommon factor of R and S will be the

same

as that of

and

R and,

therefore, of

and B.

If this process be

continued to any extent, the

common
will

factor of

any divisor and the corresponding dividend

factor of the original expressions.

be a

common

In other

words, the remainder will always contain the

tors of the original expressions.
If at

common fac-

any stage there

is

no remainder, the divisor must

itself, it

be a factor of the corresponding dividend, and therefore,

since
it is

evidently the highest factor of

must be

the H. C. F. of the original expressions.

By

the nature of division the remainders are necessarily

and lower dimensions, and hence, unless at some we must ultimately reach a remainder which does not contain the common letter. In this case the given expressions have no H. C. F.
of lower

stage the division leaves no remainder,

As the

process

we

are considering

is

to be used only to
it
is

find the highest

common

polynomial factor,

evident

that any dividend or divisor which

cess

may

occur in the pro-

may

be multiplied or divided by any monomial factor

without destroying the validity of the operation; for such

HIGHEST COMMON FACTOBS.

13T

multiplication or division will not affect the polynomial

factors.

Ex.

1.

Find the H.
3?
-\-

C. F. of

x^

a;3

2 and 7?

-\-

2x^

3.

+ 3x -

\x^-\-x^

-2

x^

+ x^
x

x^

138

EIGBBST COMMON FACTORS.

38?/*,

Rejecting the factor

we have
2xy
X
-\-

iy^

+Qy

Qx^y

%a?y

I'ibxy^

+ %iy^ 12xy^ + 24:y + 4:y^

2.

Hence the H. C. F. is a:^ _ ^xy Ex. 3. Find the H. C. F. of

2a;*

+ 9x^ +

14:a;

+ 3 and

3a;*

+ ISa;^ + 5x^ + 10a; +

first.

To avoid fractional coeflBcients, the second may be multiplied by 2 and then divided by the
3a;*

expression

+ 15a;2 +

5x^

+ 10a; + 2
2
_|_

2a;*
|

9a;^

+ 14a; + 3

2.r*

^Qa; + 4 30a;^ + lOa;^ + 42a; + 9 + 27a;3 + 9x^ + 14a; + 3 3x^ + 10a? 23a; 3 +7 6a;*+27a;^+ 42a; + 9
6a;* 6a;*
I

2a;

6a;*+20a;3-44a;2-10a;

7x^+Ux>
21a;3

_|_

53a;

+9

3a;=
3a;3

+ 133a;2 + 156a; + 27 + 70a;2 - 154a; - 35 + 310a; + 63 + lOa;^ - 23a; - 5 x^+ + 1 + + -5

21a;
63a;2
5a;

63

15a;2

3a;

3a;

From

5a;^

35a;

-5a?- 25a;

5 5

The H.

C. F.

is a;2

5a;

1.

the above theorems and examples

we may

derive

HIGHEST COMMON PACTOM.

139

the following rule for finding the H. C. P. of two expressions

:

Arrange
the

the

poivers of some

common

hoo expressions according to the descending letter and, if the expressions are oj
letter,

same degree in that

divide either iy the other,

hut if they are of different degrees in that letter, divide the Talce the one which is of the higher degree ly the other.

remainder after division, if any, for a new divisor, and the former divisor as dividend; and continue the process till The last divisor will he the H. C. F. there is no remainder.
required.

tors, their

two expressions contain common monomial facH. C. F. must be obtained by inspection, and this must be multiplied by the last divisor found by the above
If the

rule.

Any
107.

divisor, dividend, or

remainder which occurs

may

be multiplied or divided by any monomial factor.

H. 0. F. of three or more polynomial H. 0. F. of any two of them, and then of this and a third, and so on. Let the expressions be ^, B, C, D, etc. First find the H. C. F. of ^ and B, and denote it by^. Then since the required H. 0. F. is a common factor of A and B, it must be a factor of E, which contains every common factor of A and B, and so on.

To

find the

expressions,

we

first

find the

108. Note.
pressions
is

The highest common factor

of algebraic ex-

not necessarily their greatest common measure. For if one expression is of higher dimensions than another in a particular letter, it does not follow that it is numericIn fact, if a be a positive fraction, a^ is less ally greater.

than

a.

140

ETOHEST COMMON PAGTOBS.

EXERCISE
LXIII.

Find the H.
1.

0. P.

of
I.

x'^-\-%x-\-l and x^
x^

-\-

%a?

^ %x

-\- 1.

- %x^ + 7a; + 24 and 3? - 5x^ + 8a; - 6, x^ 5x^ 3x Q and x^ 3x^ ix A. 2a;3 - 7a; - 2 and 6a;* - 3x^ - ISa;^. 4. 4a; + 8a;= - 66a;* - 12a;8 and 6a;^ - 6a;2 - 36a;. 12aV + 120a*x^ - 132a^x and 3aV - ^^a^x' -f 39fl!V - 15aV. 7a;* - lOax^ + 3aV - ia^x + 4a* and 8a;* - 13ax^ + 6aV - 3ax + 3a*. - 1 and 20a;* -^ 3? - 1. 25a;* + 5a;8 - - 5a? + 4a;*. 1 - 4a;3 + 3a;* and 1 +
2.
3.

-\-

-\-

-\-

5.

6.

7.

8.

a;

9.

a;

a;^

II.

Work
10.

the last nine and also the following examples by

synthetic division:

U.
13. 13. 14.

and

a;*

15. 16.

+ 24a; + 55. - lla;2 - 9 and + + 81. a? + 11a;' - 54 and a? + 11a; + 12. + + and + + + 20a; - 12, + 12a; Multiply Sa; - da; + + by + 7a; + \ Multiply + by 62;"-*.
11a;*
2a;=
a-*

+ 24a;' + 125 and

4a;=

11a;*

a;'

2a;^

a;

2,

a;'

a;^

4a;

4,

a;'

7a;

6.

a;*

6a;^

8.r

3,

a;*

2a;'

7a;2

4a;'

9.

5a;

6a;'

a;"

3a;'"

5a;'

4a;*

EXERCISE LXIV.
I.

Ex. At what time after 5 o'clock will the minute-hand of the clock be ten minutes ahead of the hour-hand ?

HIGHEST COMMON FACTORS.

141

In examples about the position of the hands of a clock,

it is

best to draw a circle to represent the clock-dial, and to

it

mark on

the positions of the hands at the beginning of

the hour specified.

Then note

the

number

of minute-spaces

between the hands

and let x denote the number of minute-spaces that the minute-hand must pass over before it comes into the required position. Then, since the minute-hand goes 13 times around the dial while the hourhand is going once around it, x/1% will denote the number of minute-spaces passed over by the hour-hand in the same
at this time,

time.

Then x will
the

equal the

number

of minute-spaces

between

the hands at the beginning of the hour plus x/12

minus

number of spaces the hands are required to be apart when the minute-hand is required to be behind the hourhand and x will equal the number of minute-spaces be;

tween the hands

plus the

at the

beginning of the hour plus .r/12

apart

number of spaces the hands are required to be when the minute hand is required to be ahead of the

hour-hand.
at the beginning of the

Thus, in the example, the minute-hand will be at XII hour specified, xil

and the hour-hand at V, and there would be 35 minute-spaces between them. While the former is moving
over the x spaces to
its

required posi-

tion of 10 minute-spaces ahead of the

hour-hand, the hour-hand will move

over a;/13 spaces.

Therefore

= 35 + a:/13 + 10; ll/13a; = 35, X = 38^.

x

That

is,

the minute-hand would be in the required po-

sition at 38j^

minutes past

five.

142

EI0HE8T COMMON FACTORS.

the question been, at what time after 5 o'clock will

Had

the minute-hand of the clock be ten minutes behind the

hour-hand, we would have had

= 25 + x/1% ll/12a: = 15, X = 16^4^.

a;

10;

1.

At what time

after 3 o'clock

is

the minute-hand of
?

the clock 18 minutes ahead of the hour-hand

2.

At what time
At what time

after 7 o'clock
?

is

the hour-hand 20

minutes behind the minute-hand

3.

after 9 o'clock is the

?

hour-hand 15

minutes behind the minute-hand

At what time nearest to 2 o'clock 4. hand 15 minutes behind the hour-hand?

is

the minuter

At what time between 4 and 5 o'clock are the hour 8. and minute hands at right angles ?
6.

The sum
is

of the

two

digits of a

number

is 8,

and

if

36 be added to the number the digits will be interchanged.

What
7.

the

number ?
two
digits of a

If the first of the

number be doubled
itself
is

it will
is

be 3 more than the second, and the number

6 less

than

five

times the

sum

of its digits.

What

the

number ?
8.

A
is

courier

who

goes at the rate of 40 miles in eight

hours

followed after 10 hours by a second courier

goes at the rate of 72 miles in 9 hours. In

will the

who how many hours

second overtake the

first ?

II.

9.

A
is

courier

who

goes at the rate of 31| miles in five

hours

followed, after eight hours, by a second courier

HiaHEST COMMON FACTORS.

who goes at many hours
10.

143
In how

the rate of 23-| miles in three hours.

will the

second overtake the

first ?

Ten

years hence a boy will be four times as old as

he was ten years ago.

11.

How

old

is

the boy

One man

is

60 years old, and another

first

man

is

3/3

as old. as the
12.

How
second

long since the

?
is

man was

five

times as old

father

four times as old as his son, and four

years ago the father was six times as old as his son.
is

What

the age of each

CHAPTER

XIII.

LOWEST COMMON MULTIPLE.

109. Lowest Common Multiple. A common multiple two or more expressions is an expression which is exactly divisible by each of them.
of

The
is

lowest

common

multiple of two or more expressions

is

the expression of the lowest dimensions which

exactly
is

by each of them. The lowest usually denoted by the letters L. C. M.

divisible

common

multiple

110. To Find

L. C.

M. by Inspection.

The

lowest

common
greatest

multiple of two or more expressions must evidently

contain every factor of each, and each of these factors the

of times that it occurs in any one of them, would not be divisible by each expression. e.g. Let 3a*5^c, &aWc^d, and 95Ve be the numbers whose L. C. M. is required. To be divisible by each of these expressions the required expression must contain the factors 2, 3, a, 5, c, d, and e, and it must also contain the

number
it

otherwise

first of

these once, the second twice, the third four times,

the fourth four times, the fifth three times, the sixth once,

and the seventh once. The L. C. M. is l%a^c'^de. Hence we have the following rule for finding the lowest common multiple of two or more expressions which may be factored by inspection

Find all
occurs in
it

the different factors of each expression,

each of these factors the greatest

and take number of times which it

any of the expressions, or to the highest degree that has in any of the expressions, and find the product of these
144

factors,

LOWEST COMMON MULTIPLE.

EXERCISE LXV.
Find the L. 0. M.
of the following expressions:
I.

145

1.

ld,a^% &aVd*, and 7a*d^

Sx^yz^, 5a;/V, Ibx'yh,

2.

and 20x^yh^.
-\- y"^-

3.

4.
5.

y^, xy and xy ^ 3a; 15, x^ 9, and x^~%x-\- 15. hx + 35, ' - 49, and x^ + 14a; + 49.
x^
y'^,

II.

6.
7.

8.

9.

10.

X 20, + 3a; - 40, and ^ + 12.k + 32. - 1, Sa;^ 3a; i, _ i^ 43;" - 5a;2+ 1. 2a;2 - 9, - 5a; + 6. 12a; - 36, - 5a; + 6, and - 4a; + 3. x^ 3z + 2, Gax 9a^, x^ ax 6a^, and Sa;^ 12al x^
x^
a;2
a;

-|-

_(-

a;2

a;^

a;'

a;^

a;

-\-

111. To Find 1. C. M. by Division.

Since the highest

di-

common common

factor of two expressions contains every factor

to the expressions, if

two expressions be each

vided by their highest

tained will contain
of the

common factor, the quotients obno common factors. Hence the L.C.M.
will be the

two expressions

product of these quotients

and

their
e.g.

H. C. F. Find the L. 0. M. of
x^

+ x^ -2

and

x^

+ 2x^ a;2

3.

The H.

0. F. of these two expressions

is a;

-|-

1.

(a;3

and

(a;8
a;S

and

a;3

- 2) - 1) = 4- 2a; 2, - 1) = 4- 2a; - 3) -h 3a; 3. - 2 = - l){x^ 2a; + 3), - l)(:x' + 3a; + 3). 4- 2a;2 - 3 ==

a;2

-=- (a;

-I-

(a;

a;^ -f-

-f- a;2

(a;

-|-

(a;

146

LOWEST COMMON MULTIPLE.

Since a? -\-%x-{-2 and x^

factor,

{x

l){x^

L. C. M. of

a;3

+ 3x 3 have no common + + 3) must be the + + - 2 and a^ + 2x^ +

-\-

2a;

2){x'

3a;

a;2

3.

In general,

let

and

B
Q

stand for any two expressions,

I

and

let

It

stand for their H. C. P. and

stand for their

L. 0. M., and let

P and

be the quotients
Ii;

when

and

respectively are divided

by

so that

A = P.h

and

B=

Q.h.

Since h is the H. C. F. of ^ and ^, P and can have no common factors. Hence the L. C. M. of A and B must

be

PX X

A, or
I

PQh;

or

l=PkX^ = Ax^. h h
Hence the L. C. M. of two expressions may he found by dividing either one of the expressions by their H. C. F., and multiplying the quotient by the other expression.
Also, since

,_

Ax B
=A X
B.
is

l-X h

That

is,

the product of

the product of their

H.

C.

any two expressions F. and L. C. M.

equal

to

EXERCISE LXVI.
Find the L. C. M.
of the following expressions
I.
1.

2.

4ffl2

8.

4.

6a;^ bax 6a^ and 4a;^ %ax^ 9a^. - bab + and 3= - 3a^ + ab^ - b\ 3a;3 - 13a;2 + 23a: - 21 and &3? 3? - Ux + 21. X* - IW + 49 and 7a;* - 40a;3 + lbs? - 40a; + 7.
-\-

LOWEST COMMON MULTIPLE.

5.

147

x^ -f X*

6a;2

6.

a;^

+ lla- + 6 and x* + x^ - - ix. + 8x 8 aud x* + ix^ 8x^ + 24a;.

4:X^
II.

7.

SflS

8.

9.

10.

11.
12. 13.

- 18ab% Sw" + Sa'b - 6ab% and ia^-Sab + 3b\ - 7a; + 12, Sa;^ - 6a; - 9, and 2x^ - 6x^ - 8x. 8a;3 + 27, 16a;* + 36a;2 + 81, and 6x^ - 5a; - 6. x^ 6xy + 9y^, x^ xy and 3a;^ 12/2. a". Multiply x"" X" by a; Multiply 3a"a; 4'"a;" by Sa'a;" + 4a'"a;".
a;^

6t/^,

-\-

'

Divide

a;

""

by

a;*"

'.

14.

Divide 4a; - s + p by 2"<-- *

EXERCISE

LXVII.

1.

At what time

after 10 o'clock will the

minute-hand

of a clock first be 20 minute-spaces ahead of the hour-

hand?
2.

courier sets out from a city

and

travels at the rate

sets

of 8 miles

an hour, and 3 hours later a second courier

first

out from the same city and follows the

road, travelling at the rate of 10 miles

along the same

an hour.

In
first,

how
and

many hours will the second courier how far will each have travelled ?

overtake the

A courier sets out from a city and travels 10 miles 3. an hour. Pour hours later a second courier sets out from the same place and travels along the same road and over-

148
takes the
first

LOWEST COMMON MULTIPLE.

courier in 20 hours.

How

fast does the sec?

ond courier
4.

ride,

and how far does each go

Two

bodies,

circles in the

same

direction, and, as seen

and B, are moving around concentric from the common

centre of the circles, they are together every 50 days.

is

on the outer circle, and is longer in going around than B, which is on the inner circle. A goes around his circle in
20 days.

How

long does

it

take

to

go around his

circle ?

Let X

= number days it takes B to go around.

Also
-oO

=:

number number

of degrees

goes over in a day.

of degrees

A goes

over in a day,

and
one day.

-^ = number
In 50 days

of degrees gained by

in

must evidently gain 360 on A.

- = number of degrees gained by B in one day.

360_360_360
X
.

30

50

'

^^

^~

20

~ 50
14f

l_

= -L>
100

or tx

100,

and x

II.

5.

Suppose, in the last example,

circle in the shorter time,

then in what time would

went around his B go

around
6.

A and B, move around two concentric same direction and are together every 60 days. A is on the outer circle and B on the inner, and A goes around its circle in 40 days. If B moves over more degrees
Two
bodies,
circles in the

LOWEST COMMON MULTIPLE.

a day than
circle ?
7.

149
its

does,

how long

will it take

B to go around

If in the last

example

goes over

more degrees a
go around
?

day than
8.

does,
a;'""

how long

will it take
a;"'

to

Divide Divide

2/^"

by

y".

9.

"

y"" by a; if.

CHAPTER

XIV.

FRACTIONS.
112.
is

The Symbol

j-.

When

the operation of division

indicated by placing the dividend over the divisor with a

is

horizontal line between, the symbol

called & fraction, the

dividend being called the numerator and the divisor the

denominator.
b
is its

Thus, ^

is

a fraction, a

is its

numerator and

denominator.
is

The

quotient which results from the

division

the value of the fraction.

In the type, -, a and

i stand for any integral expression, however complicated.

By

definition,

t-

= a -^ S.

Therefore

-Xi a-^iy.i = a. b
That
is,

the multiplication of a fraction by

its

its

denominator

produces

numerator.
is

When

the numerator

a polynomial, the horizontal

as a sign of
is

line or bar of the fraction

must be considered

aggregation, showing that the numerator as a whole

to

be divided by- the denominator.

In the various operations on fractions we assume that

the associative, distributive, and commutative laws which

have been demonstrated for integers apply also to the sym150

mAGTlONB.
bol
7-.

151

Haying made

this assumption,

we proceed

to en-

what addition, multiplication, and other operations on fractions mean if they obey the same laws as the corresponding operations on numbers.
quire

113.

Theorem
among

I.

The denominator of a fraction

is

distributive

the terms of its numerator.

Ti-

it IS required to

-ji. prove a +
c

= a
5
, |

By By

definition
c

= a + 5.

the distributive law

a
c

b -Xc+-Xc = + + -c = c CI c
,

b\

fl

5.

a-\-b
c

(a
\c
'

b\ cJ
b

a-\- b
c

_a ~c

c'

It is thus seen that this theorem is a consequence of the assumption that the distributive law of multiplication holds

for fractional symbols.

Hence the denominator

of a fraction is distributive

throughout the terms of the numerator.

fractions with the

And, conversely, the algebraic sum of any number of same denominator is the fraction whose
is

numerator

the

algebraic

sum

of

the numerators of
is

several fractions,

and whose denominator

their

common

denominator.

The

sign before a fraction

may

always be regarded as
it

belonging to the numerator as a whole, and

must be

so

regarded in finding the algebraic sum of the numerators Thus, of fractions which have the same denominator.

152

VBAGTIOm.

4to

Y-

= ^X;,

and

^ = y

The

value of a fraction

is

be regarded as a quotient, and

when the
same

divisor is

positive the sign of the quotient is the

as that of the

dividend.
quantities,

Hence,

if

a and & both represent positive

^,

^ = ^5 =

000
is

but

is

not

^.

That

is,

the minus sign before a fraction

may

be regarded as be-

longing to either the numerator or denominator as a vrhole,

but not to both.

The same

evidently true

sent negative quantities, or

when both a and i reprewhen one of them represents a

negative quantity and the other a positive quantity.

For

3^,

and

each evidently represent

the same negative quantity; and

^,

_,_

and

each evidently represent the same positive quantity, as do

also

rr,
To

_,

and

illustrate

by numerals

- 1= -

3,

=^= -

3,

and

^=

2;

--24=-2,

^^=-%
^'

and-=ll^=-2-

-^- = -1^ =
It

^'

-^^ =
^J=2,
in

and

^=2;
2-

2,

and

3^ =

must be borne

mind
all

carefully that, in finding the

algebraic

sum

of the numerators of fractions

which have

the same denominator,

the signs of the numerator of

every fraction which has a minus sign must be changed.

FBACTIONS.
EXERCISE
I.

153

LXVIII.

-nr
1.

Write

.,

a 4J +

5c

,,

as the

sum

of three separate

fractions.
.,
.,

2x

2.

Write

5y Sac , a-\-o
,

-\-

as

the

,,

sum

of

four

fractions.

3.

Write -

-^ -
4a;
j-i

-z

T
a
,

as

one fraction.

4.

r , 3* j-i 5 Write 4c

+6

5a;
i

7a;

as

one

4c

4c

4c

fraction.
II.
5.

Write
3a

2a
as

+ 35-c 5a-ya + ll
"Write

+ 55 - 7

11a.

<?

one fraction.
6.

3a;

a^

4(a

-p

+ 5)

5a;

+ 7(a + 1)
a^- p

tx

a"

5(a-

c)

- b^

as

one fraction.
114.

Theoeem

II.

altered by multiplying its

the

The value of a fraction is not numerator and denominator by

same quantity.
(t

It is required to

prove

^
-r

= y.

TYhCh

By
'

the commutative law

mb =y-.
b

bxm am = ma.

'

154

FBACTtOm.
definition

By
'

^.mb =
mo
b

ma.
,
.

-r.mo
a
I

ma 7
mo

mo.

_ ma
mV

115.

Theorem

III.
its

altered by dividing

The value of a fraction is not numerator and denominator by the

same quantity.

-At. It IS required to prove -^^

TL-

a-^m
a
b
-h-7-

=a
m_ m

\-

(a

-f-

rn)m

By

the last theorem

(jb-i-

m)m

,,,.,. But by definition

'

a m)m W -^ m)m rsb

(a
{Jo

-=-

116. It follows

from Theorem III that a fraction may

be simplified without altering its value by the rejection of any common factor from its numerator and denominator.

Thus the

fraction ^^3 takes the simpler

is

form -^, when

the factor x, which

inator,
is

common

to its

numerator and denomits

rejected.

A fraction is said to be in its lowest terms when numerator and denominator have no common factors. A fraction may be reduced to its lowest terms by

re-

moving, or cancelling, the common factors one after another from the numerator and denominator by inspection, or by dividing the numerator and denominator by their

H.

0. F.

When

the numerator and denominator of a fraction

are polynomials which can be factored

by inspection,

it is

FRAGTI0N8.
best to write

155
their

them

as factored,

and then to cancel

common
^^'

factors.

3a:^ -is?

+ -2_ ~
a:

(3a;{2x

a)(a; 3)(a;

-X-

+ l) _ + 1) ~

3a;

3a;

3
'

It is not worth while to divide the numerator and denominator by their H. 0. P. except in cases where their common factors cannot be discovered by inspection.

EXERCISE LXIX.
Reduce the following
fractions to their lowest terms.

l%a^x

UaWc
x^
'

X ax

a a*' 3a;^
a;^
a;

d^

x^

+ ax'

3a;

9a;3/

7a;*-31a;V

8ffV - 16aV ^aWx^ - IQb^^'

a?
*

a;2

+ 20 11a; + 38"
II.

36

WQx^

18"

4a;2
"
2a;"^

16

7a;
a;

3
'

13"

10.
2a;3
a;^

+ -6
"

a;''*^a;2

64

3a;

38'

^^-

6a;^ -\-

xy
3a;2/

y^
-"y^"
^*-

^^8a;^

-9 4a;^ 8a; + 3 l.r^ + 4a; - 3

a;^

+ ^7

'

117. Reduction of Fractions to a

Two

or

more

fractions

Common Denominator. may be reduced to equivalent

finding the L. C.

fractions with a

common denominator by

156

FRACTIONS.

M.

of the denominators for the

common

denominator, and

dividing this by each of the old denominators in turn, and

multiplying each numerator by the corresponding quotient

for the numerator.

N.B. This is equivalent to multiplying the numerator and denominator of each fraction by the quotient obtained by dividing the L. 0. M. of all the denominators by its own denominator; and hence the value of the fractions will
not be altered.

An
inator

integer
is

(Why ?) may be regarded

Hence an

as a fraction

one.

integral

whose denomterm may be reduced to a

it

fraction with

any denominator by multiplying

by the

re-

quired denominator and placing the product obtained over

the denominator.

Of course any
tiple of its

fraction

may

be reduced to an equivalent

is a mulown) by multiplying the denominator of the fraction by the factor which will produce the required denominator, and the numerator by the same factor. Such a factor may be obtained by dividing the required denominator by the old one, or, often, by simple inspection.

fraction with any required denominator (which

EXERCISE LXX.
I.

1.

Eeduce
is 9ac^.

to

an equivalent fraction whose denom-

inator

2.

Reduce

_
\

Qx^
to

an equivalent fraction whose

denominator

is SOa^a;^.
3.

3.

Reduce
is

a-'

3
to

an equivalent fraction whose de-

nominator

x^

42.

FRACTIONS.
4.

157

Reduce
is

OX
12x^
-\-

,3

to

an equivalent fraction whose de-

nominator
5.

Q.

Reduce is

to

an equivalent fraction whose

denominator
6.

8x^

34a;

+ 30.
whose de-

Reduce
is

ZaJ^x

to an equivalent fraction

nominator

5 A'.

II.

Reduce Wx^ to an equivalent fraction whose de7. nominator is 3 7ab^x^. Reduce 8. nominator is 7x
3a;

8.

5 to

an equivalent fraction whose de-

Reduce 5a; 9. nominator is 6 3x.

7 to

an equivalent fraction whose de-

Reduce 3a; 8 10. nominator is 9 5a;.

to

an equivalent fraction whose de-

11.

Reduce ^j- and

denominator.

7x ^

to equivalent fractions

with

common
12.

Reduce

x-\-

and

4.

i
,

to equivalent fractions

with a

common

denominator, and find their sum.

common

Reduce the following terms to equivalent fractions with denominator, and then the whole to a single

fraction
,

13.

+X
,

a;+

7 6

a;a; -|-

8
5

158
3
14. 5a;

FRACTIONS.

+6
'

2a
2a; 3a; 3a;

4:0,^

4a; 5a;

16.

4
J2

16.

Reduce

j^

-(-

to a single negative fraction.

II.

17.

Reduce

256*
^tt-s

+ 5 to a single negative fraction.

to a single positive frac-

7c

18.

Reduce

j-r

a;^"

tion.
19.

Divide Divide

a;*"
a;^""

by

a;'"

20.

+ af" by
III.

a;"

+ a"+

a;".

118.

Theorem

the product of their

The product of two fractions is numerators divided by the product of

a

their denominators.
-r,
.

It IS required to

prove

7-

X ^ = -v^.
d
od
.

ac

By the commutative law 5-X ^

a

S<?

^r.

-^.

^ = ac.

By

ac
definition
t--,

bd

ac.

a
hd.

Hence the product of two fractions is another fraction whose numerator is the product of their numerators, and whose denominator is the product of their denominators.

FRACTIONS.

169

The product
by
first

of any

number

of fractions

may

be found

finding the product of any two of them, and then

of the resulting fraction and a third, and so on to the end.

The

resulting product evidently will be the fraction whose

is

numerator

the product of the numerators of

is

all

the

given fractions and whose denominator

their denominators.

the product of

Thus,

Id

hdf

bdfK

Hence

CoK.

1.

A fraction may
its

be multiplied by

a quantity

hy multiplying

numerator by that quantity.

For
it is

let

^ be

a fraction and c be the quantity by which

to be multiplied,

may
a

be written as the fraction -.

ac

a
b

^c bib
_

Also,

by the Commutative Law,

a
ac

^Xc=cX

a
t--

"""b^T
CoE.
2.

A fraction may
its

be multiplied by

a quantity

by dividing

denominator by that quantity.

For
it is

let

be a fraction, and c be the quantity by which

to be multiplied.

160

FBA0TI0N8.

Then ^ x

= ^.

Multiplying both the numerator

and denominator by -, we have

ac
,

1 c

a
5
c
'

or

.
c

i-^c

EXERCISE LXXI.
N.B.
it is

In multiplying fractions by integers or fractions

common
terms as in arithmetic.

best to cancel

Find the following products

0,2

_
2ax
-\-

ajs

X
c?

a^a;

f^^^

lax

+
;

x^

w ^X

2(a
a^

x)

-\-

ax

a?
a^

ax
X*

a^

x^
ax-\- x*)'

ax(c?

-\-

a-\-

ax-\- x'

a
aa;

x.

^~^ ^ + Vlx + 32
3a;

(a;2

+
-

- 48).

II,

21

- 11a; - %x^ X

-4

(6

19a;

lOa;").

8.

-5

a^

^ o_ + ^ X ^2 + 2aa;
I

ax

IK?

c?

-\-

ax

a;2

2aa;

a;^"

FBACTIONS.
'

161

^*\+m+\-)_ 16a; 4- 15

10.
4a;2

2a;2

3a;

+l

X r 2a;^

^-^x-1 17a; + 31
T-jT
;

^TT"

X
4a;2

4x^-1

- 20a; + 25"
is

119. Reciprocals.
fraction inverted. 120.
is

The

reciprocal of a fraction
c reciprocal of -=is
.

the

Thus, the
IV.

ct

Theorem

To divide one fraction by another

equivalent to multiplying the first fraction by the recip-

rocal of the second.

It is required to prove that

-^ -^ = y- X
a
7-

By
'

definition of division,

...

h-

c c a - X ^ = ^.

By Theorem
tion.

III and the associative law of multiplica-

a
b

d
c

_a

cd

_a
b' dAc_

b' cd

\b

'

dl
_

d
c

\b

eld'

b'^l^'b^'^'
Hence
,

divisor,

to divide one fraction by another, we invert the and then proceed as in multiplication.
1.

OOR.

A
r

fraction

may

be divided by a quantity by

'multiplying its detmninatoT by the quantity.

'

For, let

be a fraction and

be the given quantity.

Then

will

^
b

-=-

<^

ixe'

162
.

FRACTIONS.

Since c

=c -,
1

we nave y--=-c

a = -X-=r-DC l
1

OoK.
dividing

2. its

A fraction may
T- fee

le divided hy a quantity by

tiumerator iy the quantity. a fraction and

c

For, let

be the given quantity.

Then ^

^c=

-r-,

and multiplying the numerator and de-

nominator by -, we have

l-^"
CoE. 3. To divide a quantity iy a fraction we multiply the quantity ly the reciprocal of the fraction.

Let a be a quantity, and

;,

be a fraction.

Then wiU

FRACTIONS.

163

a^
%ci?

+3

+ 13a; +
4a;2

1-5

_ %x^ + ^

1 1a;

+5

a;^

a;^

- 14a; - 15 4a; 45

6.

(10

+ 11a; aa;

6:

7.

(15a-2

19a;

+ 6)

8.

(a;2

63)

164

FRACTIONS.
of the denominator is
2)(a!

Hence the L. 0. M.
{x

+ 5){x obtain

6).

Multiplying each fraction by this L. C. M., and cancelling the

common
{x

factors,

we

+ 7)(a; - 2)(a; + 5){x - 6) \x - %){x + 5) {x - 8)(a: - %){x + 5){x - 6)

\x

2)(a;

'

6)

(a;+9)(^-2)(a;+5)(x-6)
'^'^

{x+5){x-Q)
a;2

'

or

+ - 42,
a;

3a;

- 40,

and

x^

+ 1x-

18.

EXERCISE

LXXIII.

tion of the following sets by the L. C.

tors:
I.

Find the products obtained by multiplying each fracM. of the denomina-

ar*

a; 8 6 - 4a; - 21' - 56 x^-\-llx + 24' + 3a; - 7 5a; - 4 + 11 - 16' &x^ - Ux - 28" 15a;2 + 10a;* - 43a; + 28 5a; -8 6 - 7a: 3 66a; - 16a? - 68' 24a;2 _ go^; + 54' 40a;2 - 86a; + 42"
a;

a;

'

a;

a;

'

8.;;

a;

II.

a;-8
4.
a;8

a;-4
a;

7
a;*

- 64'

+
a:''"

4a;

- 32'

4a;

16'

a;

*
6.

a;8

+7 + 216'
a;'

a;+6
a;*

15

36'

3a;2-108'

Divide

by

a;"

a;"

FRACTIONS.
EXERCISE LXXIV.
I.

165

1.

A is four times
At what time

as old as
is

and

6 years ago
?

he was

seven times as old.

2.

What

the age of each

after 3 o'clock are the

first

hands of a

watch opposite each other for the

3.

time

Divide 45 into two parts such that one of them shall

be four times as
4.

much

above 30 as the other

is

below 19.

A man had
as

$13.55 in dollars, dimes, and cents.

He

had 1/7
as cents.
5.

many cents as dimes, and twice as many dollars How many of each kind had he ?
give 3 as a quotient
II.

Divide 313 into two such parts that one divided by

the other

may

and 19

as a remainder.

6.

A is m times
At what

as old as B,
is

and in

c years
?

he

will be

times as old.
7.

What
rate

the age of each

of

simple interest will a dollars

amount
8.

to i dollars in c years ?

The denominator of a fraction is

if

equal to four times

the numerator, diminished by 41, and

the numerator be
9,

diminished by 6 and the denominator be increased by

the value of the fraction will be 5/13.
tion
?

What

is

the frac-

At what time after 5 o'clock are the hands of a 9. watch together for the first time ?
10.

the other will give

Divide n into two parts such that one divided by g' as a quotient and r as a remainder.

CHAPTER XV.
CLEARING EQUATIONS OP FRACTIONS.
122. Three Classes of Equations Involving Fractions.
seen, an equation may be cleared of fractions by multiplying both members by the least common multiple of the denominators of all the fractions in the equa-

As we have

tion.

Equations inyolying fractions

1.

may be

divided into three

or after
2.

Those in which we should clear of fractions at once making some slight reductions. Those which might be cleared of fractions partially
simplified.
all

and then
3.
.

Those in which some or

reduced
to

of the fractions

had

better be

a mixed form.

Case
mind

1.
it

In clearing equations of fractions,

fractional,

must be borne in

that every term of both members, integral as well as

must be multiplied by the L.

C.

M. D.

In clearing equations of fractions, it is best to express the L. C. M. of the denominators as factors, and also to

work of multiplication before actually performIn this way like factors in the numerators and ing it. denominators may be cancelled, and the work much
indicate the

shortened.

e.g.

Solve

j
C5-f-l

X -{-2

-\

- =
-\- 4:

0.

166

CLEARING EQUATIONS OF FRACTIONS.

L. C.
(a;
.

167

+ l){x + 2){x + 4). + l)(a; + 2)(a; + 4) a(a; + l)(g + 2)(:g + 4)

M. D.
{x

3^+1
{x "^

x-\-%
4.)

.-.

(a;

or

+ l){x+%){x + _ ~ +4 + 3)(a; + 4)-2(a; + l)(a; + 4) + + l)(x + 2) = - 8 + + + 3 = 0. + 8 - ^x^ -a; + 3 = 0.

a;

(a;

0,

a:2 -I-

6a;

lO.-c

a;^

3a;

a;

3.

When
best
first

all

of the fractions are written as decimals, it

is

of all to reduce these to the

form of vulgar

frac-

tions.
e.g.

Solve

-"^

^"^'^

(.03

.03rr)

.03.

Eeducing the decimals to vulgar

5

fractions,

we have

or

rrr

tt;

168

GLEARIN& BQUATtOM OF FRACTIONS.

EXERCISE LXXV.
I.

1.

\x

lOf

%[^x

l)

\{x

+ 4) - If.

3.

1 /. 29(43;
.03a;

+ 1) ,

-.N

l/oi^ -(217

^ a;)

.K 45

479-123;
^
.

4.
8.

+ .02 = .02a;- .06. .07(a; - 10) + .54a; = .2(.l 3-a; 5-a;

s t
-^

.la;)

- 3(.05 - .02).
a;"

6.

1-x
2 4

-X =

x^

7-8a; +

'

2a;

a;

+2^
^
7

2a;

8
4a;

"1-23;
9.

2a; -

16a;

4a;* -

+ 7*

II.

(1

2a;)(.01

.03a;)

.23

=
.Ola;
^-

(.6a;

+ .l)(.la; _ ~

.1)

.03a;.

:o2--3o
.03a;

= -x +
,

.Ola;

. ^-'*-

.01

02(a;

1)

.Ola;

.4

.03
""

^^-

.02
12.

.03

.21 .2"

(.l^+.2)2+.7(.3a;-.l)

4-a;
13.

^ 2

a;

+ 4) + 6-a; + 5 = 2 16 - 10a; 8 8 +
.06(2a;
2a;2
a;

(.la;

-.2)8-.65.

a;^"

^^'

3a;

2_
9
a;

11a:

"^
Sa;^

_ ~
27


CLEARING EQUATIONS OF FRA0TI0N8.
^*-

169

_ _3 1 - 3a;

3a; - 7

3_ _ ~
2.

- 17) - 24a; + 7" 9a;

3a;(9a;

Case
123.

When

the

L C
.

M.

of the denominators of all

is

the fractions which occur in the equations

large, it is easier to multiply

inconveniently

both members by the L.C.M.

as

of

two or more of the denominators, and then reduce

as possible before proceeding farther.

much

e.g.

Solve

^^- ^,_^^^^ =^^-^+l

1),

Multiplying by 2 (a;

we get

2x

- ^(^ + f =S-2x + 2x-2, X 1

^

or
.-.

2a;

2(2 ^
a;

+ ^) = --^
1

1.

3a;(a;

--

2x^

= - 1. -2x-4:-2x^ = x-l. 3a; = 3.

1)

2(3

a;2)

a;

.-.

EXERCISE LXXVI.
Solve the following equations:
a;

3
"*

2a;

5
4:X

10~
8a;

_ 3_ ~22~ ~
a;

1
5'

+
9

+ 19
18

^"

5a; 7a;

29
12

'

'

>+'')-m^-s-

170

CLEARING EQUATIONS OF FRACTIONS.

II. 8a;

+5

CLEARING EQUATIONS OF EBACTI0N8.

171

, X 1 X ~ % = X i Solve ^ ^ ^
2.

X X

5
^.

Writing each fraction

as a

mixed quantity, we have

2
X

3/
X

3~ X 5

111
X

&,

Q'

We

may. now write each member as one fraction and get

or
.-.

.'.

3 a + 3 _x Q X 5 - %)(x - 3) ~ Jx- b){x - 6)' -1 -1 - ( - b){x - 6)" {x - 2)(a; - 3) {x - %){x - S) ^ {x - 5){x - Q). - 5a; + 6 = - 11a; + 30. 6a; = 24.
-\-

(x

a;2

a:^

.-.

. .

a;

= 4.

EXERCISE LXXVII.
Solve the following equations:
I.

x-l
3-

x-%
*

a;+^

^"H?

6-

^31 + a;-6-^+ +5 -5"^ -3 3a; _2^_ __5__ aa; + 1 + 3a: - 1

3a;

a;+l

a;

-2

3a;
a;

4:

S^j^i.
aa;

""

+1

8.

172

OLEABINO EQUATIONS OF FRACTIONS.

II.

7.

X
x x

X
X

2
l

%
3

X
if

3
4:

X X

4:

x + 6 _ x + 2 x+ 5 + + 2^x + 7~x + 3'^x + 6' 8- 5x +3_ ~^' 'Zx-1'^ x + 3

4:X
-{-

X
10.

_x -\-b
X
a{a h) a b b ~ {x c)(x d)' X Xa X 5a x a X 'Za X Sa x %a
-\,

a~ X V
X

11.

12.

X a X la X 9a

-\-

EXERCISE LXXVIII.

1.

vessel can

be emptied by three taps

by the

first

alone in 3 hours and 40 minutes, by the second

in 2 hours and 45 minutes,

alone

hours and 12 minutes.

were

it full

and

all

and by the third alone in 2 it be emptied three taps were opened together ?
In what time would

2.

cistern can be filled in 15

minutes by two pipes,

is filled

A and
B
is

B, together. After

A has
it

been opened for 5 'minutes

filled

also

turned on, and the cistern be

more.
arately
3.

In what time would

?

in 13 minutes by each pipe sep-

A man invests one third

it

of his

money in

3-per-cent

and the remainHis income from his investder of it in 5-per-cent bonds. ment is 1180 dollars. How much had he invested ?
bonds, two fifths of
in 4-per-cent bonds,

GLEABING EQUATIONS OF FRACTIONS.

4.

173
in 3
-

A man

invested one quarter of his

it

money

per-cent bonds, two sevenths of

in 4-per-cent bonds,

the remainder of
his investment

it

in 4|-per-cent bonds.
dollars.

and His income from

was 3450

How much

had he

in-

vested

Two men, A and B, 66 miles apart, set out, B 45 5. minutes after A, and travel towards each other, A at the
rate of 4 miles

an hour and

at the rate of 8 miles

an
?

hour.
6.

How

far will each

have travelled when they meet

The second

figure of a

number composed
and the

of three

figures exceeds the third

by

5,

first digit is

one

fourth of the second.

divided by the

If the

number

increased by 3 be

What
7.

is

the

sum of number ?

its digits,

the quotient will be 32.

A number is

composed of three

digits.

The second

one half of the third and 2 smaller than the first. If the number be diminished by 18 and then divided by the sum of its digits, the quotient will be 37. What is the
digit
is

number ?
8.

pieces of the first to

to

banker has two kinds of money. It takes a make a dollar and b pieces of the second

make

a dollar.

He

How many
9.

of each kind

was offered d dollars for would he give ?

c pieces.

and

start in business at the

same time,

putting in 3/2 as

gains 150 dollars

much capital as and B loses 1/4

1/4 of his

B.
of his

The

first

year

money.

The

next year
dollars;

loses

money and B

gains 300

and they now have equal amounts.

at first ?

How much

had each

II.

10.

Two
and

couriers,

place

travel along the

and B, set out from the same same road in the same direc-

174
tion,

CLEARING EQUATIONS OE FRACTIONS.

starting 8 hours before B.

rides at the rate of

8 miles an hour, and

will each
11.

at the rate of 6 miles.

How

far

have travelled when

has overtaken

A?

and B find a sum of money. A takes $2.40 and 1/6 of what is left; then B takes $3.52 and 1/7 of what is What left; and they find they have taken equal amounts. was the sum found and what did each take ?
12.

A fox

is

pursued by a greyhound, and has 60 of

her

own leaps

the start.

The fox leaps

three times while the

as far in 3 leaps

greyhound leaps twice, but the hound goes

as the fox does in 7.

How many
?

leaps does each

make

before the
13.

hound catches the fox

A hare

takes 4 leaps to a greyhound's 3, but two

of the hound's leaps are equivalent to three of the hare's.

The hare has

a start of 50 of her leaps.

to catch the hare ?
to

How many leaps

must the hound make

14.

A man

and a boy agreed

$5.25, the boy to receive 1/2 as

much

do a piece of work for per day as the man.

When

sequence,

2/5 of the work was done the boy left, and, in conit took the man 1;^ days longer to complete the
it

work than

would otherwise have done.

?

How much

did

each receive per day

In a mixture of spirits and water, half of the 15. whole plus 25 gallons is spirits, and a third of the whole

minus 5 gallons
each?
16.

is

water.

How many

gallons are there of

garrison of 1000
it

days.

After 10 days

men was provisioned for 60 was reinforced, and from that time
What was
the

the provisions lasted only 20 days.

of the reinforcement
17.
?

number

laborer was engaged for 36 days on condition

2s. 6d. for

that he should receive

every day he worked and

idle.

should forfeit

Is. 6d. for

every day he was

At the

CLEARING EQUATIONS OF PBACTIONS.

end of the time he received 58 did he work ?
18.

175

shillings.

How many days

for 24 persons,

match the contractor provided dinner and fixed the price per plate so as to gain Three of the cricketers were 12-^ per cent upon his outlay. The remaining 21 paid the fixed price for their absent. What was the dinner, and the contractor lost 1 shilling.

At a

cricket

price per plate ?

CHAPTER

XVI.

EADICALS AND SUBDS.

125. Rational

and Irrational Numbers.

A numerical

quantity which can be exactly expressed as an integer or a

whose numerator and denominator are integers is commensurable or a rational number, and one which cannot be so expressed, an incommensurable or an irrational number.
fraction
called a

Any algebraic expression which conunder a radical or other root sign is called a radical expression, or simply a radical, and the factor under the root sign is called the radical factor. Any algebraic expression which contains no radical
126. Badicals.
tains a factor

factor

is

called a rational quantity.

To

rationalize

an expression

is

to free

it

of radical or

other root symbols.

127. Surds. A surd is an incommensurable root of a commensurable number. In other words, it is the root of an arithmetical number which can be found only approximately.

While every surd is an incommensurable number, there many incommensurable numbers which are not surds, or due to any finite combinations of surds. As examples
are
of these

we have 3.1415926

the ratio of the circum.

ference to the diameter of a circle, and 3.7182818

the

base of the natural or Napierean system of logarithms.

176

RADICALS AND SURDS.

177

radical expression
is

which cannot be freed from root

or

symbols

called

an

irrational or surd expression,

simply a surd. The symbol of a surd is \/a, in which n denotes any positiye integer, and a any integral algebraic
expression.

A
surds,

surd

may
Vi,
is

be expressed as a radical quantity, but

is

every radical quantity

not a

siird.

Thus,

V'd,

VS

are

but

V^

are

not

surds.

The

expression

3 -f V'2
128.

not a surd according to definition.

Imaginary Quantities.

Since
is

no even combinaan imagijiary

tion of negative factors can produce a negative product, an

even root of a negative quantity

quantity.
tities.

called

Thus,

V 2,

V-a, ^"a are imaginary quan-

The

value of the expression

Va

will

bei

real or
a.

imagIt will

inary according to the values assigned to w and

be imaginary when n

is

even and a

is

negative.

In

all

other cases the value will be real.

When
all

is

a perfect mth power, |^

is

rational

and in

other cases irrational or surd.

129.

To Express a Rational Quantity

it

as a Radical.

Any
first

may be expressed as a radical by power indicated by the index of the radical and then placing it under the radical sign.
rational quantity
to the

raising

e.g.

Vie;

= VW.
radical
is

130. Orders of Radicals.

first,

said to be of the

second, or wth orders according as

its

index

is 1,

3,

or n.

178

RADICALS AND SUBDS.

EXERCISE LXXIX.

Express the following quantities as

second order:
I.

radicals of the

1.

2.

n.

3.

3a.

RADICALS AND SURDS.

an algebraic expression
it

179

denotes one of the roots.

is

Thus

Va
bol,

has two values either of which

denoted by the sym-

but

ViJ

is

supposed to denote only the arithmetical

root, unless it is written

V%.

In the demonstrations in the present chapter the sym-

Va in all cases must be taken in a restricted sense, to mean the real root of a whose sign is the same as the essenbol
tial

sign of a.
to

Thus y a" must be taken

to

mean

a,

and

Va

as a.

mean the one real root of a which has the same sign The theorems established in this chapter do not

necessarily apply to other real roots than the one specified

above, or to imaginary roots.

In this chapter
tributive,

it is

assumed that the

associative, dis-

commutative, and index laws, which have been

established for integers,

and applied

to rational algebraic

expressions, also apply to surds.

132.

Thbokbm

I.

The product of the same roots of two

times as a factor will give a as

factors is equal to that root of the product of the factors.

By

definition

Va used n

a product.
.

i!^a

)"

a.

Similarly,

( 1^5 )"

= 5,

and

Vaof =

ai.

But
and

V^ X ^/bT
(
.:

= ( VaT X VabJ^ = ah.

VhT =

ah,

(VaxnT=(Vaby.
.-.

(Why?)

)/axVb=V^.

(Why?)

factors

Cor. The product of the same roots of any number of is equal to that root of the product of those factors.

180
Note.

RADICALS AND SURDS.

It

should be borne in mind that Va, taken

Vb, taken arbitrarily, does not

arbitrarily,
arbitrarily.

^ab, taken

Thus the negative

root of 3 multiplied

by the

positiye root of 3 does not equal the positive root of 6.

The equation Va X
ing of the symbols
that any one of the
is

Vb= \^i& true

when the meanIt is also true

restricted as in 131.

a multiplied by any one of the n roots of b will be equal to some one of the n roots of ab.
roots of

133. It follows from Theorem I that, when the quantity under the radical sign can be separated into factors one or more of which is an exact power of the order of the root
indicated, the product of the indicated roots of these factors

may

be placed as a factor outside the radical.

+/192

e.g.

Vl6 X 4 X

y'864

^27 X 8 X

=VlQx Vlx Vd = 8 VS. 4 = V37 X '^S X -^4 = 6 (^4.

3
Surds.

134. Pure and

radical sign
cal.

Mixed

The factor without

the

may be
is

regarded as the coefficient of the radi-

A A

pure surd mixed surd

one that has no rational coeflBcient

one that has a rational factor other
in its simplest
sign.

except unity.
is

than unity.

A surd is said to be
rational factor

form when

it

has no

under the radical

EXERCISE LXXX.
Write the following
forms
I.

as

mixed surds in

their simplest

1.

Vi2.
4/735T

2.

4/75;

8.
6.

i/iso.

4.

5.

4/512:

VMT.

7.

v'lM.

RADICALS AND SURDS.

II.

181

8.

V448.

9.

^5633.
12.

lo.

V4:Ha^.

11.

Vl25a^x\
^4:^"

'/l47aV.

13.

+ 8a*i + iaW.

14.

VnxY - Mo^f + 1^3?y^.

to the

mixed surd may be reduced

its coefficient to
it

form of a pure
under the
radi-

surd by raising

the power indicated by the

as a factor

order of the surd and placing

cal sign.
e.g.

74/5

V'72~x~5

V2iE.

EXERCISE LXXXI.
Express the following as pure surds
I.

1.

zVvi.
2

2.

4^13:
-4

3.

6V7.
6 1^4.

4.

H.
Va

5.

H.

6.

7.

3ff

b.

8.

{x
II.

/)

ySa;.

9.

3a{a

J) I^SaZi.

135.

Theokem
is

The quotient of
to that root

two quantities
ttvo quantities.

equal

the same roots of of the quotient of the

Expressed algebraically,
(

va

-^

Vb

va

b.

v^^

ny =
( l^a

Vay ^{Vby = a-^K

5)"

But
.:

-4-

a-^b.
(

(
.-.

4^ - f^)" =
Va

f ^TTs)",

(Why
?)

?)

^^b = VaTb.
,

(Why

CoK.

\lh~ yt

/ /-

_ =

Va
^_-_.

That

is,

any root of a fraction


182

RADICALS AND SURDS.

be indicated by placing the corresponding radical over
its

may

the fraction as a whole, or over

numerator and denomi-

nator separately.
136. Similar and Quadratic Surds.

Similar surds are

e.g.

those whose radical factors are

are similar surds.

identical,

V5, 3 V5,

So also are a ^/x and c )/x. Surds of the second order are called quadratic surds.
137.

Theoeem

ratic surds is

III. The product of two similar quada rational quantity.

m Va X nVa = mn Vc^ = mna.

The product
quantity, of the coefficients
is

necessarily a rational

and the product

of the similar radical factors is

necessarily the square root of a perfect square, and, therefore, rational.

138.

Theorem

IV.

The product of

tivo

dissimilar

quadratic surds camiot be rational.

Let Va and Vb be the surd factors. Since the surds and b cannot be composed of the same prime factors, and hence their product ab cannot be comare dissimilar, a

posed of square factors only.

rational.

Therefore Vab cannot be

139. Rationalizing Factor.

Any

factor

which
is

will

convert a radical expression into a rational one

rationalizing factor.
It follows

called a

from Theorem II that the surd factor of a

is

pure or mixed surd

e.g.

a rationalizing factor.

V^5'x4/5
5

=
b

5.

3V3"x'/3
b

= 3x3 =
b).

9.

Va

X Va -

5{a


RADICALS AND SURDS.
140.

183
to

an Integral to an integral radical with a fractional coefficient, by writing its numerator and denominator each as a separate radical, and then multiplying each by the rationalizing factor of the
Radical.

To Reduce a Fractional Radical

radical

A fractional

may be reduced

denominator.

e.g.

^5-=^ = -^L^ = l/5i/5. Vl/5 =

Vax
^'b

Vab

1 -T

Vab.

184

RADICALS AND SUBDS.

Dissimilar radicals can be added and subtracted only by

writing them one after another, each with

as in the case of dissimilar rational terms.

its

proper sign,

Thus,

Vy added

to

Vx

Vx

-\-

Vy, and

never

Vx

-\- y, unless either x ox y is zero. 142. Rule for Addition of Radicals.

To add surds of

the same order, reduce

and add the coefficients of the resulting surds which are similar, and write those which are dissimilar after one another.
to their simplest forms
e.g.

them

34/2

+ 4/18"+

yia"- f48

34/5

34/2

+ 34^+44^-44/3 + 34^=6 '/a +

Subtraction of Radicals.

3^5.

143. Rule for

To

subtract

two

radicals

of the

same order, reduce them to their

if

simplest form, and then,

coefficients,

they are similar, subtract their

and

if

they are dissimilar, write

them one

after the other

e.g.

with the proper sign between.

3

From

Vb take 2

4/125^

=
From

3 4/5

10 4^5"=

74/5.

3 4/3 take 2

VM.

= 3 4^ ent Orders.

8 4^5:

144. Addition and Subtraction of Radicals of Differ-

Kadicals

of

difEerent

orders

can be added
after

and subtracted only by writing them one

with the proper signs between.

another

EXERCISE LXXXIII.
Find the

sum

of the following sets of radicals

I.

1.

4/18",

4/32,

4/50,

and

Vn.

2.

2 V8, 3 4^50, and 6 4/18.

RADICALS AND SVRDS.

3.

185

VS/S,

4/1/15,

and 4/15/49.

4..

3/3 ^^279; l/6v'i736,

and S/5

y'3/32.

5.

xVl2a%

2a^

V27x% SaViSa^a^, and

II.

WSaV.

6.

24/3,

1/24/12,

44/27,

and
8^i

4/127T6.

7.

1^54^5,

7ay'2^ and
A /

y'2^1

and

/
,

TO%^
rj
-

EXERCISE LXXXIV.
I.

X.

From

2 4/320 subtract 3 V%Q.

2.

From From

y64a'5* subtract b y343a^5.

3.

Va^I?

+ 2aP +
II.

subtract Va'b

2a

4.

From 4/28+4^5+2&

subtract 4/2a3-4a2J+2a5^

6.

From 2/3 V2/9

From

3/5 4/3/32 subtract 1/6

f1/36.

6.

4/289a2& subtract 3

Vl^U^h.

7.

From
From

2 4/8?

+5

4/72c''

subtract 7c 4/l8c
c
-\-

+ 4/50c^
X

8.

(c

4/c^

01?

subtract * /
c

x'
Order.

145. Multiplication of Radicals of the

Same

To multiply

together two

radicals

of

the same order,

multiply together their coefficients for the

new

coefficient,

and the quantities under the

radical.

radical

sign for the

new

186

RADICALS AND SURDS.

EXERCISE LXXXV.

results to the simplest

Perform the following multiplications and reduce the form

1.

4^ X

2 VQQ.

2.

7 v'2781

3/2

^Zj^.

3.

4
5

4/12x3

V2.

4.

-^4727
b

3/4 \/n. a ^8ab.

5.

Vx X

1/2 V%blx.

6.

V2ab

7.

(2 4/2

8.

-31^+ 4 ^5) X (34/5 + 44/3). (3 4^ -4 4/2) (2 4/5 + 3 4/2).

5 4/3) (3 4/7
4/3 4/2

9.

(V7^+
(

10.

4/5)

-4 4/3). 4/2 + 4^+ 4/5).

3 Vx).

11.

{3Va-2Vx){2Va +
Multiply 4/f

12. 13.

+ 9 by 4/7 - 6. Square 4/5 + 3.

Multiply
4/5

14.

5.

by

4/5

8.

15.

Square

4/7

16.

Multiply 4/^

+ 4 by 4/^ + 3. + Qhy Vx
Vz.
b.

17.

Square

4^+ 9.
Vx
Vx

18.

Multiply

19.

Square

20.
21.
22.

Multiply 4/5

+ 4/7 by
5 by
4/a;

Vb

Vl.

Square

4^+4/8.

Multiply

Vx+

8.

A
RADIOALa AND
23.

8XIRD8.

ISY

Square

Vx

A:

+ Vx +

6.

24.

25.

+ 7 by V.r - 7. Square Vx 3 + Vx + 3.
Multiply Va;
II.

26. 27. 28.

Multiply

3xVa

by

5a;

</

7.

+ 2 V^. Multiply 6a Va; + 7 by 7b Vx+1.

Square 3a V6

29.

30.

3Vx+Q lVx Multiply 7a^ Va; - 4 by

Square
Square 3a

7.

9ffi 4/a;

+ 4.
5.

31.
32.

Va

-{-

-\-

5a

Va
|/a;

Multiply Va;

33.

Multiply

Vx

+8
5

34. 35.

Multiply Va;
Multiply
i/a;

4 + 5. + VQ hj Vx + 8 - Vs. + Va; + 8 by / - 5 5 by

fa;

8.

3
36.

+6+
8

4 fa;

+ 5 by 3 Vx + 6 - i Vx + + 7 by 3a2a; Vx - 8 +
is

5.

Multiply
a;

3a^x

f -

5a;3

a;

5x^

Vx

7.

146. Simple, Compound,

and Conjugate Radicals.

is

simple radical expression

one which contains only one one which con-

term, and a compound radical expression

tains

more than one term.

Thus, Vx,
radicals,

V a+

^j

Vab, {a
-\-

-\-

b)

Vx

+ 4,

are simple
radicals.

+ Vx,

Va

Vx

-\- b,

are

compound

Two

binomial quadratic radicals which have the same

188

UABICALB AND SURD8.

terms with opposite signs between them are called conjugate

radicals.

Thus,
Also,

a
-\-

-\-

Vb and a

Vb

Vb

are

conjugate radicals.

Vx

Vb and Va

are conjugate radicals.

Note carefully that a binomial quadratic radical cannot be rationalized by squaring it; while it may be rationalized by multiplying it by its conjugate.
e.g.

(
(

and

and

+ Vbf = 2 + 2a Vb + b\ Va - Vbf = a-2Vab + (a + Vb) {a - Vb) = a^-b, {Va-Vb){Va + Vb) = a

b.

h.

EXERCISE LXXXVI.
Rationalize each of the following binomial quadratic
radicals

by multiplying

it

by

its

conjugate

BADIGALS AND BUBD8.

expression,

189

and multiplying
it

this
its

by

its

conjugate, and then

the product thus obtained by

e.g.

conjugate.

Let

be required to rationalize the expression

4+^3-4/7.
will be 8 4/3

This may be written (4

+ V^) is

VY.

Its

conjugate will then be (4

+ V^)

-\-

Vl, and their product

of this

+ 12.

The conjugate

8 4^3

la,

and

their product is 48.

EXERCISE LXXXVII.
Rationalize the following expressions
I.

3.

Va-\-

Vb-

Vc.

4.

+ V3+ V5+ Vg.

148. To Rationalize the Denominator of a Fraction.

denominator of a fraction it is necessary to multiply both the numerator and denominator of the fraction by the factor which will rationalize the denomirationalize the

To

nator.

149. Division of Radicals.

To

divide one radical by

first

another of the same order, divide the coefficient of the

by that of the second for the new coefficient, and the quantity under the first radical by that under the second for
the

new The

radical factor.

best

way

to divide one quadratic radical by another

is

to write the dividend

and divisor

as a fraction

and then

to rationalize the

denominator.

EXERCISE LXXXVIII.
Rationalize the denominators of the following fractions
I.

190
2

RADICALS AND SURDS.

W+
9
7.2

Va
'

2V3
5

+ 4:V2
'

+ 2VU

+ 24/6
//2

+ Va^ W
II.

^0? -\-y^

+ - V3 - a 4/3 -a 4/3 + 4/5 + a^ - 2

4/3
fl^

2V'a;+3
3 Va;

+ 3l/a;- 3

_|_

+ 3 - 3 l/^"^^'

4/5"+^+
10.

2'

3
5

+ 4/6
4/32

4^

2 4^12

+ 4/50""

Divide the following radicals at sight:

I.

11.

4/l8"by 4^.

12.

^2rby
a^

v^.
a^ 4^5.
4/a;

13.

12 4/35 by 3
S/x^

4/7.

14.

4/5^by

15.

- 49 by

4/a;

+
-

7.

le.

Va:^

- 8 by

- 2.

17.

4/3;^

+ 27 by

fic

9.

II.

18.

ya^

2a;

15 by

Vx

5.

19.

4/3;^- 13a;
4/a;^
a;

+ 42 by
4/a;

4/a;

6.

20. 21.

- 72 by + 8. + 17a; - 14 by \/2x + 7. 4/53: - 2a: - 7 by + 1.

4^6a;'^

4/3;

RADICALS AND SURDS.

Divide the following radicals by
division in the
first

191
expressing the

form

of a fraction

and then rationalizing

the denominator.
I.

23.
24. 26.

+ 3 V7. 17 by 3 4^ + 2 4/3. 34/3 - 1 by 34/2 +

29 by 11
2 VZ-\- 7 4^" by 6 4/3
II.

1.

26.

4 4^.

27.

2a;

Vxy by
)(

Vxy
2)

y.

28.

(3

+ 4/5
Va

4^ ,

by 5

4/5.

29.

-p=

Va

7= by

vx

-7^

4/0"+ 4/^

yx

2 4/15"+ 8 5

84/3 ^^ 5 V'S Vlb

- 64^ - 3 4/5"

150.

Theoebm
is the

quantity
1.

The nth power of the root of any same root of the nth power of the quantity,
IV.
of the root both being positive integers.
is

n and the index

When

the index of the root

the same as the

exponent of the power.

By
and

definition,

ra

)"

4^a"
,

..

y-fl

)"

= a, = a. = Vo".
is

2.

When

the index of the root

not the same as the

exponent of the power.

(m \m Va")
.

192
^^^'

RADICALS AND SUBDS.

(( v'a

))

means that

Va

is

to be used

mn

times as a factor, and

((

Ya)"}

means that

Va

is

to be used

mn

times as a factor.

But
.-.

((^^rj^-a".

((ra)r="i/m, \m\''*
((i/fls))

.-.

=(

m,

\m Va")

(mj\n

Va)

= m,

-/"-

151.

Theorem V. The
is

mtJi root of the nth root of a

root of the quantity.

quantity

equal to the
\'^

mnth

By

definition,

Va)

Va.

Also,

("'ivr=.

and
.-.

(ivjTrY^(V'^Y\
(v|v)
***/

mi

\mn

=(T)'"".
mn,

y Va=

n,

Va.

152. To Change Radicals from One Index to Another.

It follows

from Theorems IV and

V that
will

a radical

may

be changed from one index to another by multiplying both

the index of the radical and the exponent of the quantity

under the radical by the number which

produce the

re-

BADIGAL8 AND SURD8.

quired index.

193

extract a root of the radical quantity,

raise

tions

would and the latter would it to the corresponding power, and these two operawould neutralize each other.
of these operations

For the former

e.g.

I^='"v'^^=t'^.

To change radicals of different orders to those of the same order with the smallest possible indices, multiply each index by the quotient obtained by dividing the least common multiple of all the indices by that index and raise the quantity under the radical sign to the corresponding power.
This
least
will, of course,

make

the index of each radical the the indices.

to radicals of the

common

multiple of

all

e.g.

Eeduce Vb, V3, and y2

L. C. M. of
3, 3,

same

order with the smallest possihle index.

The

and 4

is

12.

153. Multiplication and Division of Radicals of Different

Orders.

Eadicals of different orders may be multiplied

first

to-

gether by

reducing them to the same order and then

multiplying together their rational and their irrational

factors.

Similarly, radicals of different orders

may be

divided by

each other, by

first

reducing them to radicals of the same

order and then dividing their integral and radical factors.

EXERCISE LXXXIX.
1.

Eeduce VlO, Vb, and y il/13

to a

common

index.

2.

Eeduce va
index.

-\- b,

Va

b,

and va^

2;^

to a

com-

mon

194
Multiply

BADIGAL8 AND SUBD8.

3.

H by

Vb.

4.

Multiply l^i/Fby

VyI.

5.

Divide Va^ by Vd^.

6.

Divide 2 /aac by

|/4Jc^.

7.

Divide 1/3 4/2/3 by 1/3 1^1/3.

154. Radical Equations.

radicals
is

An

equation which contains

called a radical equation.

first

Such equations
it

are

solved by

clearing

them
all.

of radicals, or rationalizing

them.

If

the equation contains fractions

first

should be

cleared of

them

of

In the case of a quadratic radical equation, after it has been cleared of fractions, it is best to transpose all the
terms into the left-hand
zero.

member and place this equal to Each member should then be multiplied by the confirst.

jugate of the

If the first

member

contains more than two terms, they

term and an aggregate, or and the terms arranged, if possible, so that the aggregate shall contain no radical. Multiplying then by the conjugate expression will square each of the terms or aggregates, and place the minus sign between the squares obtained, and the result will be rational. If either
shotild first be collected into a

into two aggregates,

aggregate contains a radical, the result of the

will be irrational.

first squaring In this case a new pair of aggregates

must be formed and the operation must be repeated.

e.g.
1.

Vx
we

4=9.

Transposing,

get

Vx-%-lZ = 0.
Multiplying by the conjugate expression

VxQ

-j-

13,

we get

BADICAL8 AND 8UBDS.

a;

195

.-.

a;

- 6 - 169 = = 175.

0,

2.

Vx-i + 2 \/x-5 =
Va;-3

3.

Transposing, we get

+ 2|/-8 = 0.
(3

Writing this as the sum of two aggregates, thus.

4/43;

-3+
by

V^ -

8)

= 0,
expression

and

multiplying
(2

this

the

conjugate

Vlx^Z -

4x
Collecting,

- 8), we get - 3 - 4a; + 33 l/J get

64

= 0.

we

33

y^ -

67

0.

Multiplying again by the conjugate 32

get
1034a;

Vx

-\-

67,

we

- 4489 = = ^m^-

0.

EXERCISE XC.
Solve the following radical equations

1.

|/a;

3.

2.

3.

- Vx-4: =
V3

3.

4.

= 5. - 8. 3 V5X +
V4:X

4:

5.

V5x
3

-1=3 x +
7a;

3.

6.

3 4/8a;

13

= 0.

7.

8.

+ 35 = 1 + 1^^. V8a; + 33 - 3 = 3 V^x.

4/

196
9.

RADICALS AND SURDS.

Vx
10

+ 3 + Vx =
4:

5.

10.

U.
12.

- 1/25 -f 9a; = 3 Va Vx + 3 = Va; + 11. Vdx -8 = 3 Vx + - 3.

4:

II.

13.

Vx

-\-

iab

3a

V^. 2

14.

V^ + Via +
Vx^

Vb

+ x. + 12a; = 1 +
Vax.
;

IS

16.

17.

+ Vax^ + X+ ^a + Vax = Va Vx + Vax = a

1.

V9?
Va

18.

V5x
,,Va;

+ -y^== =
V6a;+6
,

-10

Vbx

6.

19.

4 = 237 i

10a;

+ Vx
a

r=^.

20.

Va

./

Va^ X

21.

^^-^
,/Vx
,

^-^ +3= Vx 2 +
X=
Vx
-\-

22.

Va

'^

Va

X.

155. Redaction of Radical Equations

tion.

by Rationaliza-

When
it

a radical equation contains but one radical

often best to rationalize the denominator of

fraction,

is

that fraction before clearing of fractions.

BADIGALS AND SURDS.

Va
e.g.

197

+X+ ^
-\-

Va Va

Va

Eationalizing the fractioB,

we

get

3a

+ 3 V ^x

x^

a
or

b,

Vd' X

- x^
get

h.

Clearing of fractions and transposing,

we

bx

-{-

Va^

x^ =

0.

Multiplying by the conjugate, we have

ffl2

Zabx

or
--

+ bV - a^ + (J2 + l)x^ = 2abx. {P + l)x =2ab.

2ab

a;2

= 0,

EXERCISE
Solve the
first

XCI.

four of the following equations by ration-

alizing the denominator:

V3

+X+ V3 -X _
4- X

V6
'

+ X + VG
V6

YS

V3

re

4'(j -j- .r

x
W.
_,

Vx-\-^-\-V:c

Vx +
i

5.

4.
'

Va + 6 + Vx :^=
.

Vx
II.

Vx

+
&

Vx

Vx Vx
V2

-\-\-

-\-

Vx Vx

+ X Vx V2 + X+ Vx

CHAPTEE

XVII.

THE INDEX LAW.

156.

shown

that,

Meaning when

of Fractional Exponents.

It

has been

m and n are positive integers, a"' X " = a"""^".

this,

(1)

Also as a corollary to

when

m> n,
been shown that
(3)

-^ a"

= a-".
{(fy,

And
and

as a consequence of (1) it has

{arf

= a""- = {aty = a"*"-

(3)

These three laws follow from the definition that an exponent denotes the number of times a quantity is employed
as a factor.

The law expressed by equation

dex Law.

(1)

is

known

as the In-

The The
gers,

definition of

an exponent becomes meaningless

if

the exponent, or index, be other than a positive integer.

spirit of algebra is to generalize,

and the use

of

indices cannot be restricted to the particular case of inte-

but it must be extended to the case of fractional, and negative indices. All of these indices must be governed by the index law, and they must be interpreted
zero,

in accordance with this law.

We

will proceed first to find the

meaning of a fractional

index in which both numerator and denominator are positive

integers.
198

THE INDEX LAW.

Let this index be denoted by q

199

Since the equation a"

values of

a"

'"

'

is

to be true for all

m and n,

we may

replace each by

We

then

have
P

2p

p.

and multiplying each member by a', we get

P_

V_
.

V_
.

?P

a''

a''

a",

and

so

on up

to q factors,
p.

when we should have

p.
.

P_
.

a*

a.

g-

factors

qp

= a".

\ai)

aP.

Therefore, by taking the

'th

root of each

member, we

have
p.

a"
or, in

=
' '

y'ff",

words, '

is

equal to

the

g'th

root of a to the

^th

power."
If JO

1,

we should have
a"

= f,
a.

or a"

is

equal to the wth root of

For the present the meaning of the symbol a must be restricted to the real mth root of a whose sign is the same as the essential sign of a, or to what may be called the
arithmetical root of
a.

If this strict limitation is departed

from, we are led to various paradoxes.

e.g.

By

the interpretation of fractional indices

200 But
which
is

TEE INDEX LAW.

a;V2

a;,

right

if

we take

a;^/^

to stand for the positive value

a;^

of Vx^; but leads to the paradox

= *

if

we admit

the negative value.

Again, according to the index law,

(a;)"

= a;"" =
:==

(a;"),

and
or
or
if

(9V8)8

(92)1/2,

(3)2
9

=9, = 9,

both values are admitted.

157.

Meaning

of Zero Exponent.

Since !"'."=;'" +
we may
replace

"

is

to hold for all values of

and

n,

by

zero.

We

then have

Therefore, by dividing each

a

member by
1.

a",

we

get

==
a"

Therefore a quantity with zero index

158.

is

equal to

1.

Meaning of Negative Exponents.

to hold for all values of
n.

Since a"
we may

a"=

+" a'"

is

m and n,

replace

by

We

then have

Therefore by dividing each

member by

a"

we get

-"=- = a" a"'

Also, dividing each

member by

a~"

we get

= -^ =

1_

THE INDEX LAW.

Hence a quantity with a negative exponent
positive exponent.
is

201
equal to

the reciprocal of the same quantity with the corresponding

Cob.
inator
to

Any factor may

the

le transposed

from

the

denomreverse,

numerator of an expression, and the by simply changing the sign of its exponent.
159.

The Index Law holds

for all Rational Values of

and

n.

Now that we have found what, in accordance with

n,

the index law, indices

and

must mean for all rational values of we must show that, with these meanings, the
a'^.a''

three laws

= +", (1) ()" = a, (2) = a^V" and {obY (3) must hold for all rational values of m and n. for all rational values of a^ = I. To show that a m and n. r 1. Let m and n be any fractions and -, in which
.

a'"^''

7)

j?,

q, r,

and

s are positive integers.

Then

"'

a"""

Vc^

V^, by
,

definition

= "%''' ."V^

by 152;

= '|/^^+^, =
If either

by 133;
definition

"

by

m or w

is

a positive integer while the other

is

a fraction with positive integers for its numerator and denominator, the integer may be expressed in a fractional

form, and the demonstration just given will hold.

"

202

THE INDEX LAW.

already that the law holds

We know

when

m and n are

positive integers.

Therefore
dP" .dr-

'"+''

for all positive rational values of

3.

Let

m and n. m and n be essentially positive, either

.

fractions

or integers.

Then
by

a- -

= =
.

a-"-",

definition.

And

\lm,

be positive,

and
.

a
.

a""

a"
a"

= a
=

a"

a.

a-"

a"""

a".

Hence

if

w w be negative, that is w m
.

be positive,

1
'"

w
.-

""'"

'".-"=."'-".
rational values of
a'"
.

Therefore for

all

m and

a"

"'

+ ".

CoE.

Since """. a"

it

m and m,
a"
II.
-T-

follows,

= a for all rational values of by dividing both sides by a", that

all rational

a"

a ~ " for

values of
all

m and n.

To

prove that (a)"

a" for

rational values of

m and n.
1.

Let

have any value whatever, and

let

w be a

positive integer.

THE INDMX LAW.

Then, by
definition,

203

(a)

= ar.dr.ar...ion factors ^ + rft+?n + m,..ton = a"".

teiTUB

2.

Let

have any value whatever, and

let

w be

fraction

in which

p and

q are positive integers.

Then (a)^

= -

y{arY, by
^oT", by
mp
9
,

definition;

II, 1;

=a

by

definition;

= ffl"'-T = '.
3.

Let n be any rational negative quantity and

p.

Then(a')-P=

-1- =

-4i

= """" m and w are

We know
Hence

already that the law holds

when

positive integers.

for all rational values of

and n

(a)"
III.
1.

a""".

To prove (ab)" = a"5" for all rational values of n. Let n be any positive rational quantity which may

be denoted by a fraction -, in which

integers.

p and

g'

are positive

Then

(ab)"

(ab)~i

:(/{abY,
(3).

by definition;

^Wb", by

204
Also, (a"&") for

THE INDEX LAW.

all

values of
d^b"
. .

n
to g factors
.

= = a" =

ffl"5''

a^l"
. .

a"

to g factorsxS"

5"

5"

to q factors
"
.

S"*.

But, since

-- or

nq

= p,

Therefore for

all

positive rational values of

2.

Let n be any rational negative quantity and

= p,

being a positive integer.

Then

(*)"

(5)-

= pp =

^=
n
dP'V.

-^

i-"

= m

"*"

We know
Hence

already that the law holds

when

and n are

positive integers.
for all rational values of

{abf

EXERCISE
I.

XCII.

Find the values

1.

of:
16-3/8.

64VS.

25-i/.

THE INDEX LAW.

Simplify
7.

205

a3/2j3/3

aV3JV3.

8.

(a-V5JV4)2/3.
(^3J8/4)-2/8_

9.

(a-V3^>-3)-4.

JO

Express with fractional or negative indices

11.

Va

-\-

Vi

-\-

y^^.
"
;,

12.

V^^-\-Va^.
.

13.

1/0^4-

Va^y^.

14.

V^pz^

+ ^a^.3?.

Express without fractional or negative indices

15. 17.

xv^

z-\

16. 18.

a-^-y^.
a-55-2/s
_|_ 3a(i/sj-3/4_

a^l'^h-^ - or^l^W.

Multiply:
I.

19.

a;^/^

/'/'

by ^'^
a;2/5

2/'/^

20.
21.

+ a;V5 +

by 1

a;V5.

aV3

- aV^^V^ +
-

by aV*
II.

+ iy\
by ^1^

22.

a;'/^

a;V6

+
1

a;V2

- a;V6 4. a;-V6 _ a;-s/6

a?/K
a;3 _|. a;3/3 _|_

by x-^

a;-3/2

1.

^*-

^-^'^'^'^^+^^^^*'^^-^^

^^r'^^

^5V3.

4
Divide
I.

85.

a;^

y'

by

a;'/^

y-

5 2

206
671

THE INDEX LAW.

6n
an
271

26. 27. 28.

x^
*

y^
2/*

by

a;

y^
?/V3.

+ by a;Vs + x^ + 33/V4 by + 2^V4.

a;V5
II.

29.
30.

81.

- 3 + a:-^/^ by a;V3 _ x'V^ a*/^ X by aVi" a;V2 a;^V2 aiV^y yV^ by a;V*
a;*/^
a;i75.

-(-

/V2.

CHAPTER

XVIII.

ELIMINATION.
160. Simultaneous
or

and Independent Equations.

Two

more equations

are said to be simultaneous

are satisfied by the

ties.

same values of their

when they unknown quantide-

The
rived

equations are independent

when one cannot be

from the other. When an equation contains two or more unknown

quantities, an indefinite
ties

number

of values of their quanti-

may
e.g.

be found which will satisfy the equation.

Let

3a;

+ % = 18.
rj

Transpose the term containing

and solve for

x,

and

we have
18

-4y

208

ELIMINATION.

ing any value whatsoeyer to one of these quantities

tain an equation

we

ob-

from which the other may be found.

if

In general terms,

ax

-\-

iy

-\-

= 0, = 0,

we may

give y any value m.

Then
-{-

ax

-\-

Im

x=
The
values

hm-\-

c
Tivn I

y=-m, and

x
is,

evidently satisfy

the given equation.

That

in an equation of the first

degree in x and y, to every value of y there is a corresponding value of x which will satisfy the equation.
161.

Two Unknown

Quantities

require

pendent Equations for their Solution. have two independent equations in x and
nite

two

Inde-

If,

however, we
the indefiwill satisfy

y, of

number

of pairs of values of x
is

and y which

either equation alone, there

satisfy both.

only one pair which will

To
e.g.

obtain this pair of values,

we may

solve each equaequal.

tion for the

same

letter,
3a;

and put the resulting values

4/

Let

18, 19. ^

(1)

and

"Hx+byFrom
(1),

(2)

we have x
x

^,

and from

(3),

.
which
is

Now as we

are seeking the value of x,

the same

in both equations,

we may put
18

"~1

4y

-~^

19

6y
^^^

ELIMINATION.

209
degree in y,
of

As this is a simple equation of the first may solve it for y, and then find the value
Solving (3) for y, we obtain / Substituting this value of y in
3a;
--

we
will

y which

give the same value of x in the two equations.

3.

(1),

we get

13

18.

3a;

and

= 6, x = 2.
we

The same

value of x would have been obtained had

substituted the value of y in (3).

162. Elimination.

The

general method of solving

si-

multaneous equations of two or more unknown quantities is to get rid one after another of all the unknown quantities but one, so as to obtain an equation containing that unknown quantity alone; then to find the value of this quantity from the resulting equation, and afterwards of the
remaining unknown quantities by substitution.

The

process of getting rid of the

unknown

quantities

is

called elimination.

163. Three Methods of Elimination. ^There are three

general methods of elimination,

known

respectively as the

methods by comparison, by substitution, and by addition or

subtraction.

The
of the
other.
e.g.

first

has been illustrated already.

It consists in

finding the value of the same

unknown

quantity from each

two equations, and putting their values equal to each

3a;
3a;

+ 3^ = 19; + 3y = 16.
=
19

(1) (3)

From

(1),

- 3v -^-,

210

ELIMINATION.

211
the

unknown quantities the same in both, and adding when these coeflB.cients have opposite signs in two equations, and subtracting the equations when
the

equations

the
the

coefficients
e.g.

have the same signs in both.

%x
3a;

+ 3y= 19, + = 16.

3/

(1) (3)
3,

Multiplying the

first

equation by 3 and the second by

(3)

we have
and

6*
6a;

+ % = 57, + 4^/ = 33.

(3),

(4)

Subtracting (4) from

we

get

By

2/

and

= = X =

35.
5,
%.

The

third

method

is

the one usually employed, and the

familiar

first is least

used.

The student should, however, be

with the use of

all three.

EXERCISE

XCIII.

Solve the following equations by each of the three

methods

3a;

4a;

212
9.

ELIMINATION.
14a;
6a;

3/

= 45,

lo.

bx
7a;

7/ 5?/

+ VHy =1.
+ y = 10'
5.

= =

0,

74.

Solve the following by any method of elimination

11.

-3-

12.

2a;

- ^-g =

4,

a;+|=
13.

32/

9-^.

a;.

Find the

first

four terms of the square root of 1

of of Ga;' + 15a;* ^Oa? +

14.

Find the cube root

I6a;'^

- 6a; + 1.

15.

17.

-j{x

/)

= =

g(a;

y),

-^{x
18.

/)

gg-(a;

/)

- y.

x{y

7)
3a;

= =
4

/(a;

3y

1),

19.

8y-l
20.

8-a; _
21.

2^-7
a;

ax = ly, X -\-y = c.
a;

+
-\-

y
hy

ax
5,

22.

+ = + +a_ b
/

23.

X -{ y ax -\- hy

= 1, = =a = a^
c.

-{-

h,

-\-

b\

ELIMINATION.
a
2*-

213
X a -2 +3-'
-\,

qr7=F+T'
ax+by c.

''

EXERCISE XCIV.
Solve the following problems by two
tities
:

unknown quansum
is

Ex.

1.

Find two numbers whose

is 3.
a;

17 and

whose

difEerence

Let

and

the larger number, the smaller number.

a;

Then
and

+ =
/

15,
3.

(1)
(3)

= =

Add

equation (3) to equation

(1),

and we get

2x
--

18.
9.

x=
2y

Subtract equation (2) from equation

(1),

and we get

13.
6.

.-.

y=

Hence the numbers are 9 and 6. Find a fraction such that when 5 is added to its numerator and 2 is added to its denominator, its value is 3/4; and if 1 be subtracted from its numerator and 5 be subtracted from its denominator, its value is 3/5.
2.

Let

and

= the numerator, y = the denominator.

Then

"-H-T' 4 y + 2

214
,

JSLIMINATION.
a; /

and

3 = 5

Clearing of fractions,
4a;

we have
or
4a;

+
-

20

= =

32/

+
-

6,

3^/

= = -

14,

(1)

and
5a;

3/

15,

or
(3),
a;

bx

3y

10.

(2)

Subtracting (1) from

we get

-.

16

or

--

= 4. - 3/ = - 14, 3/ = 30. = 10.

2/

Hence the
3.

fraction
is

is

4/10.
of

There

number composed
and
if

two

digits.

The
the

sum

of the digits

is 7,

9 be added to the

number

digits will

be reversed. X

Let

and

= =

digit in the tens' place,

digit in the units' place.
10a;

Then the number is reversed the number is

IQy

+ y. + x.

When

the digits are

(1)

ELIMINATION.
Subtracting (3) from
(1),

215

we

get

y
is

I.

4=-

Hence the number

34.

1.

6.

The sum of two numbers What are the numbers ?

There
is

is

8 and their difference

is

2.

a certain fraction, such that

its

if its if its

ator be increased by 4;

value

is

4/5
is

and
1/2.

numerdenomis

inator be increased by one, its value

fraction
3.

What

the

certain

number of two
and
if

digits

is

equal to five times

its

the

sum

of its digits,

9 be

added to the number,

digits will be reversed.

4.

number

consists of

two

digits

whose difference

is

if it

be diminished by the

will be reversed.
5.

What

is

sum of its the number ?

digits, the digits

five times as old as B, and in Eight years ago he will be three times as old. What are their two years

A was

present ages

A alone does 3/5 of a piece of work in 30 days, and 6. then with B's help finishes it in 10 days. In what time
could each do
it

alone

II.

and 5 lbs. of sugar for and 8 lbs. of sugar What were for $1.64, the price being the same as before.
7.

A man

buys 8

lbs. of tea

$2.39; and at another time 5

lbs. of tea

the prices
8.

Two

vessels contain

mixtures of wine and water. In

the

first

there are three times as

much wine
vessel to

as water,

and

in

the second five times as

gallons

much

water as wine.
fill

How many
which

must be drawn from each

a third,

216

ELIMINATION.

holds 7 gallons, with a mixture which shall be half wine

and half water

9.

Two vessels

contain mixtures of wine and water. In

the

first

there are 4 gallons of wine to 3 gallons of water,

and in the second there are 5 gallons of water to 2 gallons of wine. How many gallons must be drawn from each vessel to fill a third, which holds 12 gallons, with a mixture which shall be 1/3 wine ?
10.

A man
and

buys 2

lbs.

of tea and 6 lbs. of sugar for 81

cents,

at another time 4 lbs. of tea

and 9

lbs. of

sugar

for $1.51-J, the price being the the prices ?

same

as before.

What were
n
Insi-

164. To Solve for n

Unknown

Quantities requires

dependent Equations.

We have seen that we need two

we need
and n
independent

miiltaneous equations in order to find the value of two un-

known

quantities.

Similarly,

three independent

simultaneous equations in order to find the value of three

unknown
ties.

quantities,

simultaneous
quanti-

equations in order to find the value of

n unknown
first

With

three

unknown

quantities,

we

combine any

pair of the three equations so as to eliminate one of the un-

known

quantities,

and then another pair

so as to eliminate

the same

equations

unknown quantity. We shall then have two with two unknown quantities. Then we combine
equation with a
obtain the value

these two equations so as to eliminate one of the remaining

unknown quantities, and thus obtain one Prom this we single unknown quantity.
of this quantity,

and then, by successive substitution, the

values of the other two.

e.g.
6a; 3a;

7a;

+ + +

2/

3/ 5/ -

52 2 3

= 13, - 13, = 26.

(1)
(2) (3)

ELIMINATION.

217

Eliminate y from (1) and (2) by subtraction, multiplying (1) by 3 and (2) by
18a;
3.

+ 6y - 15 = 39,
= 26. 13a; -112 = 13.
4z
(3)

Qx-\-Qy
-.

(4)

tiplying (1)

Next eliminate y from (1) and by 5 and (3) by 3.

30a; -f

by subtraction, mul-

lOy lOy
16a;

Ux +
.-.

- 65, 6z = 53, -192 = 13.

25z
(5)

(5)

tiplying (4)

Next eliminate x from (4) and by 4 and (5) by 3.

48a; 48a;

by subtraction, mul-

442
572

= =

53,
39.

.-.

132=13,
2

and

1.

order,

that the equations may be combined in any and that those combinations are best which will produce the required result in the simplest and most direct

Eemember

way.

EXERCISE XCV.

x+2y + 2z=16, + + 2 = 11, 3x -\-iy+ 2 = 32. x + iy + 3z - U, 2 = 31, 3a; -f 3?/ -f 2 = 13. 2a; + 22/ +
3a;
2/

2.

a;+3y
x
2a;

+ 42 = + 2y+ = 0, + y + 2z =
7, z
6.

4.

3x-2y+
2x

+ Sy + x+ y +

= = z =
z

10,
18,
5.

218

ELIMINATION.
the
first,

219

with 1/3 the price of the other two, was 40 dol-

lars,

the price of the second, with 1/4 the price of the other

two, was 42 dollars, and the price of the third, with 1/2

the price of the other two, was 44 dollars.

price of each watch
4. ?

What was

the

together have $2100. "Were B to give would have 380 dollars more than B, and if B received 300 dollars from C, they would both have the same sum. How many dollars has each ?

A, B, and

300 dollars,

5.

A, B, and C can perform a piece of work in 20

days,

A and B
it

in 30 days, and

B and
alone
?

in 40 days.

How

long would
6.

take each to do

it

A
it

and

together can do a piece of work in 6 days,

B and
would
7.

in 6f days^ ahd take each to do

A
it

and
alone
?

in 5 j^-j- days.

How

long

number

is

composed
if

of three digits
is

whose sum

is

9.

The

digit in the units' place

twice the digit in the

hundreds' place, and

digits will
8.

198 be added to the number, the

be reversed.
is

What
is

is

the

number ?
digits

10.

A number The middle

if

composed of three

whose sum

is

digit

equal to the

sum
its

of the other
digits will be

two, and
reversed.
9.

99 be added to the
is

number

What

the

number ?
digits

A number is

composed of three

whose sum

is

Seven times the second digit exceeds the sum of the other two by 2, and if the first and second digit be inter14.

changed the resulting number will be less than the given number by 180. What is the number ?
II.

and B can do a piece of work in r days B and in ^ days. In how many days and A and can each do it alone ?
10.
;

in s days;

220

ELIMINATION.
the following by two

Do

unknown

quantities

24. A crew can row 10 miles in 50 minutes down stream and 13 miles in an hour and a half up stream.

What

is

the rate in miles per hour of the stream, and of

still

the crew in

water

Let X

= =
-\-

the rate in miles per hour of the crew in

water,

still

and
,.

y
X X

the rate in miles per hour of the current.

y y

^= the

rate in miles per

hour of the crew

down
and

stream,

the rate in miles per hour of the crew up

stream.

Since the

number
is

of miles rowed, divided

in miles per hour,

equal to the time in hours,

by the rate we have

10

+y
13

5 6'

and
3
/

a:

10,

"~ 3*

..

and

3.

A crew can row 30 miles down stream in an hour 86 and 30 minutes, and 18 miles up stream in 3 hours. What is the rate of the current in miles per hour, and what is
the rate of the crew in
26.
still

water

Two trains start from two stations at the same and each proceeds at a uniform rate towards the They meet in twelve hours, and one has other station. miles farther than the other, and then if they gone 108 continue to travel at the same rate they will finish their journey in 9 hours and 16 hours respectively. What is the rate of the trains, and the distance between the towns ?
time,

ELIMINATION.
27.

221
stations at the

Two

trains start

from two
in- six

same

time, and each proceeds at a uniform rate towards the

other station.

They meet

hours, and one has gone

30 miles farther than the other, and then if they continue to travel at the same rate, they will finish the
Journey in 7 hours and 13 minutes, and in 5 hours, respectively.

What

is

the rate of the trains, and what

?

is

the

distance between the towns

28.

certain

number

of persons paid

bill.

Had

there

been 10 more, each would have paid $2

5 less, each

had there been

How many
29.

were there,
of

and would have paid $2.50 more. and how much did each pay ?
less,
is

A sum

money

divided equally between a certhere been

tain

number

of persons.

Had

more, each

each would have received h dollars more. How many persons were there, and how much did each receive ?

would have received a

dollars less; if

less,

CHAPTEK

XIX.

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS.
A.

SUED AND IMAGINAKY FACTORS.

and Binomial
Cluadrjctics.

165. Trinomial

complete

quadratic expressioti in one

quantity, one containing the quantity,

unknown
first

quantity contains

three terms, one containing the square of the

unknown

power of the unknown

The most

genferal

and the third without the unknown quantity. form of such an expression is

aoi^ -ir

bx

-\- G.

The term which

does not contain the

unknown quan-

tity is called the constant

term of the expression, and the

the

complete expression is called a trinomial quadratic. When the term containing the first power of

unknown
binomial,

quantity

is

wanting, the expression becomes a

and

is

called

an incomplete

or a linomial

quadratic expression.
166. Factors of x^

+ Every
c.

binomial quadratic of

the form
x^
-\-

c
it

may may

be factored as the diiference of two squares, since be written in the form

x^

c).

223

SUMI)

AND IMAGINABT

FACTORS.

223

The

factors will be

X
1.

-\-

and x

c.

When
When

c represents

a positive number, these factors a negative

are imaginary.
2.

c represents

number which

is

not
a

a perfect square, the factors are surd.

3.

When

c represents

a negative

number which

is

perfect square, the factors are rational.

e.g.

1.

x^-\-b=x^-{-5) = {x
a;2+4=a;2-(-4) = (a;

- V'^){x-\- V^), - V^){x + V^^)

3.
3.

a;2

+ (- 3) =
is

a;2

= {x-% |/^)(a;+3 V^). - 3 = ( - V3){x + Vd).

3){x

ci^+{-9)=x^-9 = {xin the

-\- c,

+ 3).

When

the expression

form

ax^

a may be taken out as a factor

ing factor

may

first, and then the remainbe factored as the difference of two squares.

Thus,

= a{x-V^)[xWm
e.g.
1.
3a;3

+ 6 = 3{x^ + 3) = 3(x^ - (- 3)) = 3{x - V^^2){x + V^Z).

+(-30) =
4:{x^

3.

4a;'

5)

4:{x

V5){x

V5).

224
3.

qUADRATIG EQUATIONS.
5a;H(-20)==5(a;2-4)

=
3a;+(-5)

5(2!

- %){x + 3).

= =

3[a;8-|)
3(

4a;'

+ 1/573). + (- 3) = 4(a; - 4/374)(a; + 1/374)

V5/d){x

=4-f)(^+^)

V3\/

V/S"'

EXERCISE XCVII,
Factor the following quadratic expressions:
1.

x^

5. 9. 3.

3.
5.

a;2

4.
7.

2a; 3a;''

5a;i'

- 7. - 25.

3.

x^

e.
9.

7a;2

+ 16. + 14.
2.
5.

8.

Sa;''

+ 5.
4.

bx^
Ta;'

10.

4a;2

+ 3.

11.

3a; -

12.

167. Factors of a Trinomial Quadratic.

Every

tri-

nomial quadratic expression

ence of two squares.

may

be factored as the differ-

We

first

take out the coefficient of the square of the

the second term of the exthe square of half the coef-

and after unknown add and subtract pression we

quantity,
ficient of the first

power of the unknown quantity.

five terms,

This

will give a will

polynomial of

the

first

three of which

be a perfect square. The last two terms must be comThe factors bined into one with a minus sign before it.
will

both be

real
it is

rational

when

when this term is essentially positive, an exact square, and surd when it is not

SUBD AND IMAGINARY FACTOBS.

an exact square.
this last
e.g.

225

The

factors will both be imaginary

when

term
1.

is

essentially negative.

Factor

First,

we have

+ Ux + 18. 3x^ + 15a; + 18 = 3{x^ + 5x + 6).

3x^
factor,

Then, after the second term of the second and subtract (5/3)^ and we get
x^

add

+ 5x+^l--^-^ + 6 = x^+5x + ^-l

=

{x+d){x+2).

.:
2.

3a;2

+ 152; + 18 = 3( + 3)(a; + 3).

ax^
c

Factor

+bx+c.
I

First,

a^ +
a;^

5a; -I-

a\x^
\

-\-

-x
a

"be
-\-

a
ti J)

Then

n + -a; + c =

a;^

+ -a; + -^ -+ c
J)

_/
_

~r + 3+
/

Vb^-iac \(
2a

_b_

\/P

-iac \
2a
I

)v'^2a~

h-\-Vl^- iac\/
2a
ax^
'

h-\-

VV"

iad

J\
-\-

2a
c

bx

a[x

52a

[x /\

+
4:ac,

2a

Whether these

factors be rational, surd, or imaginary

depends upon the radical V!^

226
If the

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS.
quantity under the radical be positive, the factors

will

be
If

real.

also the quantity

square, the factors will be rational;

under the radical be a perfect and if this quantity be

0,

not a perfect square, the factors will be surd.

If the quantity

under the radical be

the factors will

be equal.
If the quantity

under the radical sign be negative, the

c is

factors will be imaginary.

Since ax* -\-lx-\quadratic expression.

I

the general form of a trinomial

&_+

W^2a

4acV

A t'+
'

W2a

4:ac\
I

may

serve as a formula

by which

all

such expressions

may

be factored.
e.g.

Factor

^x*

4a;

5.
c,

= 4,

Comparing this with ax* and c = 5.

-\-hx-\-

we

see that

= 3,

Substituting these values in the formula,

we get

or

3(.

+ i|EE)(, + izi^),
3 /v
'

In this case the binomial factors are imaginary.

EXERCISE

XCVIII.

Factor the following trinomial quadratic expressions by the formula:

I.

J.

4a;2 -|- 7a;

- 5,

8,

%x*

-\-

5x

-{-

2,

nOOTS OF
3.

AN

EQUATION.
4.
6.

227

5x^

-6x-7.

Qx^

4a;

3.

5.

ix^

+ 3x +
of

Q.

2x^

+ 10a; + 8.

bought 175 acres of land for 6000 dollars. it he paid 40 dollars an acre, and for the remainder 25 dollars an acre. How many acres in each
7.

A man

For a part
part?

II.
8.

10. 12. 14.

+ + 3. 3x^ + 15a;' + x-6.

7a;'

9a;

9.

7x^
4=x^ 3a;'

7a;

6.

ii. 13.

+ 28x- 24a; + 12. - 10a; +

7.

6.

A man bought m
it

acres of land for s dollars.

For a

part of

he paid a dollars an acre, and for the remainder b dollars an acre. How many acres were there in each part ?
15

Solve

+ 1 + 2Vx = ^ ^ = V4:X + 1 - 3 Va;

Vix

9.

Vx
16.

-\-

a a

-\-

v'x

Solve

Vx
B.

-\-

Vx

ROOTS OF

AN EQUATION.

168. Quadratic Equations.

quadratic equation of
first

one
is

unknown

quantity

is

an equation whose

member

a complete or an incomplete quadratic expression in that

been reduced to its simplest form and all its terms have been transposed into its first member. After reduction and transposition the equation takes either the form
letter after the equation has
aa;'

or

ax^

+ +c= + c = 0.
Zia;

(1)
(2)
is

169. Roots of an Equation.

A root of an equation
which reduces
its

value of

its

unknown

quantity

first

228

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS.
to zero, after
it

member

has been reduced to the form of

(1) or {%).

170. Solution

of a
is

Quadratic Equation.

To

solve a

quadratic equation

to find its roots, or the values of its

unknown quantity which will reduce to zero the first member of the equation after it has been brought into its
type form.
Since a product
to zero the factors
zero, the values of its

zero when any one of its factors is unknown quantity which will reduce of the first member after it has been
is

brought into its type form are the roots of the equation. Hence, to solve a quadratic equation, reduce it to the type
form, factor
its first

member, equate each

quantity.

factor to zero,

and solve for

e.g.

its

unknown
x^

Solve

Gx

=
this

8.

Eeduced

to the type
a:

form

becomes

or

{x

Put
and we have

a;

- 6a; + 8 = 0, - 2)(a; - 4) = 0. - 2 = 0,

ROOTS OF
equal

AN

EQUATION.
when the

229
factors

when the

factors are identical; surd

are surds;
e.g.

and imaginary when the

1.

factors are imaginary.

Solve

x^

&x=
6a;

9.

When

reduced to the type form this becomes

a;2

+ 9 = 0.
=0.
and are
rational
3,

-.

(a;- 3)(a;-3)

Therefore the roots are 3 and

equal.

and

first

The roots of a quadratic equation are equal when the member of the reduced form is a perfect square.
2.

Solve

x^

11a;

= - 38.

Transposing, we have

--

-.

a;

- Ux + 38 = {x - 4:){x - 7) = 0. = 4 or 7.
x^
7,

Therefore the roots of the equation are 4 and

rational
3.

and are

and unequal.
a;2

Solve
first

4a;

+1=

0.

of this equation under the case two squares by adding and subtracting the square of half the coefficient of x, and we have

Bring the

member

of the difference of

a;2

.-.

(a;

.:

a;

- 4a; + 4 - 3 = 0. - 3 + y'3)(a; - 2 - Vs) = 0. = 3 - 4/3 and 3 + V3.

V3 and

Therefore the roots of the equation are 3

2
-|-

Vs, and are surd and unequal.

Solve
x^

4.

6a;

+ 11 = 0.

230

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS.

Bring the first member under the case of the difference two squares by adding and subtracting the square of half the coefficient of x, and we .have
of

+ 9 - (-2) = {x-i + V - ^){x -3a;36a;

0.

VV-

2)=0.
2.

x-3 - V -2
3
-\-

and

3+

Therefore the roots of the equation are 3

3 and

2,

and are imaginary.

EXERCISE XCIX.
Solve the following quadratic equations by factoring
I.

1.

x^

3.

6.

a;^

7.

a;2

= 0. x^ + 13a; + 25 = - 15. + 4a; + 20 = 4 - 3 = 6.

3x
18

2.

x^

4.
6.

4a;.

a;^

8.

a;

= 45. x^ - 12x - 5 - - 40. 5a; = 5a; 25. - 32 = - a\

ix

9.

x^-\-{a-\'b)x-\-ab=0.
2a; + 3 = 0. 15a;2 + 14a; = 8. 12 + 2x^ = Ux.
a;

lo.

a;^+(a &)a; a5=0.

11. 18.

12.
14. 16.

15.

+ = 12. 7x^ + 15a; = + 17a; =

3a;'^

5a;

8.

3a;3

20.

171. Formation of Quadratic Equations.

tain the roots of a quadratic equation

Since we obto zero

it

by equating
type form,

each factor of the

first

that these factors are

member of the unknown

its

follows

quantity of the equation

minus each of its roots in turn. Hence we may obtain a quadratic equation in x whose roots shall have given values by using as factors x minus

ROOTS OF

AN

EQUATION.

231

factors,
e.g.

each of the given roots in turn, finding the product of these and equating this product to zero.
1.

Form

the quadratic equation in x whose roots

factors of the first

are 4

and 7. The type form will be

{x
...

member

of its

4)

and

(a;_4)(a;
i2

+ 7). + 7) = 0,
{x

or

3a;

- 28 = 0,

which
2.

is

the required equation. the quadratic equation in x whose roots are

3

Form

+ 4/5
a;

and

(3

V5).

Here the
.:

factors are

(3

+ V?))

and

a;

(x-(3+

or

VE))(x - (3 0. x^ Qx
-\- 4:

4/5))

(3 = 0,

^5).

EXERCISE

C.

Form

the quadratic equations in x whose roots hare the

following values

1.

232
17.

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS.
3

19.

+ V's'and '^- V^. 9 + V 4 and 9 V

To

is.

+ VS and 5 -

/S.

4:.

2-

^3 "^^
1^
and

21.

j^
I.

22.

Eeduee
Eeduee

-n H
-
r

to a single negatiye fraction.

23.

+
a;

a;

to a single fraction.
3a;

24.

Reduce

2x^
2a;
a;

;r to a single fraction.

EXERCISE

CI.

1.

(^

2)2

= |(a; + 2).
1)^

2.

2a:2

+ 2(a; +

IQ

=^x{x

+ 1).

3.

(2-a;)2- (2-a;)(a;-3)
a;

+ (a;-3)3 =

l.

4.

+ - = 4i.
+2 + l _ 26 + l"'"a; + 2~5'
a;

5.

^^+-^ =
a;-3

2i.

a;

a;

'
II.

_^

3_ _
ai

17

+ S^lO"

2a;+l^a; +

=
5

-W-. 9.

aa:^ (^

+ l)a: + a = 0.

BOOTS OF
4a;

AN
;

EQUATION.

233

W.

T,

3a:

3a;
,

S,= 3H
7

-3 r-. 1

11.

'

a;

Jo-1 + 1 _ ^^^^Ti~^^^~

"

x-1 x 4- - 5x r + ^ + l^a; 1 x^ 2a:- 1 13 _ 3a + 5 S^Tl + n-S^^^y;

1'

EXERCISE
1.

Cll.

Solve 4/(3

- 4a;) +

4/(2

5a;)

4/(5

+
=
5

a;).

Transposing,
4/(3

we have

4a;)

+ 4/(3 +
4a:) 4/(2

5a:)

4/(5

a;)

0.

Multiplying by the conjugate, we have

3 or
-.

4a;

+ 3 |/(3 -

5a;)

+2+

5a;

- = 0,
a;

.-.

-.

a;

2 V(3 - 4) 4/(3 + 5a;) = 0. 4/(3 - 4a:) 4/(3 + 5a;) =0. (3 - 4a;)(2 + 5a;) = 0. = 3/4 and - 2/5.
I.

2.

3.

4.

6.

- 3) = 4/(2 + + ) + ^(2; - S) = 4/(3 + a - 4/(4 + = 4/(7 + 4/(3 + = ^(5 + 4/(2 - 3^) - 4/(7 +
4/(5

tx)

4/(4a;

3a;).

4/(a:

S).

4a:)

2a;)

6a;).

a;)

4.r).

6.

4/(a;2+3a;-54)- 4/(a;-3a;-54)=
II.

4/(3a;2

-108).

7.

4/(:E+4a;-60)- V(2-4a;-60)= 4/(3a;2-130).

4/{132;'-a;-

6)-

4/(13a;3

+ a;-6)=4/(24a;2-12).

9.

4/(36a;+24a;+l)

+ 4^(36a;2-24a;+l) = y(72a;2+3).

234

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS.

172. Interpretation of Solutions.

Ex. 1. A man sold a watch for 24 dollars and lost as many per cent as there were dollars in the cost of the watch. What was the cost of the watch ?

Let

BOOTS OF
will be,

AN

EQUATION.

235

in general,

both of which
problem.

may

This is guage of algebra is more general than ordinary language. So that the equations which correctly represent the conditions of the oral problems may represent other allied
conditions
also.

two values of the unknown quantity, not answer to the conditions of the due to the fact that the symbolic lan-

The equation
is

is

entirely general, while

less restricted.

the verbal statement

more or

Verbal

statements are supposed generally to be restricted to an

arithmetical sense which admits only of positive

while there

is

no

restriction

numbers on the numerical symbols of

an algebraic equation.

A little consideration will enable the pupil to determine whether or not both values of the unknown quantity will fit the conditions of the verbal problem, and which one to It will be found also select in case both will not answer.
a valuable
possible.

exercise

to

interpret

negative results

when

16 sheep has no meaning in the arithmetical sense, but algebraically it means to sell 16 sheep. To buy 4 less than 16 would mean to sell 20. In the first case he would have paid $5 a head for the sheep; that is, he would have sold them for $5 a head. In the second case he would have bought them for 1 dollar more a head, or for 4 dollars; that is, he would have sold them for 4 dollars a head. When one of the solutions is negative the wording of
in the last example, to

Thus

buy

the problem

may be changed,

in general, so as to

make

that solution positive and arithmetically true.

Had he
did he
e.g.

Thus, a farmer sold a number of sheep for 80 dollars. sold 4 more for the same money he would have

received 1 dollar a head less for the sheep.

sell ?

How many
its

1.

The length

of a field is 12 rods

and

breadth

is

236
10 rods.

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS.

How many

rods must be added to the length of

the field that the area

may

be 100 square rods

Let X

number

of rods to be added.

Then

(ISJ

+ 2;)10 - 100.
=
100

lOiB

120.

a;=
Hence the number
is

2.

of rods to be

2.

This

is

possible algebraically,

added to the length but impossible arith-

metically.

In the arithmetical sense, to add means to increase;

and

as the area of the field at first

its

increase in

length could

make

its

was 120 square rods, no area 100 square rods.

to add 2 means to subtract 2 and were the statement, "How many rods must be subtracted from the length of the field to make its area 100 square rods ?" we should find the 2 to be positive

But

algebraically,

arithmetically;

and, therefore, true in the arithmetical sense.

2. A's age is 40, and B's 35. e.g. hence will A's age be twice B's ? Let X = number of years hence.

How many

years

Then

40

+ = 2(35 + x).
a;

a;

= - 30.

This

is

impossible arithmetically, but perfectly true

algebraically, since

30 years hence means 30 years ago.

Had
would

the question been worded,

" How many

years ago

A's age have been twice B's ?" the solution

would have

been positive and the problem would have been possible

arithmetically.

When

of a problem, there
ditions of the

imaginary results are obtained in the solution is either an impossibility in the con-

problem or an error in the formation of the

equation.

ROOTS OF
e.g.

AN

EQUATION.

237

Divide 12 into two parts whose product shall

be 37.

Let X denote one part.

Then

a;(12

a;

- ) = 37. l%x -x^ = 37. x" - 12a; + 37 = 0. - 12a; + 36 - 1 = 0. - 6 V"^ = 0. x = &- V -I, or 6 + V - 1. 12-a; = 6+V'-l, or 6-V-l.
a;2

That
product

is,

12 cannot be divided into two parts whose

is

37.

EXERCISE cm.
I.

Find two numbers whose difference 1. whose sum multiplied by the greater is 345.
2.

is

and

Find three consecutive numbers whose sum

is

equal

to 3/5 the product of the last two.

Find two numbers whose difference 3. whose sum multiplied by the greater is 560.
4.

is

12 and

Find three consecutive numbers whose sum

last two.
is

is

equal

to

3/7 the product of the

6.

Find two numbers whose sum

is

and the sum

of

whose cubes
6.

72.

uct of the last two shall be equal to the of the first two used as digits.
7.

Find four consecutive numbers such that the prodnumber composed

Find four consecutive numbers such that the prod-

238

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS.

uct of the last two shall be 3^ times the product of the

first

two.
II.

merchant bought a quantity of flour for 120 10 barrels more for the same money, the cost would have been 2 dollars a barrel less. How many barrels did he buy, and at what price ?
8.

dollars.

Had he bought

A merchant sold a quantity 9. and the loss per cent was equal What was the cost of the wheat ?

of

wheat for 16

dollars,

to the cost in dollars.

A merchant sold a quantity of cloth for 96 10. and the gain per cent was equal to the cost in What was the cost of the cloth ?
11.

dollars, dollars.

A
is

crew can row 10 miles down stream and back

again in 2 hours and 40 minutes;

and the
is

rate of the

stream
in
still
12.

2 miles
?

an hour.

What

the rate of the crew

water

again in 7 hours, and the rate of the stream

hour.

crew can row 20 miles down stream and back is 3 miles an

is

What

the rate of the crew in

still

water

173. Solution of

the General Quadratic

Equation,

The most general type known quantity is

ax*
If

of a quadratic equation of

one un-

-\-

bx

-\-

- 0.

(A)

we

divide through by a, then

a
b

and

if

we

substitute

for

and
,

q for

it

the equation

fit

becomes
9?
-^r

p.c

^ q = 0,

(B)

BOOTS OF
which
form.
If in equation
is

AN

EQUATION.
its

239
simplest

the quadratic equation reduced to

(B)

we add and

subtract the square of ^,

At

we get

^j^^x^-^-^^q
or

=0,
^

xi^px-\-^- ^

0,

which factors into

Therefore x

l/2(-i?

+ \/f - 4^),
4/,

and

l/3(-^- t/y-4?).
On
account of the double sign of the root symbol,

both values are included in the one expression

x=\/%{-p\/p'-H\
which
is

(1)

the solution of (B).

If in this equation

we write for p and

for q,

we have

or

a
b

^ a'

or

a;

1 = /

Vi^

4ac\
,

2\

or

X
is

ir-( 6

i/S'

iac),
(2)

which

the solution of (A).

240

qUADBATIO EQUATIONS.

tions,

Formulse (1) and (2), for the solution of quadratic equashould be so thoroughly memorized that the roots of

any quadratic equation

may

be written down at sight.

Formula
of x^
is

most convenient for use when the coefficient unity, and formula {%) when the coefficient of x^ is
(1) is
1.

not unity.
e.g.

Find the roots

of x^

-\-

^x

35.

l/2(-2 1/4+
or

140),

l/2(- 2
Hence
2.

and

12).
a;3

= 7. Find the roots of %!(? + 5a; - 12.

Xi =
5,

l/4(or

l/25

96),

l/4{-

5 5

or

l/4(Hence
3.
x^

t/m), 11).
and
sjj

3/2,

= 4.

Find the roots

of Za?

l/6(or

7 7

+ 7x - 25. 1/49 + 300),

l/6(Hence x

1/349).
^ and

= _7+
o

4/349

x^

= -7-

1/349
.

^;

Whether the

roots be rational, surd, or imaginary de-

pends upon the radicals Vp^ 4g' and 1/5^ iac. When p' 4:q or b^ = iac, the roots are equal, since the radical then becomes zero.

EXERCISE
I.

CIV.

1.

x^

+ &x + 8 = 0.
bx

2.

x^

3.

2x^

25.

4.

Ux - 120 = 0. 3x^ - Yix + 14 = 0.

ROOTS OF
6.

AN

EQUATION.
e.

241

7^

33a;

15.

7.

a;^

+ J = 18. i
Ix
1

8.

- 3)^ = 3a; + 3. :^-^l =

(2a;

l.

4,

3x^

10.

(a;

3)3

= 1 + |(a; + 3).
,

11

-^_
a;

12. 13.

a;2

a;2

Ei ^1-3 ~ + l^a; + 3 +3 + 3aa; = W - l + (1 + 3J)a; + dd^b =

I

""a;

0.

14.

aa;3

+ b{l

a^)x = aV.
II.

18.

16. 17.

- xf -{a- x){b -x)-\-{x- bf ={a- b)\ aJ>{x - bf =^{x- of. {2a- b- xf + 9{a - bf = {{a + b) - ^x^.
(ffl

18.

,1 +X =a
I

,1
-\
.

X
19.

J-

a b = - -L -.
b

20.

a x X

+ a + a -75 = 0. X 2x
'

-\-

'

-\-

21.

^^-

^'-

04,
^

2b ~ b -\-2a 2x' xl x2 x_Z_ + 3 + + 3 + a;+5~ 5a; + 3 5a; - 3 _ 35a; + 11 ~ 5a; + 3 5a; - 3 + 5a; + 3 3a; + 1 9a; - 13/3 3a; - 1 3a; - 1 ^ + 1 ~ 3a; + 1
-\-

+ a + 2b _b 2a+2x
a
a;

a;

"

'-

a;

'

242

qUAD-BATIG EQUATIONS.
EXERCISE CV.
I.

run over the same 120 miles of rail withof them goes 10 miles an hour faster than the other and passes over the distance in 1 hour less
1.

Two

trains

out stopping.
time.
2.

One

What

is

the speed of the trains

Two

trains run, without stopping, over the

miles of

rail.

One
is

of

same 90 them goes 6 miles an hour faster

?

than the other, and passes over the distance in 15 minutes

less time.
3.

What

the speed of the trains

crew can row a certain course up stream in 5

it

hours, and in

still water they could row it in 4^ hours less would take them to drift down stream to the starting-point. How long would it take them to row back

time than

with the current

4.

hours, and in
less

crew can row a certain course up stream in 5i still water they could have rowed it in 4 hours
it

time than

would take them

it

to drift

down to the start-

ing-point.

How long would

?

take them to row back with

the current

II.

5.

Simplify (a^5V3)- V\a

^^f'')y\d^/% " V*)- \

Express ~*5~'/*-f 2a'^6~*''^ without negative or

fractional exponents.
7.
8.

Find the value

of (64)"

y\

Divide oT + "'/> by a" + "1^ and reduce the resulting

exponents to a single fraction.

9.

Multiply

(.

+ ^-4^)
l^xy

by

[o-^^-

10.

Factor

llofi

11a; -f 22/.

BOOTS OF

AN

EQUATION.
Form
iirst

243
of Trinomial

174. Solution of Equations of the

Quadratics.
tity

Whenever an equation
unknown

of

one unknown quan-

can be reduced to a trinomial the

term of which

contains the
factor, the
factor,

quantity only in the square of a

as of

second term only in the first degree of the same and the third termi not at all, it may be first solved an ordinary quadratic for that factor, and then the values the unknown quantity may be found from values of the

factor.
e.g.
1.

Solve

d{x

3)^

+ 5(a; - 3) - 2 = 0.

Factoring,

we obtain

((a;-3)+3)(3(a;-3)-l)=0;
and equating each factor
a;

to zero,

we have
x

+3
3)

=0,
3

or

and
2.

3(a; -

6a;*

Solve

= 0, or x - 5a^ - 6 = 0.

1; = 4.

Factoring,

we obtain
(3a;2

3a;2 2a;2

+ 2)(2a; - 3) = 0. + 2 = 0, or x^ = - 2/3;
3

and
.%

= 0,

or

x^

3/2.

and

x= V -'^/'d= l/-dV -Q, x= 4/372 = 1/2 VQ.

EXERCISE
CVI.

Solve the following equations as quadratics

I.

1.

2.

- 3)^ - 12(2a; 20 = 0. 3a;* - 19a;3

6(2a;
-j-

3)

= 0.

244
3.

qUABBATIC EQUATIONS.
3(a;

4)2

ll{z

4)

+ 10 = 0.

4.

8.

6.

+ 13 = 0. {x - 3)2 - 5(a; - 3) + 6 = 0. - 33a;2 + 38 ^ 0.

{%x^f
7(2a;2)
9a;*

II.

7.

24a;*

34a;2

+ 12 =

0.

g.

9.

11.

13.

+ 37a;8 = 216. - 20a;-3 - ar = 0. 69 32a;5 -\.l/a?= - 33.

%3?

lo. 12.
14.

a;^

- 21a;2 + 2 = 0. " = 35. 12a;- + a;-* - 21a;-2 = - 108. - 3a;^/2 = 88.

54a;*
^
a;

EXERCISE
I.

evil.

A person has 12 miles to walk. After he has been 1. on the road one hour he increases his speed ^ mile an hour and finishes his journey in \ of an hour less time than he would have accomplished it had he not altered his speed. How fast did he walk at first, and how long was he on the
road?

A man has to drive 25 miles. After he has been 2. on the road two hours he -slackens the speed of his horses 1 mile an hour, and is f of an hour longer than he would have been had he not changed the rate of driving. At what rate did he drive at first, and how long was he on the road?
3

Reduce Zx^
,. ^ ^. Rationalize

;-5
25ft''

352

to a single negative fraction.

4.

+ 7 V5 -^.

3-21^5

ROOTS OF

AN
II.

EQUATION.

246

8.

and

together can do a piece of

to do half of
it

certain time.

Were each
less

have to work 2 days

they work together.
6.

and

work in a A would 4 days more than when

alone,
it

In what time can they do

together

and

B B

can do a piece of work in a certain time.

Were each
together.

to do half of it alone,

would have
it

to

work 4
,

days less and

days more than

when they worked

together
?

In what time can they do

CHAPTER XX.
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS OP TWO UNKNOWN
QUANTITIES.
Generally, by Cases of Elimination. two equations of the second degree with two unknown quantities will produce an equation of the fourth degree, which are usually insolTable by any of the methods

175. Special

elimination,

yet given.
e.g.

x^

+ y = a. x + f=b.

(1)

(2)

From

(1)

we get y

o?.
we
get
5,

Substituting this in (2),

a;

or

+ (a o^f = x-\- c? %ao? + a^ =

S',

which is an equation of the fourth degree, and insolvable by any of the methods yet employed. There are, however, several cases in which simultaneous quadratics with two unknown quantities may be solved by
the rules of quadratics.

Case

1.

When

each of the equations is of the form

as?
-\- by'^

c.

In this case one of the unknown quantities may be eliminated by addition or subtraction, and then the value
.

of the other be

found by substitution.
346

TWO VNKNOWN
e.g.

qtlANTlTlBS.
%x^

247
56,
(1)

Solve the equations

^y^

248

qUADBATIO EQUATIOm
II.

5.

4a;

15

17 \^.

6.

x^^

t?/^

702.

7.

Multiply at sight ^-\-

\-

ch-^ t-\-

c,

and

ex-

press the result without fractions.

8.

Factor bx^

\Oax

+ 85a; 16aJ.
Case
2.

When one equation is of the second degree and the other of the first. All equations of this kind may be solved by finding the
value of one of the
equation,

unknown quantities from the first-degree and then substituting that value in the second-

degree equation.

The resulting equation will be a quadratic of one unknown quantity which may be solved. When the value of one unknown quantity has been found thus, the values of
the second must be found by substituting the values of the

one already found in the first-degree equation.

e.g.
1.

Solve the equations

'Sx^

2x

From

(2),

we have

= 2y. + y = l. = 7 2x.
xy

(1) (3)
(3)

Substituting this value in (1),

we get

or
.-.
.-.

(a;

Whence

a;

3x^ - x{7 - 3a;) = 3(7 - 2a;), 3x^ 7x 3a;^ = 14 4a;. 5a;2 - 3a; - 14 = 0. - 2)(5a; + 7) = 0. = 2, or x = 7/5.
-\-

Substituting these values in (3),

we get

3,

or

= + 49/5.

OF TWO UNKNOWN QUANTITIES.

Therefore:
1.

249

2,

y
7/6,
/

2.

x= -

= ^ 49/5.
'i-

Certain examples in which one equation degree and the other of the second degree
a similar way.
e.g.
2.

is

of the third

may

be solved in

Solve the equations

x^

+ y^ = 153, +y =8.
y

(1)
(2)
x.

From
By

(2),

we obtain

8
/

(3)

substituting this value of

in (1),

we

get

or
or or
.-.

x^+{8- xY = 152, x^ + 512 - 192a; + 24a;2 Mx'^

a;2

x^

152,

192

+ 360 = 0,

(a;

- 8a; + 15 = 0. - 5)(a; - 3) = 0.
5,

a;

or

a;

3.

Substituting these values of x in (2),

we get
(4)

and

+ y=8, = 3 +
5
/

8.

(5)

From
and from

(4),
(5),

we have

= 3, y ^
y
3,

Therefore

a;

=
X

5 or

and
3.

3 or

5.

1.

2.

= x=3, y =
5,

5.

250

qUADBATIO BquATiom
EXERCISE CIX.

Solve the following equations

I.

1.

3.

3a;' xy = %y, 2x + y = 7. = 2,
a;
/

2.

-\-

xy
^.

x^

-\-

= ^, 34. = xy y^ =
y

11,

OP TWO UNKNOWN QUANTITIES.

The
equations

25l

y = a,
xy=
b,

are symmetrical except in their signs.

When
first,

the given equations are symmetrical in x

is

and

y,

and one of them

they

of the second degree

and

the other of the

may

he solved

as

to

obtain the values of x-\- y

by combining them in such a way and x y.

e.g.

Solve the equations x-\- y

= 1, xy=-&.
l.

(1) (2)
(3)

Squaring

(1),

we have

x^

+ %xy -\-y^
2xy -f
2/^

Subtracting 4 times (3) from (3), we get

x^

= 35,

which

is

the square

oix

y.

Extracting the square root of eaph member,

y=

5.

(4)

Adding

(4) to (1),

we have
2x
a;

=& =3

or or

4. - 2.
6.

Subtracting (4) from (1),

we have

1.

.-.

3.

= 4 or y = - 2 or =-2. x=d, x=~2, y = 3.

2y
2/

3.

This method
terms.
e.g.

may

be used in

many

cases

when the equa-

tions are symmetrical except with respect to the signs of the

Solve the equations x^

-\-

= 65, -y =-3.
y^

(1)
(2)

252

qUADBATIG EQUATIONS
2,

Multiply (1) by
the result

and subtract the square

of (2)

from

%x^
z^ x>

"Hy^

130

2xy

-)- /^

+ 2xy +

2/2

= =

121

OF TWO UNKNOWN QUANTITIES.

Add
(4) to (3),

253

and we get
x^

%xy

-\-

y^

= 1.
(5)

.:

x-y=l.
and we get
2x

Add

(5) to (3),

.-.

a;

= =
= =

10
5

or or

8. 4.

Subtract (5) from (3), and

2/
..
/

we get
10.
5.
/

or or

1.
.-.

3.

a;

X = 5, = 4,

4.
5.

In solving examples under this

mind
and X

that, in every instance,

case, it must be borne in we must combine the given

equations in such a

way

as to obtain the values ot

-\-

y.
Solve the equations x^
-\-

e.g.

y^

13,
6.

(1)

xy=^
Multiply (3) by
subtract
it

(3)

3,

from

(1),

and add the and we get

result to (1),

and

also

x^

+ 2xy + y^ = 35,

and

x^

and

And

254
Therefore:

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
1.
a;

2. 3.

CB

= 3, = 2,
-Z,

y
y

=^ = 3.
-Z.
-'i,.

X- -% y= x= y=

4.

A few
degree
e.g.

examples in which both equations are of the third

be solved by the methods of this case.
Solve the equations x^

may
1.

y^ = 26, x^y xy^ = 6.

(1) (2)
(1),

Multiply (2) by 3 and subtract the result from

and

we get
a^

- 3x^y + 3xy^ - y^ =
(3),

8.

(3)

Extract the cube root of

and we get
(4)

x-y = 2.
Divide (2) by
(4),

and we get
3.

xy

(5)

From

(4)
.

and
.

(5),

we

get

a; -|- /

4.

(6)

2x=Q

or

2,

and

OF TWO UNKNOWN QUANTITIES.

3.

255

x^

6.

7.

9.

11.

y= xy 18, = 11. ci?-f = 279, y^ = x^ xy a^- = 152, = 2.

X
4:.

+ y^ = 29, + y = 7. x> + y^ = 36,

x
a; /

4.

x
6.

8.

10.

-\-

-\-

93.
12.

2/3

a;

y = 6. xy = ~ 72, = 18. ^8 _ 152^ x^ xy y^ =^ + = 637, + ^ = 13.

X
a; 2/

+ f= 58, + y = 10. x^ + y^ = 68,

a?

a;3 _|_

-\-

19.

a;3
a;

2/'

II.

IS.

x^-\-y^
a;'y

243,

14.

a?-y^=
x'y

386,
126.

^2/^

162.

xy^ =

15.

s?-y^=
a;2/(a;
a;2
a;/

Qa?b

16.

P). + + = 7fl^ - 13aJ + 7b\ a?-xy + y^ = 3a^- 3ai + Zb\

2b{a^
2/^

y) =

2^>^

Case

4.

An
its

expression
is

is

said to be homogeneous

when each

of

same degree. Certain equations which are of the form : a homogeneous expression in x and y of the second degree equals a constant,
terms
of the
.

be solved by the methods of cases 1 and 3. When such equations can be solved by neither of these methods,

may

they
for

may be

solved by putting
x,

= mx,
2xy

and

solving, first

TO,

then for

and

finally for y.
a;^

e.g.

Solve the equations

8.

(1)

Putting y
x^

mx, we have

Imx^

8,

or

x^

=
2to

-,

(3) '
^

256

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

OF TWO UNKNOWN QUANTITIES.

EXERCISE CXI.
Solve the following equations
I.

257

3?

+ Zxy = 38,

2.

3?

+ xy-^ If' = 74,

xy

4:y^

8.

258

qUADBATIC EQUATIONS.

and twice the square of the second shall together equal 33, and the square of the second and three times the product of the two shall equal 37.
II.

Find two numbers such that three times the square and the square of the larger shall together equal 7, and the square of the smaller shall be 7 less than
8.

of the smaller

four times the product of the two.

A man bought 8 cows and 5 sheep for 355 dollars. 9. He bought 3 more sheep for 39 dollars than cows for 300 dollars. What was the price of each ?
composed of two digits. If its digits new and original numbers will be 44, and their product 403. What are the numbers ?
10.

A number

is

be inverted, the

sum

of the

,,

...

U.
12.

Multiply a

+
,

ab
b

by *
'

ab a-\-b'

Factor

13a;^

ixy

9a;y

6^'.

13.

Reduce

-^n-^ -\--o~^^ ^ single negative fraction.

14.

Simplify (1/135)-V3.

15. 16.

Multiply 4/4 by VS.

Express the following without fractional or nega-

tive indices

17.

Eationalize the denominator of

- 5V^ - 3V^'

CHAPTER

XXI.

ECfDBTERMINATE EQUATIONS OP THE FIRST DEGREE.

176. Indeterminate

Equations.
of

Equations
independent

are

inde-

terminate

when

the

number

equations

given

is less

than that of the unknown quantities which

Eor when such equations are solved for any one of their letters, the value obtained will contain constants and one or more of the letters which represent the
they contain.
other

unknown
will

quantities.

H-ence the value of the letter

found
letters.

vary with the value assigned to the other

Thus,
as

if 3a;

5?/

8,

a;

=4

5/2y, and y

may
y

take
will

many

values as

we

please,

arid to every value of

correspond a single value of x; and, conversely, to every

value of X will correspond a single value of y.

Unless

some

restrictions be placed

quantities,

on the values of the unknown the equation may be satisfied in an indefinite

number
If,

of ways.

unknown quantities are n equations may suffice to determine the values of more than n unknown quantities. In the present chapter we shall consider only indeterhowever, the values of the
to

subject

any

restriction,

minate equations of the

the

first

degree in which the values of

unknown

quantities are restricted to positive integers.

177. Solution of Indeterminate Equations of the First

Degree in z and
z and y

y.

Every equation
to

of the first degree in

may be reduced

the form ax

iy =
859

c,

in

260
which
a,
I,

INDMTEBMINATE EQUATIONS
and
c are positive integers,

and have no comsolved for positive

mon

factor.

The form ax-^hy

integers ; for
if a, i, x,

= c cannot be
and y are

positive integers,

ax

+ ly
c,

must

also

be a positive integer.
forms, ax .'by

The remaining
commensurable.

and ax

l)y=

cannot be solved for positive integers

when a and

b are

For if x and y are positive integers, the and i must also be a factor of ax -\- ly, and therefore of c, which contradicts the hypothesis that a, b, and c have no common factor. The form ax by= c becomes by changing its signs by ax = c, which is essentially the same as ax by = c, a and b and x and y being interchanged. Hence the two type forms ax-\-by = c and ax by c are the only ones that need be considered, and those only in the cases in which a and b are prime to each other. Solve 5x 12y 263 in positive integers. Ex. Divide through by 5, the smaller coefficient, and we get

common

factor of a

+ ^+.

OF TEE FIRST DFGBEF.

that
is,

261

y 4 1 + ^ = an integer.
-J. an integer =p.

y ^ = -u y

or

4=5p

5p,
(3)

-\- 4:.

Substituting this value of y in (1),

we get

or or
.-.

a;

a;

+ lOi? + 8 + + 12^ = 43.

= i3-12p.

3i;

+ 1 = 53,
(3)

x and / will be an integer and only when p is an integer; for they will both be integers when 5p and 12p are both integers and in no other case, and 5p and 12p will be integral when p is integral and in no other case.
(2)

From

and

(3) it is evident that

integral

when p

is

From
exceeds
3,

(3) it is evident that

x will be negative when p

Hence

and y will be negative when p is negative. must be a positive integer less than 4. Hence

the only possible values of

are 0, 1, 2, 3.

Thus the

only positive integral values of x

putting in (2) and (3) jo 0, 1, The corresponding values of

following table:

and y are obtained by 2, and 3. x and y are shown in the

2/

= 0,l, 2, 3, X = 43, 31, 19, 7, = 4, 9, 14, 19.

Kote that the coefficients of p in the values of x and y in (2) and (3) are the coefficients of y and x respect-

262

INDETERMINATE EQUATIONS
and that one of the signs
is

ively in the given equation,

changed.

Hence when the given equation has the type form = c, the term in p in the value of x or y must be negative, and the integral values of p and therefore of X and y must be limited.
ax-\-ly
Ex.
2.

Solve 8x
3,

3y

38 in positive units.

Dividing by

the smaller coefficient,

we get

2x+^f~y = 9+l.
.:

2x-y +

^^^ =

9.

(1)

..

=
2a;

an integer.

Multiplying by 2 so as to
greater by one than 3,

make

the coefficient of x

=
4a;

an mteger.

-{

= an mteger.
o

^ 2 = an
5

integer

= p.

..

or

2 = 3p, x = 3p -f 2.
we get
9,

(2)

Substituting this value of x in (1),

+ ^P-y + '-%-=^ =
+ 6p-y+l + 2j = 9,

or

OF THE FIRST BEGBBB.

or
--

263

8p

= 4.
/

y^^p-4..
and
(3)

(3)

From

(2)

we

see that j?

may

be any positive

integer except zero.

When
and
In
(3),

^
a;

2/

= = =

1, 3, 3, etc., 5, 8, 11, etc.,

*' 1^' ^0' stc.

this case the term in p is and the number of solutions

positive in both (3)

is

and

unlimited.

This will

be the case always

when

the equation has the type form

ax

by

c.

178. Solution of Indeterminate EcLuations of the First

Degree in

x, y,

and

z.

To

solve two equations in three

first

unknown

quantities for positive integers:

eliminate

one of the unknown quantities so as to get one equation in two unknown quantities; then solve this for positive integers and obtain the value of each of the two unknown

p and constants; and finally subtwo values in one of the original equations to find the value of the third unknown quantity in terms of m and a constant, observe what values of p will make each
quantities in terms of
stitute these

of these three positive integers,

and find the corresponding

quantities.

values of eacli of the

e.g.

unknown

Solve

2a;

3?/
/

5a;for positive integers.

= 8, + 42 = 21,
52

(1)

Eliminating y by addition, we get

17a;

+72 = 55.

(2)

264

INDBTEBMINAm EQUATtONS
,

3a;

or

2x-\- z-\

=
6

7.

3a;
-

- =
s
6
152;

integer.

30

-o

^ = integer.
.

. .

2a;

-|

integer.

^
.%

2 s = integer =^.

.-.

a;-2
a;

7i?,

or

7^

+ 2.
we
get

(3)

Substituting this value of x in (2),

119j9

or .%
.-.

+ 34 + 7 = 55, = 21. 119p + 17^3 + 2 = 3.

72;

= 3-17^3.
we get

(4)

Substituting (3) and (4) in (1),

or

35p+10-y + U- 68iJ = 21, 33;? y = 1,

y

= l- 33^7.
make
z

(5)

The only value

is 0.

of p that can

a positive integer

Substitute this value in (3), (4), and (5), and

we get

and

= 2, y = h = 3.
a;

OF THE FIRST DEOBEK

EXERCISE

265

CXIII.

Solve the following equations in positive integers:

I.

1.

7a;

+ Ihy =
2y

59.

2.

3.

7x+

100.

4.

+ 13/ = 138. 13a; + 17/ = 200.

8x
in positive integers of

Find the number of solutions

11a;

15y

1031.

Solve the following equations in positive integers

6.

ex+7y-\-4:Z
11a;

122, 145.

7.

12a;

+8y -ez =

II.

- Uy + iz = 22,

4a;

5y

2=17.

8.

20a; 3y+
23a;

21y
42

= 38, = 34.

9.

7x

+ iy + 19z = 84.

10.

+ 17y + II2 = 130.

integral solutions

Find the general

equations
11.

of the

following

7a;

13y

= 15.

12.

9a;

lly

= 4. =
100.

Solve in least positive integers

13.

119a;

105y

= 217.

14.

49a;

69/

of

How can a length of 4 feet be measured by means 15. two measures, one 7 inches long and the other 13 inches
16.

long?
can 45 pounds be exactly measured by means of 4-pound and 7-pound weights ?
17.

How
In

how many
fifty-

be paid with

different ways can the sum of and twenty-cent pieces ?

$3.

90

266

INBBTBBMINATB BQUATIONS.

In how many different ways can the sum of $5.10 18. be paid with half-dollars, quarter-dollars, and dimes, the

whole payment to be made with twenty pieces

19.

calves for 160 dollars.

farmer purchased a number of pigs, sheep, and The pigs cost 3 dollars each, the

sheep 4 dollars each, and the calves 7 dollars each ; and the

number

of calves

was equal

to the

sheep together.
20.

How many

of each did he

number of buy ?

pigs and

Find the

least multiples of

33 and 15 which

differ

by

2.
21.

Find two fractions whose denominators

and 5 and whose sum
113
shall

shall

be

respectively 9

be

CHAPTER

XXII.

INEQUALITIES.
179. Definition of Greater and Less ftuantities.

One

quantity

is

said to be greater than another when the remainfirst is

der obtained by subtracting the second from the

positive J

and one quantity

first is

is

said to be less than another

when

the remainder obtained by subtracting the second

negative.

from the N.B.

trary

Throughout
5 is a b

the present chapter every letter

is

supposed to denote a real positive quantity, unless the conis stated. is

In accordance with the definition just given a

greater

than h when
greater than
ft

ft

positive, and, conversely,

b,

is

positive.

Also, a

is less

when a is than b when

5 is negative, and,, conversely, when a is less than b, 5 is negative. Thus 3 is greater than 3 because 2 ( 3), or 5, is positive; also 2 is greater than 3 Again, 2 is because 2 ( 3), or 1, is positive. 2 1, or 3, is negative; and 4 less than.l because is less than 2 because 4 ( 2), or 2, is negaft

tive.

as greater than

According to this definition zero must any negative quantity.

180. Inequalities.

also be regarded

ment

of the fact that one of

the other.

is an algebraic statetwo expressions is greater than The two expressions compared are connected

An inequality

together by the sign

>, "greater than,"

or

<, "less than,"

267

268

INEQUALITIES.

the open end of the symbol always being directed towards the larger

member

of the inequality.

more inequalities are said to be in the same sense, or of the same species, when the first member of each is the greater or the less, and two inequalities are said to be
or
in the opposite sense, or of the opposite species,
first

Two

when the
is

member
less.

of the one

is

the greater, and of the other

the

Thus a
But a

sense, or of the

>

and c > d are two inequalities in the same same species. So also are m<n and p<q. and c < d, or m < 7i and q are inequalities

>

p>

in the opposite sense, or of opposite species.

rules for inequalities diifer in some refrom those for equations. They are based upon certain elementary theorems of inequality which are readily deduced from the axioms of equality. Theoeem I. If equals be added to unequals, the sum will be unequal in the same sense. Let a > b, and let their difference be denoted by r.

The working

spects

Then
a

= =
>

-{- r.

Adding x

to each

member

of this equation,

we

get

a-\-x
..

i-{-x-\-r.
b
-{-

-\-

X.

Theorem II. If equals be taken from unequals, the remainders will be unequal in the same sense. Let a > b, and let their difference be denoted by r.
Then
a

=
=
>

-\- r.

Subtracting x from each

get

member
{b b

of this equation,

we

a
..

X X

x) X.

-\- r.

INEQ UALITIE8.
Cob.

269
follows that

Prom

these two theorems

it

we have

the right to add equals to the members of an inequality,

and

to subtract equals

from the members

of

an inequality,

without altering the sign of inequality.

Also, that we have the right to transfer a term

from one
its signs.

member of an

inequality to the other by changing

without altering the sign of inequality.

Thboeem
Let

III.

If unequals be subtracted from equals,

let their difference

the remainders will be unequal in the reverse sense.

a>

b,

and

be denoted by

r.

Then
a
Subtracting each
get

-\- r.

member

of this equation

from

x,

we

.-.

a=X X a <x
X

{b
b.

-{-

r)

= {x

b)

r.

Cob.

If

= 0,

we would have

a<

when we

reverse the signs of an inequality,

b. Hence we must also

reverse the sign of inequality.

Thbobem

IV.

If unequals

be multiplied

by equals, the

products will be unequal in the same sense. b, and let their difference be denoted by Let

a>

r.

Then
a

= b-\-r.
x,

Multiplying both members of this equation by

we

get

ax
.

= bx-\- rx.
bx.

ax>

Thbobem V.
Put

If unequals

be

divided by equals, the

quotients will be unequal in the same sense.

= b -\-r d& heretofore.

270
Dividing each

INEQUALITIES.

member
a

of this equation

by

x,

we

get

_&
X
h

r
x'

X
a

CoE. From Theorems IV and V it follows that we have the right to multiply-or divide both members of an inequality by the same positive quantity without altering
the sign of inequality.
If,

however, both members of an inequality be multi-

plied or divided

by a negative quantity, the signs of both

This reversal of signs
is

members

will be reversed.

equiv-

and therefore it reverses the character of the inequality. Hence, on such multiplication, the sign of inequality must be reversed.
alent to an interchange of the members,

Theoeem
Put

VI.

If equals

be divided

by unequals, the

quotients will be unequal in the opposite sense.

as before

= b-\-r.
bx
-\-

Dividing x by each member of this equation, we get

X a
"^

+ r ~ b{b +

ix

r)

rx

r)

rx

b{b

+
r) r)

_ x{b ~ b{b +
-\-

~ b{b +
r)"

rx

r)

_x

rx

~b~ b(b +
a

Theoeem
be

VII.

If. ttvo

inequalities of the

same

species

added
Let

together, the results will be

unequal in the same

sense.

a>

and

c>

d.

INEQUALITIES.
Put a =-i -\- r, and c = ^ Then, by addition of equals,
a-\-c
.

271

s.

= b-\-d-\-r-{-s.
b
-\-

a-{-

c>

d.

NoTE.^

By subtraction we would get

s; cannot infer whether a c> b
a

c i

d-\-r

from which we a c <b d.

\i r

d, ov

>

s,

c>

d; but

ii

<

s,

c<b

d.

ties of

Hence addition of corresponding members the same species without changing the
is

of inequali-

sign of in-

equality

always admissible, but not subtraction.

Ji

CoE.

a a

>
-\-

b,

c
-\-

>

d, e

e -\-

> f, etc., then etc. > b -\- d-\-f -{-

etc.

Theoeem

VIII.

be multiplied together,

If two inequalities of the same species tJie results will be unequal in the

same sense. Let a> b, and > d. Put a = b -\- r, and c = d -\- s. Then, by the multiplication of equals,
ac

{b

-]-

r){d
.

-\-

s)

=
>

bd
bd.

-\-

bs

-\-

dr

-\-

rs.

ac

OoE.

1.

li

>
c
.

b,

c>
.

d, e

>f
b
.

etc.,
.

then

a
Cor.
OoE.
2.
3.

e
b, b,

etc.

>

etc.

If
If

a a

> >

then a" then

a""'

> S. < ^i"".

EXERCISE CXIV.
1.

For what values

of x

is

16

\Qx

272

INEQUALITIES.
5,

Multiplying both members by

25a;

we

get

.-.

16

<
<

10a;

+ 30.

By

transposition,

1 5a;

46.

a;<3^.
all

This inequality holds for

2.

values of x less than

S^'g

For what values

of

x and y are
27,

ix-\-dy>
3a;

4/

29

Multiplying both members of the inequality by 4, and

of the equation

by

3,

we

get

16a;+12/> 108;
9a;

+ 12/=
7a;

87; 21;
3.

.-.

>

.-.

x>

Multiplying both members of the inequality by

of the equation

3,

and

by

4,

we
12a;

get

+
-\-

9/

>

81;

VHx

lioy

116;
35.

- 7y> .-.

7y<35.

.:

y<5.

Hence the values are all of those of x greater than 3, and of y less than 5, which make 3x -\-4=y = 29. N.B. The values of x and y obtained as above are That is, they are the values called the limits of x and y. which bound the possible values which x and y can have under the given conditions.

INEQ UALITIE8.
Find the
3.

273

limits of

x in the following cases

(3a;

(4a; (3a;

4.

+ %f - 39 > + 3)(8 - 4). - 3) + 3) > - 4) + 5) + 58.

(4a;
(3a; (6a;
3a;

6.

When

>

13

>

35

5a;,

and

4a;

13

>

6a;

- 31.

Find the
6.

limits of

x and y in the following case

dx-\-ty
X

46,
I.

=-

181.
tities are

Type Forms.

Inequalities among algebraic quan-

usually established by reference to certain stand-

ard forms.

The
For

following
all

is

a very important standard form

values of x and y except equality,

3?
-\- y"^

>

2xy.

(A)

Proof. {x yY
.

is

essentially positive

and hence

>

0.

.
.

x^ x^

+
-{-

y'^

>

2xy
2xy.

>

0.

y^

e.g.

The sum

of a

Let X denote the number.

number and its reciprocal Then will

is

>

3.

a;+i >3.
X
Multiplying both members by
a;2

x,

we get

-f 1

or

a;^

> P>

3a;,

3a;

1.

That

is,

the

first

inequality

is

true

if

the last

is.

But

we know that the last is true by reference to standard (A). Hence we infer that the first is also true. Theorem I. The product of two positive quantities whose sum is constant is greatest when the quantities are
equal.

274

inequalities:

Denote the two quantities by a

whatever value be assigned to
will be 2a,
x,

a;

and a

x.

Then,
the
the

the
a?

sum

of the quantities

and

their

product

product will be greatest when x

quantities are equal.
If

x". Evidently when 0; that

is,

a and h be two unequal quantities, the two halveti of their sum would be two equal quantities whose sum would Hence be the same as that of a and b. a
-\-

a 4- b

fa

+
b

iy

or
-:

+ ~
a

>

,/-7-

Vab.

a+b>

ZVaf.

(B)

Theoeem
tities

II.

quantities tvhose

sum

The product of any number of positive is constant is greatest when the quan-

are all equal.

if any two of the factors are unequal, their product would be increased by making them equal without changing their sum. This would necessarily increase the whole

For,

product without altering the sum of the factors.

ing the wth parts of their

n quantities be unequal, by taksum we should obtain n equal quantities whose sum would be the same as that of the n unequal quantities. Hence
It a, b,
c,
. . .
.

up

to

/a

-\-

-\-

-\-

-j

Y>
>

abc

or

a+b+c+
z

\^abc

+ b + c-\-

.> n Vabc

...

(0)

INEQUALITIES.
e.g.

275

+ >
52

3a5,
c^

and
in all cases

a^ -{- b^

-{

>

Zdbc,

when

a,

1),

and

c are positive

and unequal.

EXERCISE CXV.
X.

1.

For what value

that for
all

of x

would

16a;^ -j-

35

= 40a; ?
is

Show
2.

other values (Ax,

16a;^

+ 35 > 40a;.

Show

that for no positive integral value of x

3.

Show

that for no positive value of a can

(3a
4.
s.

+ 3J)(3a -

U) <

4J(6a

55).

Show
Show

that (ab
that

+ xy){ax + Jy) > 4a5a;y. {h + c)(c + a) (a + 5) > 8ffJc.

II.

6.

If
If
-\-

c?-^W=\, and a;2+^2=l, show that ax-\rly<\.

a

7.

+ 52 + =
c^
-\-

1,

and

a;^

t/^

+ =
z^

1,

show

that ax
8.

by

cz

<
ffl*

1.
z^a;)

Show Show

that {x^y

9.

that

+ y^2 + (a;/^+ /2^+2a;^) > + 5* > ^J + ^^ except when

9a;^t/^2^.

a and

b are equal.
10.

Show

that a*

+ > a=6 + aJ^

5*

except

when a and

S are equal.

CHAPTEE

XXIII.

RATIO AND PROPORTION.

A.

RATIO.

182. Definition of Ratio.

relation

The

which one quantity bears

to another of the

term ratio denotes the same

kind in magnitude. The magnitude of one number compared with another is ascertained by dividing the number by the one with which it is compared. When the number is a multiple of the one with which
it is

compared

its ratio

to

it

may

be expressed by an inte-

ger, otherwise the ratio

may

be expressed by a mixed

num-

ber or a fraction.
e.g.

The
3
-f-

ratio of

12 to 4
;

13

-=-

3; the ratio of 3

to 5

13/4 or 3^. 3/5 the ratio of 13 to 4 The ratio of one number to another might be defined
5

as the

number by which
first.

the second

must be multiplied
to produce 20.

to

produce the
e.g.

must be multiplied by 4
is 4.

There3.

fore the ratio of 20 to 5

Again, 5 must be multiplied by 3/5 to produce

Therefore the ratio of 3 to 5
to a second
is

3/5.

183. Expression of a Ratio.

The

ratio of

one number

may be

expressed either by writing the numbers

in the

form

of a fraction with the first

merator, or by writing the second

number as the nunumber after the first

376

with a colon between.


BATia.
e.g.

277
expressed thus:

The

ratio of 2 to 3

may be

|,
184.
is

or

3:3.

The Terms

of a Ratio.

The

first

term of a ratio

usually called the antecedent, and the second term the

consequent.

When
fraction,

either

term of a
it

ratio is a surd the ratio

cannot

be expressed exactly either by an integer or by a rational

though

may

of approximation,

be expressed to any required degree by carrying out the extraction of the

indicated root to a sufficient

e.g.

number
-/S

of places.

The
by any

ratio of the

to

4 cannot be expressed

exactly

rational integer or fraction.

Thus,

4^=^-^^^";^--- ^.559017...
4
4

tion

By carrying the decimals may be obtained.

185. Kinds of Ratios.

further a closer approxima-

When the antecedent of a

is

ratio

is

equal to
is

its

consequent, the value of the ratio

one,

and

the ratio

said to be a ratio of equality ;

when

the ante-

cedent
is

is

greater than the consequent, the value of the ratio

greater than one,

and the

ratio is said to be a ratio of

greater inequality ; and

when

the antecedent
is less

is

less

than

the consequent, the value of the ratio the ratio

is

than one, and

said to be a ratio of less inequality.

186. Ratio of Ec[uimultiples

and Submultiples.

Since

-, = ma ' mb mb' b

two numbers have the same

ratio as their equi

multiples,

Also, since

'

-^

>

two numbers have the same

ratio as their equi-submultiples, equi-submultiples being the

278

BATIO AND PROPORTION.

more numbers by the

quotients obtained by dividing two or

same number.
187. Theorem I. If the consequent of a ratio of greater inequality he positive, the ratio will be diminished

hy adding the same positive quantity to both of its terms, and increased by subtracting the same positive quantity
{less

than the conseque?it) from both of its terms.

Let b be positive and

a-\-x x b
a
b
b,

a>
-\-

Qi

b,

then will
a{b
x)
-{-

b -\-x

=-. <b

For

_ ~

b{a

x)

x)

b{b

_ x{b ~ b{b +
a-\-x b -{- X

a)

xY

Now
b
7,

since a,
J!

and x are
x(b
b{b
,

positive
,.

by hypothesis and
.

^ <

a,

ithe traction
4.1,

a)
,

;,

{ is

negative.

-{-

x)

^i

<a
b

5-.

But, since a
5

X X > 5,
a
b
I.-

a
b

x{a
b{b

b) x)'

5 is positive,

and since x <b,

a
..

a;

is positive.

TT

Hence r\ the

^(.cc

traction

b{b

^h

b) f x) is positive. ^
.

...

X a X > t-b

188. Theorem II. If the consequent of a ratio of less inequality be positive, the ratio will be increased by adding
the same positive quantity to both of its terms, and diminished by subtracting the same positive quantity {less than the consequent)

from

both of its terms.

Let b be positive and a ^

a

<

ft

Ii.i

O"

/T

b,

then will

,
,

-\-

^, >b

and

X a T^^x^r
Prove these cases in the same manner as those of the

last section.

PROPORTION.
189.

2^9
the antecedents and
ratios are multiplied

Compound

Ratios.

When

also the consequents of

two or more

together the ratios are said to be cotnpounded, and the ratio

of the products
is

called the
:

nents.
c
:

Thus, ac
a ratio

bd

is

the

compound ratio of its compocompound ratio ol a -.1 and

itself its

d.

When
original.

is

compounded with
is
:

terms are

squared, and the result

called the duplicate ratio of the

Thus, a^
:

b^ is

the duplicate of a

b.
:

Similarly a^

b^ is called

the triplicate ratio of a

b.

B.

PROPOKTION.

190. Definition of Proportion.

Pour abstract
is

numbers

are said to he proportional, or to form a proportion,

when

the ratio of the

first to

the second
it

equal to that of the

c
:

third to the fourth.

tities a, b,
c,

Thus,

d,

the four quan-

and d form a proportion, which may be written in any one of the following ways
a
b

d,

-;,

or

d.

and last terms of a proportion are called the and the second and third terms, the mean.?. Thus, in the above proportion a and d are the extremes, and b and c the means.
first

The

extremes,

If a, b,

c,

d,

e,

etc., are

such that

a:b^b: c^c: d^

e,

then

a, b, c, d, e are said to

be in continued propor-

tion. If three quantities, a, b, c, are in

continued proportion,
be a mea^i proportional
c are said to

^^l between a and c. If a b^ b

so that a
-.b
:

c,

then

b is said to

d,

then b and

be two

mean

proportionals between a and d, and so on.

191. Test of the Equality of

Two

Ratios.

Since

280
ratio
is

RATIO AND PROPORTION.

virtually a fraction,

we
if,

test the equality of

two

ratios

in the

same way that we

test

the equality of two fractions.

Two

fractions are equal

on reduction to a

common
Thus,

denominator, the resulting numerators are equal.

a
take the two fractions
-^

and

-r,

reduce them to a

common

donominator, and we have

fractions will be equal
tities
first

^-^

od

and

M
^-^

These resulting

when ad

a, h, c,

are proportional
is

be. Hence the four quanwhen the product of the

and fourth

equal to the product of the second and

if

third ; and, conversely,

?,

then ad

be.

product of the extremes is eqiial This is the great numerical to the product of the means. law of proportions.
the

In any proportion

192. Permutations of Proportions. of the terms of a proportion

is

Any

interchange

permissible which does not

destroy the equality of the product of the extremes and

means.
If

The

various interchanges of the terms of a pro-

portion are called permutations.

we

write the four terms of a proportion in the four

corners formed by two lines which cross at right angles, so

that the
first ratio shall

right, the

be at the left and the second at the two antecedents will be at the top and the two

consequents at the bottom, and the .extremes will be in one

pair of opposite comers and the

means in the
first ratio

other.

Thus
sec-

a
in the form
b

ffl

is

the

and

d the

ond

a and
;

c are the

antecedents and b and d the consec

quents

a and d are the extremes and b and

letters

the means.

a and d and b and c, which stand in opposite corners in the above form, may be called the opposites of a
proportion, and

The

we may make the general statement

that

PROPORTION.
The terms of a proportion

281
any
order,

may

he written in

provided the opposite^ remain the same.

An

interchange of antecedent and consequent in each

ratio is called

an inversion, an interchange of an antecedent

is

of one ratio with the consequent of another ternation,

called

an

al-

and an interchange of one

ratio with another a

transposition.

There are seven permutations of an ordinary proportion,

so that

when four

quantities are proportional they

may

be

arranged in eight different ways.

c

id
becomes ,

Thus, by inyersion

and by mov-

ing the terms of each of these successively around to the

right each of the above
alternation.

may be changed

three

times by

Thus

282

RATIO AND PROPORTION.

Then

7 becomes, by substitution,
^ -x+l. + _ h{x+l)_ ^ = -^
to
a

Also,

will

become

{z-\- 1).

Therefore

'L^ = ^ + i = '+l.
a
a-\-l)
is
-.l

Hence
This change

c -\-

-.d.

called composition.

EXERCISE CXVI.
Prove the following cases by methods similar to the
above
1.

i -.t

=c
is

d.

This change
2.

called division.

a-\-h: a

is

b^=c-\-d:

d.

This change
3.

called composition
-\:

and

division.

4.

5.

=c d a I .a = c d a a:i c -.d^ e :/=

a
-\-

c.

-.c.

etc.,
:

then

a-\-c-\-e:b-\-d -\-f= a
is

i.

This change
6.

called addition.
:

If

=c

d,

then

ma mb =
:

nc

nd.

7.

Write the

last

proportion in eight different ways.

8.

Jia:b
It

9.

= c:d, b c d,
:

then a"

b"

and
:

then

am

bn

m = cr
:

71

= c" d". = r s,
:

ds.

PROPORTION.
10.

283

lia
la

-.b

=
:

d,

then
qh
-\:

= la md pc qd. = r s, then It a b c d, and m 11. a V^n b Vn c Vr d Vs = a Vm b Vn c W-\- d Vs.

-\-

mb pa
:

-\-

-\-

7i

-\-

EXERCISE CXVII.
Ex. Which
a*
is

the greater ratio,

b

a*

-\-

-\-

or

b*

b,

a and

each being positive

the second from the

form of a fraction, and subtract and show that the result is essentially negative. Hence the second ratio must be the greater.
Write each
ratio in tlie
first,

Thus,
a*

a*

a-\- b

- (a' + ){a - b) - {a* b ^ a (a + b){a b) _ 2a - 2a^b ~ {a + b){a- b) 2a*b 2a {a + b){a - b) 2ab{a^ - P) _ ~ {a + b){a - b) _ 2ab{a^ ab ) ~
-\-\-

)(a

+ b)

a-\-b

Now
tor

since a and b are both positive, both the numeraand the denominator of this fraction must be positive.
gi

Hence the

result obtained

by subtracting
^

7- from

^r a-\-b
fl*

4- 5*
is

negative. ^

Therefore

b* r b must be

larger than *=

a*

+ b* + b'

284

MATIO AND PROPORTION.

I.

1.

Which

is
is is

the greater ratio, 5 the greater ratio, 6

7 or 151

208
:

? ?

2.

Which Which Which

:

11 or 575

1056

8.

the greater ratio, 7 the greater

13 or 589
x*
-\-

1008

4.

is

ratio,

y^
?

-\-

y or y or

x^

y^

y,

X and y both being positive

is

6.

Which
:

the

greater

ratio,

x^

-{-

y^
?
/"

-\-

^'' y^
6.

y,

X and y both being positive

is

Which
y^
:

the

greater

ratio,

a"

x"^

^"^

y,

X and y both being positive

In one city a man assessed for 110,000 pays $72 tax, 7. and in another city a man assessed for $720 pays $4.50 Compare the rate of taxation in the two cities. tax.
8.

Two men

in 5 days. a boy.

can do in 4 days what three boys can do Compare a man's working capacity with that of

For what value of x 9. become 5 8, 6 8, 7 8, 8

:

will the ratio 5

:

a;

a;

8, 9

10.

What number added

If

to both antecedent

and con-

sequent will duplicate the ratio

3:4?

n.
5
:

a;

+7
is

is

to %{x

-\a;

14) in the duplicate ratio of

8,

what

the value of

II.

12.

Find two numbers in the

ratio of 7

12 such that

the greater exceeds the less by 275.

13.

ratio 5
14.

What number must 37 to make it equal

:

be added to each term of the

to 1
is
:

? 7a;

If

a;

2/

4,

what

the ratio of

4^

3a;

PBOPOBTION.
15. 16.

285
a;
:

If 15(3a;^ If

y^) = Ixy, what is the ratio of 3(72)2 _ 24^/2) = _ %Qxy, what is the ratio
is

of

y?
17.

What

the least integer which added to both

:

terms of the ratio 5

7
:

9 will

make

a ratio greater than

10?
194. Solution of Fractional Ec[uations.

When an equatwo fractions only, or can be expressed in the form of two fractions, its solution may be simplified by a judicious application of one or more of the following
tion consists of

principles of composition

and

division.

Let

% = %. d
a

Then
a-\- c

3.

4.

286

BATIO AND PROPORTION.

or

or

PROPORTION.
or

287

4a; =
e.g. 4.

18.

Solve

[x

l){%x

Dividing both sides by

(2a;
X
or

1
1)'

- if = (x - 3){2x - If. (2a; 3y{2x 1)^, we have X 3

or

or

288
2a;
a.

BATIO AND PROPORTION.

+1

ix-1

VABIATION.

289

remains constant, or that any two values of x and the coiTesponding values of y are in proportion.
It is a

law of Optics that the intensity of the illuminasurface varies directly as the sine of the angle

tion

upon a

which the rays from the light make with the surface. That is, the larger the sine of this angle, or the more nearly perpendicular the rays are to the surface, the more intense is the illumination. If two surfaces are held at the same distance from the light, but one so as to make the angle-sine
for the rays twice as great as for the other, the illumination of the former will be twice as intense as that of the
latter; if the surface

were held so as to make the angle-

sine three times as great, the illumination

times as intense; and so on.

the same ratio.
the angle.
196. Inverse Variation.
rectly as X, as

would be three While the illumination init

creases with the size of the angle,

does not increase in

as

Hence the illumination does not vary

When

we have

already seen, y

y varies as x, or di= mx, m being a

constant.

When y

to , y
z

is

said to vary inversely as

z.

That

is, y increases as z decreases, and vice versa, and both change at the same rate. In the case of the light, the intensity of the illumination on a surface varies with the distance of the surface from the light, the intensity becoming less as the distance becomes greater, and the intensity changes at the same rate

as the square of the distance changes.

Hence we
If

say that

the intensity of the illumination varies inversely as the square of the distance from the light.
tensity of the illumination, z the distance

y denote the infrom the light,

and

xn the intensity of the illumination at a unit distance

from the source, then y

m^
z

and y

<x

~.
z

290

BATIO AND PROPORTION.

y

When
if

= mx

1
.

or

X
.

y
,

varies directly as

x and

In the case of the light already considered, z. y denote the intensity of the illumination, x the sine of the angle which the rays make with the surface, and z the
inversely as

distance from the light, then

y= m -y

That

is,

the intensity

of the illumination varies directly as the angle-sine

and

inversely as the square of the distance.

When y

= mwx,

varies jointly as

and

x.

If 10 denotes the intensity of the source of light,

y the

intensity of the illumination on the surface, x the anglesine,

and

the distance from the source, then y

^.

Express this relation in words.

197.

The Constant

of Variation.

In

all

the cases of

variation, the constant (m)

may be determined when any

and when the conand all but one of a set of corresponding values are known, the remaining one can be calculated. e.g. 1. A oc B, and when A = 8, B = 6. What will
set of corresponding values is given;

stant

equal

when

B = M? A = mB. .: 8 = 6m. .: m = 3/4. ^ = 3/4x34 =

.-.

18.

2.

oc -=-,

and when

A=

8,

6.

What

will

equal

when

B = M?
^=m
..
.

^.

=m
.

VABIATION.
..

291

48

m.
2.

^ = 48.1 =

Z.

A
will

oc

What

BG, and when A = %, B = & and equal when 5 = 18 and C = 6 ?

C= 4.

A=m.B
.-.

G.

.-.

2 = m X 6 X 4. m = 1/12. ^ = 1/12x18x6=9.

4.

^ a5
will

--^,

and when

A=

2,

What

equal

when

5=
.

18 and
-^.

B = Q and C = C= 6
?

4.

A=m B
.'.

2
TO

= m.6.-.
4

= 4/3.
4.

.-.

^=4/3.18.1/6 =
EXERCISE CXIX.
I.

1.

when
2.

A varies as 5 is 9 ?
is

B, and when

is 6,

B is

4.

What
i,

is

if varies inversely as

iV,

and when

Mis

iVis 13.

What
3.

if when

iV^is

20

B and G jointly, and A = 3 when B=b is A when 5 is 8 and C is 3 ? ^ varies as B and inversely as G, and ^ = 4 when 4. 5=6 and C = 8. What is the value of A when .g = 18 and C = 6 ?
A
varies as

and

C=

4.

What

292
6.

RATIO AND PROPORTION.

The
area
ol'

a circle varies as the square of

is

its

radius,

aud
is

tlie

area of a circle whose radius

is

10
?

is

314.16.

What

the area of a circle whose radius

30

II.

6.

The volume
feet.
?

of a sphere varies as the

cube of

its

radius,

and the volume

is

of a sphere
is

4.188 cubic
radius
7.

What

whose radius is 1 foot is the volume of a sphere whose

5 feet

The volume of a cone of revolution varies as its and as the square of the radius of its base jointly, and the volume of a cone 7 feet high with a base whose radius is 3 feet is 66 cubic feet. Find the volume of a cone 14 feet high with, a base whose radius is 18 feet.
heiglit
8.

The volume
is

of a gas varies as the absolute tempera-

ture and inversely as the pressure

upon

it,

and when the

280 and the pressure 15 the volume of a cerWhat would be its tain mass of a gas is one cubic foot. volume were the pressure 12 and the temperature 600 ?
temperature
9.

The

distance of the offing at sea varies as the square

root of the eye above sea-level,

and the distance

is

3 miles

when when
10.

the height of the eye

is
?

6 feet.

What

is

the distance

the height

is

72 yards

The

intensity of illumination varies as the sine of

the angle which the rays

make with the

versely as the square of the distance

surface and infrom the source, and

when the
is

sine

and distance are each unity the illumination

will

40.

What

be the illumination
?

when the

sine is 3/4

and the distance 8 units

CHAPTER XXIV.
LOGARITHMS.
198. Definition of a Logarithm,
a^

In

the

expression

This y to the base a. relation is indicated also by writing x = log^ y. The base a being some fixed positive number, to every
y,
is

called the logarithm of

value of y there value of X there

is

a corresponding value of

;?,

and to every

a corresponding value of y, but these values are often incommensurable, so that they can be exis

pressed only approximately.

The logarithm
the index of
to
tlie

of a

number may be

defined in words as

poioer to ivhicli a given base must be raised

produce the number.

A.

GENEEAL PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS.

The Working Rules
a" of Logarithms,

199.

Let

Then

= m, and " = . log;., and y =

log.

From
1.

these two equations

we may deduce four imporffi^

tant theorems

WM =

^. fl=

+ !';

and
or

loga('") log(wi^O

= x-\-y; = logm + log^w.

numbers
is

That
the

is,

the logarithm of the product of two

sum

of the logarithms of the numbers.

this

Of course
it

theorem may be extended readily to the

its

product of any number of factors, and in

general form
393

would be

294

LOOABITHMS.
The logarithm of any product
is the

sum of

the loga-

rithms of
2.

its factors.

m-^ n

a'' -h-

and
or

log(m -^ n) loga(m -^n)

a = a^-^, = x y, = logm logw.

numbers
is

That
divisor.
3.

is,

the logarithm of the quotient of two

the logarithm of the dividend

minus

the logarithm of the

m^

(a^'Y

a'^,

and
or

loga(wiP)

loga(wP)

= px, = p logm.

That is, the logarithm of a power of a number is the logarithm of the number multiplied by the index of the power.
4.

mV

and
or

= a"/", = l/p x, log(mV*) log(mVp) = l/p log^m.

{a^y/P
.

That is, the logarithm of a root of a number is the logarithm of the number divided by the index of the root. These four theorems are the working rules of logarithms as applied to numbers.

From

these four theorems

we

see that addition of loga-

rithms corresponds to multiplication of numbers, subtraction of logarithms to division of numbers, the multiplication of logarithms

by numbers

to the raising of

numbers

to

powers, and the division of logarithms by numbers to the

extraction of roots of numbers.

There are no operations on logarithms which correspond to the addition and subtraction of numbers, and there is no operation on numbers in ordinary arithmetic which corresponds to the raising of logarithms to powers or to the extraction of their roots.

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF LOGARITEMS.

200. Systems of Logarithms.
of logarithms are the

295

The

general proiierties

and any positive number, rational or irrational, may be taken as a base. Certain numbers, however, offer special advantages as bases
for all bases,

same

working with logarithms and in calculating them. The is most advantageous for numerical computation is 10, and the one most advantageous for theoretical investigation is the incommensurable 2.7182818 .... The foriu

base which

mer

is

the base of the system of logarithms in

latter of the

common

use,

and the
rithms.

Napierean, or natural, system of loga-

201.

Common

Logarithms.
is

When the base of the

= 2. = 0. 10 = 1. 100 = 2. 1000 = 3.
1

sys-

tem

is

10, the 10

omitted after the abbreviation "log."

Thus, log 100 2, means that 10 must be raised to the second power to produce 100. Written in full the expression

would be

logiolOO
1
10",

= 10 = 100 = 1000 =

log
log

10^
102,
103,
etc.

log log

Whenever a number
logarithm
the
is

is

a positive integer, and

of places in the

an integral power of ten, its is equal to one less than

to the left of the deci-

number
point.

number

mal

.i-ii=io-S

296

LOGARITHMS.
is

Whenever a number is a decimal and equal to 1 divided by an integral power of 10, its logarithm is a negative integer and is equal to one more than the zeros to the right of the decimal point. Inasmuch as the logarithm of any number to base 10
of a negative
is

The logarithm of number

negative infinity.

The logarithm

imaginary.

or
is

any base greater than

increases with the

number,

it

evident from the above that the logarithm of any

is positive,

greater than one

less

and the logarithm

lies

of

number any num-

than one

is

negative; also that the logarithm of any

1

number between

and 10

between
1
is

positive decimal; that the logarithm of

positive decimal ;

tween 10 and 100 lies between and so on. It

and

2,

and 1, and is a any number beand is 1 plus a

further evident that the

logarithm of any number between

1 and .1 lies between and 1, and is 1 plus a decimal; that the logarithm of any number between .1 and .01 lies between 1 and 2, and is 2 plus a decimal; and so on.

The Characteristic and Mantissa of a Logarithm. number is composed of two parts, an integer and a decimal. The decimal part of a logarithm is incommensurable, and therefore cannot be expressed exactly. It is called the mantissa of the logarithm, and is always taken as positive. The integral part of a logarithm is positive or negative according as the number is greater or less than one. It is
202.

In

general, the logarithm of a

called the characteristic of the logarithm.

The method
sidered here.
It has

of

Its discussion is a

computing logarithms cannot be conmatter of Higher Algebra.

been found that 6742

103-8876+^

..

log 6742

3.8276 +.
lO^-^,

Now

6-7420

=
.-.

6742
log

= lO'-s^'s x 10^ = 67420 = 4.8376;

10

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS.

and
674200

297

Also,

and

= lO^-sa^s x 10^ = lO^-s^e, log 674300 = 5.8276. -- 10^ = W-W6^ 674.3 = 6743 ^ 10 = log 674.3 = 3.8376; 67.43 = 6743 H- 100 = lO^-^^ -h 10^ = W-^, log 67.43 = 1.8376,
=
6743

100

.-.

lO^-^^'^^

.-.

.-.

etc.

from the above that so long as the figures of a their arrangement are the same, the mantissa of the logarithm is the same no matter what position the group of figures may occupy in the scale of enumeration. The shifting of the group of- figures one place to the left increases the logarithm by unity, because it multiplies the number by 10, and the shifting the group of figures one place to the right diminishes the logarithm by unity, because it divides the number by 10.
see

We

number and

This property of logarithms is peculiar to the system whose base is 10, and is of very great practical importance.
203. Logarithmic Tables.

The mantissse

of the loga-

99999 have been calculated, of tables. In these tables the approximation in the mantissee is carried sometimes to four, sometimes to five, sometimes to six, and sometimes to seven
rithms of
all

numbers from and published in the form

1 to

decimal places, giving

six-place,

rise to tables of four-place, five-place,

and seven-place logarithms.

The

characteristics

of the logarithms are not given in these tables, because these

can be found by inspection of the numbers.

The following
rithms of
all

table contains the mantissas of the loga-

integers

places of decimals,

from 100 to 1000, calculated to four and from it can be found approximately
numbers.

the logarithms of

all

298

LOaARlTHMS.

COMMOK L06AEITHMS.
n

QBNEBAL PROPERTIES OF L00ARITEM8.

COMMOiT LOGAKITHMS.
n

299

300
B.
1.

LOOABITHMS.
TO FIND THE LOGARITHM OF

A NUMBER.
more than
Three

When

the

Figures.

Number

has

not

First determine the characteristic by inspection

and write

it

down.

Then look

for the first two figures of the

in the column headed n number, and at the top of

the columns for the third figure.

The

required mantissa

two figures and in the column which has the third figure at the top. This
will be in the horizontal line of the first

mantissa should be written after the characteristic already

found.

Find the logarithm of 687. is 2, and the mantissa found in the horizontal line of 68 in the left-hand column and in the column of 7 at the top is 8370. Therefore
e.g.

The

characteristic

log 687

=
is

2.8370.
negative, the
it is

When

the characteristic
it,

minus sign
the characof the tables

should be written above

teristic alone

to indicate that

which

is

negative.

The mantissee

are always positive.

Thus
log .0687

2.8370.

When the number consists

tissa is

of two figures only, the manfound in the column headed 0. Thus,

log 68

= 1.8325.

When

the

number
0.

consists of one figure only, consider

the second figure as zero, and take the mantissa from the

column headed

the horizontal line of 60 in the log 6

2.

Thus the mantissa of 6 column headed

is

found

in

0.

0.7782.

When
a

the

Number

has more than Three Figures.

When
made

of

number has more than three figures, use must be the principle that when the difference of two num-

TO FIND THE LOGARITHM OF A NUMBER.

bers
is

301

small compared with either of them, these differ-

ences are approximately proportional to the differences of

their logarithms.

This principle

is

called the Principle of

Proportional Differences.
e.g.

Find the logarithm

log 34500

of 34567.

= 4.5378 log 34600 = 4.5391 =

13

Difference of the mantissse

Thus a

difference of one unit in the third place corre-

sponds to a difference of 13 in the logarithms.

third place, but only by .67 of that unit.

But the
dif-

given number differs from 34500, not by a whole unit in the

Therefore the

ference between the logs of 34500 and 34567 will be only

.67 of 13

8.71,

which we take
log 34567

as 9, the nearest integer.

Therefore

4.5378
9

4.5387

The difference between one mantissa and the next following in the tables
is

called the tabular difference,

and the

result obtained by multiplying this by the following figures of the number considered as a decimal is called the real
difference.
It is

never necessary to use more than three of the

following figures for a multiplier, and seldom more than

two.

From

the above

the logarithm of a

ber,

Find the and the tabular

we have the following rule for finding number of more than three figures mantissa of the first three figures of the numdifference.

Multiply this tabular difference by the next two or three figtires of the number, considered as a decimal, and add the
result to the mantissa already found.

302

LOQABITHMS.
tabular difference should be taken

The
at

from the table

the
difEerence

sight.

To
last

facilitate

this

operation,

between the
first

mantissa in one horizontal line and the

given in the last column, headed D.

of the next

is

EXERCISE CXX.
Find the logarithms
1.

of the following

numbers

NUMBER HAVING A GIVEN LOGARITHM.

mantissa and the one given.
the tabular difference to two

303

Divide the real difference by

or, at

most, three places in the

quotient, annex these figures to the three already taken out,

and point
is

off

acco]'ding to the characteristic.

The

result

seldom trustworthy to even two places. It will be seen at once that this process
three figures.

is

the reverse

of that for finding the correction of the mantissa

when the

number has more than

EXERCISE CXXI.
Find the numbers which have the following
1.

logarithms-:

3.9355.
3.8845.

2.

r.5635.

3.

2.9948. 3.8340.

4.

5.

0.5982. 2.9559.

6.

7.

r.4570.

8.

9.

0.8077.
is

205. Cologarithms.

The

cologarithm of a number

the logarithm of the reciprocal of the number.

colog 987

Thus,

= \og-^ = log 1 - log iJOi = 0-2.9943 = - 2.9943.

987

To avoid the negative mantissa, the logarithm number is usually subtracted from 10 instead of 0.
Thus,
or

of the

colog 987

10

log 987,

10

2.9943

.0057.

is 10 too large. Such a logaan augmenied logarithm. The colog should be taken from the table at sight. We may begin at the left hand and take each figure from 9 till

Of course
is

this logarithm

rithm

called

we come

to the last,

which should be taken from

10,

304

LOGARITHMS.
EXERCISE CXXII.

Find the cologarithms

1.

of the following

numbers
2895.
.008.

3784.
.4365.
50.

2.

3959.

3.

4.
7.

8.

.078976.
.0008.

6.

8.

9.

.00009.

D.

AEITHMETICAL OPEEATIOIfS.

To multiply two by means of logarithms, find the logarithm of each factor, add these logarithms and then find the number which corresponds to this resulting loga206. Multiplication by Logarithms.
factors together

or

more

rithm.
e.g.

Find the product

log log

of 897, 564,

and .0078.

897

2.9538

564=2.7513

log .0078 ="3.8921

3.5962
log -13.5962

3946.4

207. Division by Logarithms.

To

divide one factor

find the logarithm

by another by means of logarithms,

that of the dividend, and then find the

of each factor, subtract the logarithm of the divisor

from
cor-

number which

responds to the logarithm thus obtained.

As
it is

in

many

practical applications

it is

necessary to per-

form both multiplication and division in the same example,

preferable in
all oases

to use the cologarithms of the

to the logarithms of the

factors of the divisor

and add these

multiplication factors.

This method is based upon the principle that to divide by a factor is equivalent to multiplying by its reciprocal. In using cologarithms it must be borne in mind tliat each

ARITHMETICAL OPERATIONS.
colog
is

305
lO's

augmented, and, therefore, that

as

many

must

be rejected from the result as there are cologs used.

e.g. ^

Find the value

of

f^ X
232

683

log 526
log 862

colog 233 colog 683

= = = =

3.7210
2.9355
7.6345

7.1656

30.4566 log-i 0.4566

2.8613.

208. Involution by Logarithms.

to a

To

raise a

number

power by means of logarithms, find the logarithm of the number, multiply it by the index of the power, and find the number which corresponds to the resulting logarithm.
e.g.

Kaise 349 to the sixth power.

log (394)"

= =

2.4683

14.8098.

log-i 16.8098

645330000000000 approximately.

209. Evolution by Logarithms.

To

find the root of a

number by means

of logarithms, take out the logarithm of

it

the number, divide

by the index of the

logarithm

root,

and find the

number which corresponds

to the resulting logarithm.

is

If the characteristic of the

negative, before
it

dividing by the index, add as

units in the index of the root,

many

tens to

as there are

and reject ten from the resultwhich would be augmented by 10. For this ing logarithm, process consists in adding and subtracting the same multie.g.

ple of 10 and then dividing by the index of the root.

Find the

fifth root of .086,

306

LOGARITHMS.
log (.086)V5

= = = =

2.9345 -H 5

(48.9345- 50)

-h 5

(48.9345-^5)- 10

=1.7869.
log-iT.7869
.6121, approximately.

EXERCISE

CXXIII.

Note. A negatiye quantity has no real logarithm. If such quantities occur in computation, they may be treated as if they were positive and then the sign of the result determined by the number of negative factors.
ber be even, the result will be positive, and
if

If this

num-

odd, negative.

it is

In arranging the logarithms and cologarithms for addition, best to place an n after each one which has been found

for a negative factor,

and then a glance

will

show whether

the resulting
e.g. *
-r,.

number should be
-,

positive or negative.

imd

the value of

,,

23

X
5

8 X - 6 60
-^r

log 23 log log

= 1.3617 8 = 0.9031w
6=:0.7782w
5

colog colog

= 9.3010 60 = 8.2218?
20.5668W

log-^

0.5658%= -3.68.

Find by logarithms the values of the following:

I.

1.

250.42

.00687.

2. 4.

7.8346

X -

.086427.

3.

9.896

12.857.

.046-32

.008764.

ARITHMETICAL OPERATIONB.
.08 7
1 8.009
''

307

6. "

9.876

.0076

.007695
(86.42)3.

X - .004 X .004

27
"

*'

3.8

X X -

82

9.

10.

(.0086)3

II.

11.

9^^'-

12.

H.
19^3.
pifQ^

13.

(-

3.278)5.

14.

15.

(.12)V5.

jg
18.

17.

(- 000874) VT.
.

f. 0009286.
43/8

19.

53/2

3^/3.

b^-'

21.

564V5 ^gg
210.

//a
.

//

22.

r r 5 ;/u;/-.

5 3.

Theoeem.
to the

The logarithm of any number

to hase
to

product of the logarithm of the number the base a by logarithm of a to base b.

b is

equal

It is required to prove log,,m

Let

logm

= X,

and

= logTO log^a. log^m = y.

.

Then
and

m= m=
a
a"/"

a"",

W.

Hence

And

= = b.

b"/''.

308

LOGARITHMS.
logja

and, similarly,

-.

log^m

= logm
= logm. ^"
,

logjffl,

or
It follows

logjm ,22
l0g,ffl

of any

from the above theorem that if the logarithm to base i is known, its logarithm to any other base a may be found by dividing the logarithm of the number to base i by the logarithm of a to base h. Find log 3 to base 7. e.g.

number

logi3
Iogio7

= 0.4771. = 0.8451.
0.4771

EXERCISE CXXIV.
Find the following logarithms
1.

logjlS.

2.

logs43.

3.

logiS.

4.

logg.OSOS.

6.

Iogi6.007008.
as

6.

logjSG.Sl.

When
spection.
e.g.

the

number can be expressed

an exact power
solved by in-

of the base, examples like the above

may be

Find the value of

128
.-.

logiel28.

logia8
8.

= =

16'/.

7/4.
9.

7,

log37a9.

loga,3125.

log,4l/4.

PART

II

ELEMENTARY

SERIES

CHAPTER XXV.
VARIABLES AND LIMITS.
211. Constants and Variables. A number which, under the conditions of the problem into which it enters, may assume any one of an unlimited number of values is
called a variable.

A
into

number which, under the

it

conditions of the problem

which

enters, has a fixed value is called a constant.

:c,

Variables are usually represented by the last letters,

y, z, etc., of the alphabet,
letters, a, I,
c,

and constants either by the

first

etc., or

by Arabic numerals.
variables

213. Functions.

Two

may
is

be so related that
said to be & func-

a change in the value of one produces a change in the value

of the other.

In this case one variable

tion of the other.

When one
relation

Thus,
that

if

of two variables is a function of the other tho between them may be expressed by an equation. X and y are functions of each other, we may s: y
a,

=
y

or z
if

= aii, "

or y
-^

Hence,

the value of one variable be assumed, the

corresponding value of the other variable

may
is

be computed.
called Ihe inis

The

variable for which values are assumed

dependent variable; and the one whose value computation, the dependmit variable.

found by

When an equation containing two variables is solved for one of them, the variable involved in the answer is regarded
as the

independent variable.
311

312

VARIABLES AND LIMITS.

Thus, in equation x
;

ay,

is

regarded as the inde-

pendent variable and in the equation y

as the independent variable.

, xis, regarded

213. limit of a Variable. value

As
it,

a variable changes,
If the variable

its

may approach some

to

constant.

can be
called

made

approach a constant

as near as

we

please without
is

ever becoming absolutely equal to

the constant

the limit of the variable.

214. Axioms.

Any

quantity, however small,

may

be

taken times enough to exceed any other fixed quantity,

however
into so

great.

Conversely, any quantity, however great,

may be divided
any

many

parts that each part shall be less than

other fixed quantity, however small.

215.
ator

Theorem
to this

and an independent
assign

may

If a fraction have a finite numervariable for its denominator, toe denominator a value so great that the
I.

value of the fraction shall be less than any assignable value. Let a be the numerator of the fraction, x its denominator,

and

any

finite value,

choose to assign.

And
make

let
it

however small, which we may n be the number of times that

a.

we must take

c to

greater than

Then

a
.

<
<

nc.

c.

Hence, by taking x greater than

n,

we

shall

have

X
216.
ator

-<

c.

Theorem

II.

and an independent

If a fraction have a finite numervariable for its denominator, we

VARIABLES AND LIMITS.

313
small that the

may

assign

to

this

denominator a value

so

value of the fraction shall exceed any assignable value.

nator,

Let a be the numerator of the fraction, x its denomiand c any finite value, however large, which we may
Let w be a number greater than c. and let b be one of them. Then
a
Divide a into

choose to assign.

parts,

= nb.

Hence,

if

we take x

less

than

b,

>

>

c.

217. Infinites. If a variable can become greater than any assigned value, however great that value may be, the
variable
is

said to increase indefinitely, or to increase with-

out limit.
a variable is conceived to have a value greater any assigned value however great, the variable is said to become infinite. Such a variable is called an An infinite is infinite number, or simply an infinite. usually denoted by the symbol oo

When

than

It

must be borne

in

mind
limit,

that this symbol denotes, not

a constant,

but a variable, which has already increased

but which
is still

beyond any assignable an indefinite increase.

capable of

If a variable can become less than 218, Infinitesimals. any assignable value, however small that value may be, the

variable
limtt.

is

^aid to decrease indefinitely, or decrease without

When

In this case the variable approaches zero as a limit. a variable which approaches zero as a limit
less

is

conceived to have a value

than any assigned value,

314
however small

VARIABLB8 AND LIMITS.

this value

may
Such

be,

the variable
variable
is

is

said to

become

infinitesimal.

called

an

An infinitesimal number, or simply au infinitesimal. infinitesimal is often denoted by the symbol 0, which in this case must be understood to represent an exceedingly small variable.

We
and

often express the relation between finite quantities

infinite

and infinitesimal quantities

as follows

=
The
since
sion

00

=0.
00 literally,

'

expression

tt

cannot be interpreted
;

we cannot

divide by absolute

nor can the expres-

be interpreted

literally, since

we cannot

find a

number so

large that the quotient obtained by dividing a

by

it shall be absolute zero.

The
writing:

expression

= oo

is

simply an abbreviated way of

zero as
its

when x approaches

limit,

then

in-

creases without limit.

is

simply an abbreviated way of writing: when a

limit,
*

X increases without
limit.

then

approaches zero as

its

219. Approach

to

a Limit.

When

a variable

ap-

proaches a limit,
1. 2. 3.

may approach it in one of three ways The variable may be always less than its limit; The variable may be always greater than its limit; The variable may be alternately greater and less
it

than

its limit.

VARIABLES AND LIMITS.

If

315
series

X represent the sum of n terms of the

is

always
If

less

than

its

limit 2.
series

X represent the sum of n terms of the

^~2"-4-8
X
is

'

always greater than

If

its

limit 2.
series

X represent the sum of n terms of the

^

2+4-8+---'
and greater than
III.
its

is

alternately less

limit 2.

220.

Theorem
and x

ever great,

he
tve

If k be any fixed quantity hoiva variable ivJiich we may make as

small as we please,
If there be

may make

the

product kz
let
it

less

than

any assignable quantity.

any smaller value of kx,
as

be denoted
please,
let

by

s.

Since

we may make x

small as

we

us put

k
.

kx

<

s,

so that 5 cannot be the

smallest value of the product.

smallest value.

Hence the product cannot have a

221.

Theorem

IV.

If

tivo

functions are equal they

must have the same limit. Assume it possible for the two functions to have Put different limits, and denote these limits by L and L
'.

= \{L~L'),
by
2s.

so that

L and L
since

'

differ
is

Now
may
be

the limit of one function, that function

made

to approach

so as to differ

from

it

by

less

316
than
it
s,

VARIABLES AND LIMITS.

and since
than

'

is

the limit of the other function, this

to

function

may be made
s.

approach

'

so as to differ

from

by

less

And

as the difEerence

between

L and

L' = %s, the functions in the above case must be unequal. But this is contrary to the hypothesis. Hence it is impossible for the functions to have different limits.

222.

Theorem V.
is

Junctions

equal

to the

The limit of the sum of several sum of their separate limits.

;

Let the functions be denoted by /(a;), f{x'), f{x!'), etc., and their limits by L, L\ L ", etc. and let the differences from their limits be denoted by i, i', i", etc. Then
f(x)

=L-i,

f{x')=.L'-i',
f{x")

= L"-i",
etc.

etc.
.-.

f{x)+f{x')+f{x")

=L
less

-\-

L'

+ L" + etc.

(i

+ Q\a. + + i" + etc.).

i'
-{-

We must now prove that i -\- i' -{- i"

than any quantity we can assign. Let h denote this quantity, which

etc.

can be made
as small as

may be

we

please;

w denote
etc.;

the

number

of the quantities

i,

i',

i",

and

denote the largest of them.

its

Since the difference between a function and

limit

may

be

made

as small as

we

please,

we may make
h.

< -,
n

or

ni

<

But

i -|-

i'
-f.-.

1"

+ etc. < m", +' + " + etc.

(/

being the largest.)

<h.

VARIABLES AND LIMITS.

Therefore L-{- L'

317

+ L" + etc.

is

the limit of

/(a;)+/(^')+/(a;")+etc.

functions

The limit of the product of two product of their separate limits. Using the notation of Theorem V, we have
223.

Theorem
is

VI.

equal

to the

f{x)xf{x')

= {L-i){L'-i) = L. L' - {Li + L'i-ii').

'

Now
small as

as

L and L
please,

are finite, Li'

-\-

can be made as

and therefore the quantity within the parenthesis may be made as small as we please. Hence

we

L. L' isfhe
CoK. CoE.
to the
1.

limit otf{x)
the

X f{x').

The limit of
equal
to the

product of any number of

is

functions

is

3.

product of their limits. The limit of any power of a function

its limits

equal

power of

when

these limits are not both

zero.

224.

Theorem
is

VII.

The limit of the quotient of two

quotient of their limits
as before,

functions

equal

to the

when

their

limits are not both zero.

Using the same notation

f{x)

we have

L-

'fix')-

L'-i'-=n

Now

the difference between

and

-j-,

h I

r,

is

L'i-LV
L'(L'-i'y

The numerator
zero as
limit.
its limit,

of this expression evidently approaches

as its

and the denominator approaches Z'^

318

VAMABLES AND

LIMITS.
its

Hence the expression as when L is not itself zero.

'

a whole has zero for

limit

225. Definition.

'I'he

expressions

denote the value of these expressions

to a.

when x becomes

equal

226.

Theorem
Lim.

VIII.
.t"

The formula
a""!
ffl

is

J =a

na'^~^

true for

all

rational values of n.

Case

I.

We

have,

When n is a positive integer. when x is different from a,

Now
will

suppose X to approach the limit

"-

a.

Then

a;"

approach the limit a"~', a;"~^ the limit "~', etc. Hence ax" ^ a^a;" ~ *, etc. will each approach the limit " - 1. That is, each term of the second member approaches
,

~ the limit "

'.

Because there are

a;"

n such

terms,

we have

Lim.

a"

=
=a

na"

Case

II.

When n

is

a positive fraction.

Suppose

n=

, p and q being whole numbers.

x"

Then

a" a

a;

a a =

Let us put, for convenience in writing,

ofl=-y,
a^
b;

VARIABLES AND LIMITS.

then
X

319

= y%
y^

5,

and
X

y"^

- l"
Ifl

ry

320

VARIABLES AND LIMITS.

Substituting for

p
X

its

value n,

we have

Lim.

J=a

= wa"~'.

Hence the formula

Lim.
is

J=o

na

true for

all

values of n, whether entire or fractiona,!,

positive or negative.

227. Definition of Series.

series is a succession of

terms formed in order according to some definite law.

228.

Theorem
Ao

IX.

The limit of

the series

+ A^x + AiX^ + AfX^ +

diminished
is

when X

is indefinitely

A^, provided

all the

coefficients

are finite

and

the coefficient of the nth

is indefinitely increased.

term
be

approaches a finite limit as n

1.

Suppose the number of terms of the

series to

infinite.

etc.,

Let h denote the greatest of the and denote the series by A^ -\- 8.
Since k
is

coefficients

Ai, A^,

the largest of the coefficients A^, A^, etc.

. .

hx-\-kx^-{- ka?
.

+ etc. > AiX + A^ + A^^ + etc

-\- koi? -\-

S
-\-

<kx-\-k':^
k3?
,

etc.

But kx

-\-

kx^

+ etc.

may

be written in the form

actual division

of the fraction of the

as

may be shown by

numerator by the denominator.

"

'^

<

- '

VARIABLES AND LIMITS.

which,

321
as

small as

when x is indefinitely diminished, can be made we please. Hence by indefinitely diminishing x, Aq can be made

to

from the series by less than any assignable quantity. Hence Ao becomes the limit of the series.
differ
3.

If

the

number

S must
theorem
229.

be

less

of terms in the series is finite, than in case 1; hence, a fortiori, the

is true.

Thboeem X.
Af,

In

the series
-\-

+ AiX + A^x^

AiX^

may make any term as large we please compared with the sum of all that follow it, and, by taking x large enough, we can make any term as large as we please compared with the sum of all that
ly talcing x small enough we
as

precede
1.

it.

ratio of this to the

The rth term of the series will be A,.x'', and the sum of all the terms that follow will be

A, + ,x-^'

+ A, + ,x'-^'+.

A,. + ,x

+ A, + ,x^+.

.
.

By

taking x small enough we can

make the denominator

and therefore the

of this last fraction as small as

we

please,

fraction itself as large as

2.

we

please.

The

ratio of the rth

term

to the

sum

of all that

precede

it will

be

JX
A,. _
la;*"

A^

-|-

A^ -s^

_i_

j_

By

taking x large enough we

may make
please,

of this last fraction as small as

we

the denominator and therefore the

fraction as large as

we

please.

322
Cob.

VARIABLES AND LIMITS.

In an expression of the form

consisting of a finite
of X,

number

of terms in descending powers

by taking x small enough we

last,
all

may

disregard

all

tlie

terms but the

disregard

and by taking x large enough we may

first.

the terms but the

230. Vanishing Fractions.

fraction
of

which assumes
is

the form

for

some particular value

called a van-

ishing fraction.

The
value
is

fraction,

this ci'itical value,

though indeterminate in form when x has has a real value. To determine this
of

to evaluate the fraction.

Sometimes for a particular value

assumes the form

x the fraction

00

which

is

also indeterminate in form.

The

values of the fractions

when they assume

these

indeterminate forms are really the limiting values of the

fractions as x
is

indefinitely increased or diminished.

of a fraction when x in both numerator and denominator is indefinitely increased or diminished may be found by Theorem X, cor.

The

limiting value

e.g. "
is

Find the limiting value

and when x
,

4a;8

_
,

g-jjS _)_
.,

of

dir" is

+ var 4 when

infinite

zero.

1. When a; = 00 every term except the first of the numerator may be disregarded, and we have as the limiting

value
4a;'

3.

When

a;

= 0,

every term except the last of the

numerator and denominator

have as the limiting value

may
7

be disregarded, and we

VARIABLES AND LIMITS.

The
limiting value
of a

323

which assumes an may be found by first removing from the numerator and denominator all common factors in x, and substituting the critical value of
fraction

indeterminate form for a critical value of x

X in the
e.g.

result.

Find the limiting value

x^

of

4:ax + 3a^ a'

X-'

when

= a. ci)(x 3a) _x %a x^ ^ax 3ff _ x^ a^ {x a){x a) x a' Put = a in this result, and we have
a;

-j-

(a;

-\-

-\-

a;

__2_ _ ~
"2a

EXERCISE CXXV.
Find the limiting values
X
of the following

a~\
a;

X
'

a~]
a;

J^oob~\

J=

0-

ax
bx

+ +
mx'

ax_+h~\

px?

-a;J=ot>. axj =
ot>.

'

px' P^)?

(2a;-3)(3-5a;) -]

a^A axj= {2x - 3)(3 z^~\ zj^g,. - 8a; + IS

0-

ga;) ']

xf

a^ X aJ=o.
"1

afi

10.

x
a:^

^+Y\

"]

324

VARIABLES AND LIMITS.

231, Discussion of Problems.

of

To discuss the
is

solution

a problem

when the answer

literal

is

to observe

between what limiting numerical values of the known elements the problem is possible, and whether any singularities or remarkable circumstances occur within these
limits.

The following
and
00

discussions will serve to

illustrate

the
of

significance of indeterminate forms of expression,

as limiting values.

and

a.

The Product of Two Quantities whose

Sum

is

Constant.
b.

Divide a into two parts whose product shall equal

Let X and
ditions.

denote the parts.

Then, by the con-

x+ y =

a.

VABIABLBS AND LIMITS.

325

Now these
their

values are imaginary

is

if

>

--

that

is, if

the

product of the two parts

greater than the square of half

sum.

Cor. The product of hvo quantities cannot be greater than the square of half their sum. Or, the product of two parts of a given quantity is
greatest tvhen those parts are Qqual.

The two

parts will be incommensurable

when

the differ-

ence between their product and the square of half their

sum

is

not a perfect square.

h.

The General Quadratic Equation.

The equation
ax^ -\-lx-\- c

when the when they are real and rational, when real and irrational, and when equal. We will now discuss some peculiarities which may arise
has been discussed already in so far as to observe
values of x become imaginary,

by the vanishing of each of the coefficients in turn. Note that c is really the coefficient of x". If c = 0, then
aj?-\-bx

= Q;
.

(1)

whence

Q,

or

a
zero

That

is,

one of the roots

is

and the other

is finite.

If J

= 0,

then

ax^-\-c-0;

(3)

whence

V~'

326
In
sign.

VARIABLES AND LIMITS.

this case the roots are equal in value

and opposite in
c

They
If

will be real or

imaginary according as a and

liave opposite signs or the

same

sign.

==

0,

then
ix-\-e

= Q;

(3)

and apparently
namely,

in this case the quadratic has

hut one

root.

7-.

But every quadratic equation has two

to discuss the values of these roots

roots,

and in order

we may

proceed as follows

Put
tions.

for X in the original equation,

and

clear of frac-

Then

VARIABLES AND LIMITS.

one root
is is

327

very large, and becomes indefinitely great as a

indefinitely diminished.

In

this

case the finite root

approaches

y- as its limit.
c.

The Problem of

the Couriers.

A and B, are travelling along the same same direction, RR', at the respective rates of m and n miles an honr. At a given hour A is at P, and B is a miles beyond him at Q. After how many hours, and how many miles beyond P, will the couriers be
Two
couriers,

road' in the

together

9.

R'
after the given time,

Let X denote the number of hours and y the number of miles beyond P.

Then

number

of miles

beyond Q;
(1) (2)

y-mx; a= nx. y
Prom
(1)

and

(2),

m
Suppose a
1.

-,

n
I.

and

am
y

mn

to be positive.

Let

m>

n.
will

overtake

In this case both x and y B to the right of P.

be positive, and

will

positive,

This corresponds with the hypothesis; for since a is is greater than n, B is ahead of A, and since is travelling faster than B.

328
3.

VARIABLES AND LIMITS.

Let

m = n.

and

In this case the values of x and y take

each becomes
other.
qo
.

am

and

This result indicates that one never would overtake the

This interpretation corresponds with the hypothesis made. For B is a miles ahead of A, and both are travelling at the same rate.
3.

Let

<, n.

In this case the values of x and y both become negative. This indicates that the couriers were together before
the given time and before they reached the point P.

This corresponds with the supposition; for

travels

and is ahead of must have overtaken

faster

A at the given time. A and have passed

He
him

therefore

before the

given time.

II.

1.

Suppose a = 0. Let m > n.

In this case the values of x and y both a=ssume the form

mn
This

0.
is

as it

should be; for since the couriers travel at

unequal rates and are together at the given hour, they

never could have been together before, nor can they be to-

gether again afterward.

As

travels faster

than B, he

must have overtaken B

3.

just at the given time.

Let

m = w.

In this case the values of x and y both assume the form

and
,

the problem becomes indeterminate.

VARIABLES AND LIMITS.

This corresponds with the given conditions;
couriers
are

329
for the
rate.

together and travelling at the

same

Hence they must have been together during all their past journey, and they must continue together for the future.
3.

Let

m<

n.

This gives the same results as 1, the only difference being that B must have overtaken A at the given time.

III.

Suppose a to be negative. 1. Let m > 71. In this case x and y are both negative, and the couriers must have been together on the road some time before the
given hour.

This corresponds with the supposition for A, being now ahead and travelling faster, must have passed B at some
;

previous point.
2.

Let

m = n.
oo for

This will again give

both x and

y,

and the prob-

lem

is

impossible.
suit the conditions of the prob-

These results evidently

lem; for

A
Let

is

now

ahead, and both are travelling at the

couriers never could have been to-

same

rate.

Hence the

gether in the past, and never can be in the future.

3.

m<

n.

In this case x and y must both be positive, and the couriers must be together at some point farther along the
road.

This also answers to the given conditions; for B is now behind at the given time, and travelling faster. Hence he

must overtake

at

some future

point.

330

VARIABLES AND LIMITS.

d.

The Problem of

the Lights.

Two

lights,

at a given distance apart.

and B, of given intensities, are situated Find the point on the line AB

where the lights give equal illumination. Let m = illumination of A at a unit's distance, a ti Xt te a a ^, __
(t,

and

= =

distance from

distance from

A A

to B,

to P, the point of equal illu-

mination.

Then a

will be the distance

from

to P.

Since the illumination at

sity of the source

varies directly as the intenits

and inversely as the square of

of

distance,

the illumination

at

')7l

will

be -^, and of

at

(a

- xy
By hypothesis
these two illuminations are to be equal.

m
:'

(a

xy
a

Whence

Vm
Vn

Vm.

X,

The double sign of the denominator gives two values for and shows that there must be two points of equal illumi-

nation.

Suppose a to be positive. 1. n. Let In this case both values of x will be positive, one and the other greater than a, and the one which is

my

less
less

than a will be greater than

since the denominator of the

VARIABLES AND LIMITS.

fraction
is less

331
of equal

than 2 Vm.

Hence the two points

;

illumination will both be on the same side of A, one be-

A and B and the other beyond B and the one between A and B will be nearer to B than to A. Evidently these results are what we ought to expect.
tween

The point

of equal illumination

between the lights ought

to be nearer the less intense light,

and the second point of

light.

illumination ought to be beyond the less intense light, so as

to be nearer to
2.
it

than to the more intense

n.
first

Let

m=

In this case the

equal to

value of x will be positive and

qo
.

and
,

the second value of x will be

That
finity.

is,

one of the points of equal illumination will be

lights,

midway between the

and the other must be

at in-

The

lights being of equal intensity, the points of equal

illumination ought to be equally distant from them, and

the only sucli points are the one half way between the two
lights
3.

and the point Let m < n.

at infinity, or

nowhere.
will be positive

In this case the

first

value of

:r

and

less

than

a.

and the second value

will be negative

and greater

than

That
between

is,

one of the points of equal illumination will be

other is nearer the less intense light, A.

II.

and B and nearer the less intense light, and the on the opposite side of A to B, so as also to be

Suppose a to be zero. 1. Let m > n.

In this case both values of x become zero, and both
illuminations become oo

332

VARIABLES AND LIMITS.

These results are on the supposition that each light is a mathematical point, which is physically impossible. Mathematical analysis does not concern itself with phyimpossibilities. Could each light be reduced to a mathematical point, the intensity of the light would become
sical

infinite at that point,

that point, both illuminations

and were the two lights together at would be equal there and

nowhere
3.

else.

Let

m <n.
would be the same
III.

The

result in this case

as in 1.

Suppose a to be negative.

The student may

discuss this case

when

my
to

n,

171

11,

and m < n. The conclusions will be similar though not identically the same.

those of

i,

CHAPTER XXVI.
THE PEOGRESSIONS.
A.

ARITHMETICAL PEOGEESSION.

232. Arithmetical Series.

increase or decrease
aritlimetical series
series is

When the terms of

A. P.

a series

by a common difference, it is called an or an arithmetical progression. This

letters

denoted by the

Each

of the following series represents an arithmetical

progression
1, 4, 7, 10, etc.

3,

a In the
first,

- 1, - 5, - 9, M, a d, a
'dd.

etc.

-\-

%d, etc.
is

the

common

difference

in the second,

4;

and

in the third,

The

general type of an A. P.
a,

is

-\-

d,

-\-

%d, a

-\-

3d, etc.,

in

which a
233.

is

the

first

term, and d the

of

common

difference.

The nth Term

Observe that the

be

coefficient of

an Arithmetical Progression. d in any term of the type

is one less than the number of the term, it being 1 in the second term, 2 in the third term, 3 in the fourth term, etc.

Hence the th term

a

of

an arithmetical progression

will

-\-

{n

l)d. 333

334

THE PROGRESSIONS.
fifteenth
is

Thus the
whose
will be
first

term

term of an arithmetical ijrogression and whose common difference is 3

(15

1)3

47.

given, the

any two terms of an arithmetical progression are common difference, and any other term, may be found by the formula for the wth term. e.g. Suppose the twelfth term of an arithmetical progression to be 36,

When

the

first

term, the

and the eighteenth term to be 12. Find common difference, and the sixth term
first

of the progression.

Let a denote the

ence.

term, and d the

common

differ-

The

twelfth term will be

+ H^j

^'Hd the eighteenth

term, a-\- ltd.

.:

a+17d=12,

and

a+lld =
d
a

36.

6f^=-24
and
Also,

4:.

= 3680

ll(-4)

=
60.

80.

Therefore the sixth term will be

+ 5(-4) =

234. Arithmetical Means.

When
A. P.,

three quantities are

is

in arithmetical progression, the second

called the ariih-

meiical

mean

of the other two.

Thus,

if a, b,

and

c are in

b is

the arithmetical

mean of a and c. By definition,

or

a = c b, %b = a b = l/2{ + c).
-\- c.

ABITiniETIGAL PB0ORE88I0N.
Hence, the arithmetioal mean of two quantities sum.
is

335
half

their

When
means

any number of quantities are in arithmetical protwo extreme terms.

of arithmetical

gression, all the intermediate terms are called arithmetic

of the

Any number
e.g.

means may be

inserted be-

tween any two given quantities.

Insert five arithmetical

We
term.

must

find

means between 12 and 36. an arithmetical progression with five terms

Therefore 36 must be the seventh

between 12 and 36.

.-.

12

+ 6^^=36.

Therefore the progression will be

12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36.

In general, to insert n terms in A. P. between a and b

proceed as follows

Denote the common difference by

d.

Then

b,

or the {n
.-.

-\-

2)th term,

is

a-{- {n-{- l)d.

b.

fl

+ {n + l)d =
b

--

{n+l)d = b-a.
,

n-\-l
Therefore the
b a
^

series is

J)

Ji

and the required means

b

are

+ ;^-T' + ^,^+i'^ + ^M^' na-\-b {n l)a + 2b {n Z)a-\- 3b ^ n+ 1 + l n + l'

'

J)

b~a

'

+ '*;rFi'
a
-\-

nb

'

+ 1'

336

THE PB00BE8ai0N8.
EXERCISE CXXVI.

1.

Find the twentieth term

of each of the following

arithmetical progressions
1. 3.
2.

7,

10, 13, etc.

2.

-2, 6, 10, etc.

30, 15, 10, etc.

4.

1/12, 1/2, 11/12, etc.

series

Find the
4, 7, 10, to
8, 6, 4, to

last

term of each of the following

2.
3, 7, 11, to 5, 8^,

1.

17 terms.

21 terms.

3. 5.

12 terms.

4.

llf, to 16 terms.

1/3,
3.

1/2,

4/3, to 25 terms.
is

is

31.
4.

The eleventh term of an A. P. What is the first term ? The seventh term
62.

51 and the sixth

of an A. P.

is

37 and the twelfth

term

is

What
What is

is

the

first

term

?
is

5.

The fourth term

the

of an A. P.

10 and the tenth

?

term

24.

common

difference
is

6.

The

sixth term of

an A. P.

5/4 and the fifteenth

?

term 11/4.
7.

What

is

the

common

difference
is

The

third term of an A. P.
is

1/2 and the thirteenth

?
is

is 2.

What
8.

the twenty-third term

is 7.

The What

seventh term of an A. P.
is

and the

fifth

term

the twelfth term

? is

9.

Which term

of the series 6, 11, 16, etc.,

of the series 7, 3,

96

10. 11.

Which term
Which term
is

of the A. P.

16a

1, - 86,

etc., is

lb,

53

15fl

Ua

6b
12.

8a

Insert twenty-two arrithmetical

means between 8

and

54.
13.

Insert eight arithmetical

means between

and

0,

ARITHMETICAL PR00BES8I0N.
14.

337

Insert

ten arithmetical means between 5a

6J

and bb
15.

6.

The sum
is

of the fourth

A. P.

40,

and the sum

difference

of the sixth

and seventh terms' of an and tenth is 60.

first

Find the common

and the

term.

is

The sum of 16. and the sum 0, The sum

the fifth and eleventh terms of an A. P.

of the third

Find the common

17.

difference

and eighth terms and the first term.

is

15.

of the fourth

A. P.
is

is

23,

and

of the second

and thirteenth terms of an and eighth is 24. What

?

the

sum

of the sixth

and twelfth terms

To find the sum of any number of 235. Problem. terms of an arithmetical progression. Let a be the first term, d the common difference, n the number of terms whose sum is required, I the last term,

and

S the

required sum.
I is

Then, since

the mth term,

l

we have

a-\-{n l)d.
. . .

.:

S^a+{a+d)+{a+2d)+
S=l+{l-d) + {l-2d)+
Adding

+{l-2d)-\-{l-d)+l,

or in reverse order,
. .
.

+{a+2d) + {a+d)+a.
to

these two equations,

I)

we obtain
I)
. . .

2S

{a + + {a + + {a + + = n{a-\-l
I)
).

n terms

S==l{a + l).
But
I

(1)

-\-

(n

l)d.

Substitute this value of

in (1),

and we get
(2)

S=

'^(jia

+ {n-l)d).

338

THE PB0QBES8I0NS.

second,

Both these formulae are important. By means of the when any three of the four quantities S, a, d, and
1.

are given, the fourth

e.g.

may be computed. Find the sum of the first thirty terms of the
3

series

+ 6+
<Z

9, etc.

Here
.

3,

3,

and n
3]

30.

30 8= [6 + 29 X

1395.
is

e.g.

2.

The sum
is

of twelve terms of an A. P.

260 and
?

the

first

term

20.

"What
260,

is

the

common
and a

difference

Here
.-.

/?=
260 260
.-.

12,

= 20.

=
=

^{iO +
240

lid),

or

+ 66d

66^=-20,

and
e.g.
3.

^=-W
How many
S.-.

terms of the series 40

their

+ 36 + 32
?

etc.

must be taken that

216,

sum may be 216

and

Here

= 40,

d= - ^
4],

216

J[80

+ (# - 1)

X -

or
.'.
--

.-.

7i

= 80w - 4w'' + in. w - 21w + 108 = 0. (w- 9)(w-ia) = o = 9 or 12.

432

The

finding of the

number

of terms

by

this

formula

in-

volves the solution of a quadratic equation in n,

and one or

ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION.
both of the values of n
imaginary.
integral ones

339

may

be negative, fractional, surd, or

the values except the positive

In these cases

all

must be rejected. When the two values of n are positive and integral, the sum of the additional terms for the greater value must be zero. In the above case the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth terms are 4, 0, 4.

EXERCISE CXXVII.
Find the sum
1.

of the following series

.
.

2.
3.

4.
5.

6.

I.

8.

+ 5 + 7 + to twenty-four terms. to twenty-two terms. 12 + llf + 14+ 3 + + 6 + to seventeen terms. 7 2 + 3 + ..to twenty terms. to seven terms. 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/6 + 5 + 6.2 + 7.4 + ... to twenty-one terms. to w terms. (w + 1) + (aw + 3) + (3 + 5) + + to n terms. ( + hf + {a^ + J2) + ( _
3
. . . .

4|-

^,)2

9.

The

fourth and thirteenth terms of

9.

an A. P. are
?

9
is

and

What

is

the
of

sum

of the first twenty terms

is

10.

77^.

The seventh term What is the sum

an A. P.

43f and the twelfth

?

of the first twenty-four terms

Find the sum II. which the least is 7.

of thirty consecutive

odd numbers

of

of

Find the sum of twenty consecutive odd numbers 12. which the greatest is 77.
13.

Insert seventeen arithmetical

find their sum.

means between 4 and

76,

and
14.

Insert forty arithmetical

means between 10 and

100, and find their sum.

'

340
16.

THE PROOBESSIONS.
Find the sum
of
all

the multiples of 7 lying

between 200 and 400.

16.

Find the sum

digits.

of all the positive multiples of 12 of

less

than four
236.

The Average Term. An A. P. of an odd number must contain a middle term, and the number of terms between the first term and this middle term must be Hence the the same as that between it and the last term. first, middle, and last terms must form an A. P., and the middle term must be half the sum of the two extreme
of terms

terms.

Since the formula

8 = -{a
of

-\- I)

may

be written

S=

n\
is

jr

1,

the

sum

an A. P. of an odd number of

terms

equal to the product of the middle term and the

of terms.
all

number

The middle term

therefore

must be the
of any

average of

the terms, or the arithmetical

it.

mean

pair of terms equally removed from

be half the

The average of all the terms of an A. P. evidently must sum of the extreme terms or their arithmetical
For the average of the
^
first

mean.

and

last is

7"
,

of

the second and next to the last

~^r' 2

"~^"
2

and
all

so on.

Hence,

if

the

number

of terms be odd, the average of

if

the terms will be the middle term, and

the

number of
be the

terms be even, the average of all the terms arithmetical mean of the two middle terms.
e.g.
is

will

1.

The

first
is

and the

last

term

term of an A. P. of seventeen terms 27. What is the sum of the terms ?

Here the middle term

and the sum

~ =

=
I

27

15,

17

15

255.

ARirnMBTIGAL PROGttESSION.
e.g.
3.
is

341

difference

number
Here

of

term of an A. P. and the middle term 3, terms and their sum.

first

The

is is

17, the

common
Find the

3,

4.

.-.

= 4 = 3?i =
4

17

+ ( - 1) 17 - 3w + 3.

x -

24.

Since 8

is

the

number

of the middle term, the whole

number

of terms

must be

15,

and

their

sum

60.

EXERCISE CXXVIII.
of

Find the sum of the twenty-one terms of an A. P. 1. which the middle term is 33.
forty-five terms of
75.
is 3,

Find the sum of 2. which the twenty-third is

3.

an A. P. of

The
?

first

term of an A. P.
is

the last term

is

is

77,

and the sum

terms
4.

of the terms

520.

What

the

number

of

The

198,

first term of an A. P. is 13, the last term is and the sum of the terms is 3069. What is the

number
5.

of the terms

A man

travels 5 miles the first day, 8 miles the sec-

ond, 11 miles the third, and so on.

At the

expiration of

a certain time he finds he has travelled at the average rate How many days did he travel ? of 18^ miles a day.
6.

pedestrian having to go 184 miles walks 30 miles

day,

the

first

his journey

and two miles was completed.

less

each subsequent day days did

it

till

How many

take

him

7.

In an A. P. the product of the sixth and eighth

terms exceeds the product of the iourtJi and tenth by 200. What is the common diHerence ?


342
8.

THE PitOORESSlONS.
In an A. P. the product of the eighth and thirteenth less than the product of the ninth and twelfth

terms

is

terms by 25.

What

is

the

common

difference ?

Two travellers start together on the same road. One 9. them travels uniformly at the rate of 10 miles a day. The other goes 8 miles the first day, and increases his speed half a mile each subsequent day. In how many days will
of

the latter overtake the former

10.

One hundred

stones are placed on the

ground in a

straight line at intervals of 5 yards.

runner has to start

from a basket 5 yards from the first stone, pick up the stones, and bring them back to the basket one by one. How far will he be obliged to travel ?

An author wished to buy up the whole edition of 11. 1000 copies of a book which he had published. He paid 20 cents for the first copy, but the price rose so that he was obliged to pay 1 cent more for each subsequent copy than
for the last.

What was he

obliged to pay for the whole

Find three numbers in A. P. the sum of whose 12. squares is 2900, and the square of whose means exceeds the product of the extremes by 100.
13.

Find four numbers

in A. P. such that the

sum

of

the squares of the extremes equals 464, and the

squares of the means equals 400.
14.

sum

of the

of the
72,

Find four numbers in A. P. such that the product means shall exceed the product of the extremes by and the sum of their squares shall equal 280.

237.
Series.

Let
and

Two Important

Series Allied to the Arithmetical

S^ denote the

sum

of the first ])owers of the

natural numbers from 1 to n, S^ denote the

squares, 83 the

sum

of their cubes.

sum Then

of their

1.

S,-^.

ARITHMBTICAL PROaRESSION.
For this is an A. P. in which the first term is term is n and the number of terms is also n.
2
.

343
1

and the

last

^ _ n{n + l)(2w + 1)

This may be proved as follows

{n

+ If = w' + Sw^ + 3to +

in turn for

1.

Writing
get

1, 3, 3, etc.,

in this identity,

we

2s 33

i3_|_3. i3_|_3. i_|_i.

+ 3. 2^ + 3. 2 + 1; 43 = 3^ + 3. 3^ + 3. 3 + 1;
==2^
etc.
etc.
.

(h

+ l)s = ^3 + 3

+3

1.

Note that we have on each

side of these equations 2', 3',

Adding common terms, we get

4^ ... to n^.

these equations and cancelling their

{w+l)3=l3+3(l^+22+32 ...+2)+3(l+2+3

.+ w)+w

=l+

3^.

+ 3^^(^) + .
g

= ,^ 3^,+
,

3w(n
3w^

2w + 2 + l) +^2

+ 5w+2
2to^

^'^2~

_ _ ~

2(

+ 1)^ _ 3w^ + 5w + 2 _ ~
2 2

+ Zn^+n
2

n{n

+ l)(2w + 1)
2

w (w

+ l)(2w+l)

344
3.

THE PROGRESSIONS.
S,

S,\
Qri^

Here

{n

+ 1)^ = w^ + 4w' +
+6 2^ + 6 33 + 6
w'

4w

1.

Writing
get

1, 2, 3, etc.j in

turn for w in this identity, we

= 1* + 4 3* = 2* + 4 4* = 3* + 4
2^
etc.

1^

12

+4 3^ + 4 3^ + 4
etc.

+1 3 + 1; 3 + 1;
1
.

+ 1)* =

+4

+6

8 -H 4

1.

Adding and
(w

cancelling as before,
4.;S',

we

get

+w + 1)^ = 1* + 4.& + 6.<^2 + = 1 + 4. + n{n + 1)(2m + 1) + 2n{n + 1) + w,

iS's

.-.

4.;S/3=(w+l)*-[n(+l)(2w+l)+3w(w+l)+m+l]

= w* + 4M=+6m2 + 4w+l-[2w=+3TO^+w+2TO2+2re+M+l] = n* + 2^3 J^n^- n\n + 1) = [n{n + 1)]^.

_._

n{n-\-iy ^ _ V = ^A

=D

B.

GEOMETKICAL PKOGEESSIOlf.

238. Geometrical Series.

Quantities
)

are said to be in
ratio of

geometrical progression (G.P.

to that

when the
it is

any term

which immediately precedes

series.

the same through-

out the

Thus each
progression

of the following series forms a geometrical

2, 4, 8, 16, etc.
1,

- 1/4,

1/16,

- 1/64,

etc.

a, ar, ar^, ar^, etc.

OEOMETRIGAL PB0GRE88I0N.

345

The constant ratio is called the common ratio, and is found by dividing any term by the one which immediately
precedes
it.

Thus, in the

first

of the above series, 2

is

the
r.

common

ratio; in the second,

1/4; and in the third,

239.

Type Form
is

of the Series.

The
. . .

type form of a

geometric series
a
-\-

ar

-\-

ar^

-\-

ar^

+ ar*

+ ar" ~

'.

It will be noticed that in this series the

exponent of r in
the last or wth

each term
If

is

one

less

than the number of the term.

of terms, and
I
'.

n denote the number

I

term, then

ar^

'

240. Geometrical Means.

When

three quantities are

is

in geometrical progression, the

middle one

called the

geometrical

mean between the

b,

other two.

Let

a,

and

be three quantities in G.P.

By

definition,

s=

5^

ac,

and

Vac.

That

is,

the geometrical

mean between two

quantities

is

equal to the square root of their product.

All the terms in a G.P. between the extremes
called geometrical means, and any

may

be

number

of such

means

may

be inserted between two terms.

ft

Let

and

be the

two terms

between which n

geometrical means are to be inserted.

The whole number

be the (w

of terms will be

n+

3,

and

b will

+ 3)th term.
ratio.

Let r be the common

b

Then
'^.

= af +

346

THE PROGRESSIONS.

a'

Ya
e.g.

Insert four geometrical

means between 234 and

Therefore

7.

In this case we must find six terms in G. P. of which

the
first is

334 and the sixth

7
.-.
r-5

is 7.

=324r=.

=
=

l/33,

and

1^1733

1/3.

Hence the means

are 113, 56, 38, 14.

EXERCISE CXXIX.
In finding the

common

ratio in a Gr.P.

it

is
is

often

necessary to extract a root of a high index, which

tedious

without the use of logarithms.

it will

In the following examples be easy to extract the required roots by inspection. Eemember that the fourth root is the square root of the
is

square root, that the sixth root

root,

the cube root of the square

is

and that the eighth root

the square root of the

square root of the square root.

1.

Insert two geometrical Insert three

means between 3 and 250.

2.

geometrical means between

and

-768.
3.

Insert four geometrical

means between 5 and 1315.

.

4.

Insert five geometrical

Insert four geometrical

means between 3 and 000193. means between 1/6 and 64/3.

5.

&EOMETBIGAL PB00BE8810N.
241. Problem.

Ml

To find the sum of n terms of a

geometrical progression.

Let

S denote

the sum, and let the series be

+ ar

-\-

ar^

-{-

348
Hence, by
cause

THE PROGBEBSIOm.
sufficiently increasing the value of n,

we may

S
,

to exceed

any value however great, and when

00

8=00.

In these two cases the geometric series, if supposed continued to an infinite number of terms, is said to be
divergent.
If r

be numerically

less

than

1,

that

is

a proper frac-

tion either positive or negative, r" decreases as

increases.

By making n
as

sufficiently large r"

may
r"

be

made
and

as small
1
a-

we

please.

When n

= oo,

= 0,

r" 1-r

becomes
1

r
is

Hence
as

the value which

increased.
series is said to

8 approaches
be convergent.

as a limit

is indefl.nitely

In this case the

The smn of an infinite series is sum of its first n terms approaches

creased.
It r

the limit to which the

as

is

indefinitely in-

1,

the series becomes

S=a a-\-a a-\-.,,.

sum of any odd number of terms is a, The sum, therefore, any even number of terms 0. does not become infinite when an infinite number of terms are taken, nor does it converge to one definite value. A series which has this property is said to oscillate, and is called an oscillating series. If a series is composed of an infinite number of terms,
In this case the
of

and

its

sum can be found

e.g.
1.

only

when

the series

is

converging.

Find the sum

of the series
to six terms.

1/3

+ 1/3 + 2/9 +

GEOMETRICAL PR0OBE88I0N.
1/2(1

349

(2/3)^)

_
665

1/2(1

64/729)

1-2/3

1/3

_ ~

1/2(665/729)
1/3

~ 486"
6

EXERCISE CXXX.
1.

Find the sum of the G.P.

Find the sum

+
-

18

+ +

54

+ +

to eight terms.
2.

of the G.P. 6

18

54

to eight terms.
3.

Sum

2 + 2i
3/4
2

3^

+ ...
.
. .

to six terms.

4.
5.

Sum
Sum Sum

1-J

+3+

to eight terms.

4+8

... to ten terms.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.
11. 18.
is

+ 6.4 + 1.8 + ... to twelve terms. 1/3 + 1/2 3/4 + ... to seven terms. Sum 8/5 - 1 + 5/8 - ... to infinity. Sum .45 + .015 + .0005 + ... to infinity. Sum 1.665 - 1.11 + .74 - ... to infinity. Sum 3 + + 3-3 + .. to infinity.
16.2

Sum

-1

3-''

The

fifth

8748.

What

term of a G. P. is 324 and the eighth term is the first term ?

There are five terms in G. P. The sum of the first 13. and second is 30, and the sum of the fourth and fifth is What are the numbers ? 1920. There are three numbers in G. P. The sum and second is 24, and of the second and third is What are the numbers ?
14.

of the

first

72.

There are three numbers in G.P. The second 15. minus the first equals 36, and the third plus the second equals 210. What are the numbers ?

350
243.

THE PB00RES8I0NS.
The Value
of Repeating Decimals.

The value of
.333+

a repeating or a recurring decimal

may be found by sum-

ming

a G.P. to infinity.

e.g. 1.

Find the value

of the repeating decimal

^^^ ^10

+ 1^ + 10^ + ---**' infinity

^^
10
2.

1/10

~ 10
1

3^

10
9

_1 ~3
.

Find the value of the circulating decimal 341.

^^i

= ro+io3(i +

41

10-^+1^-^
1

+ )
lO^^'

_^ n
1

41
I

ns

.1

1/102

_ -

99

10
2

+ 103^ 99 X 99 + 41
990

"To"*" 990
239 990'

244. Eule for Values of Recurring Decimals.

that the last answer

Note
rule for

=
r

Hence we obtain the following arithmetical

finding the value of a mixed circulating decimal

SuMrad
down
to the

the non-repeating figures

from

all the digits

end of

the first period,

and

write as a denomi-

nator as

many

9's as there are digits

in the repeating part,

followed by as

many

ciphers as there are digits in the non-

repeating part.

3/9.

Note also that the answer to the previous example = Hence we obtain the following rule for finding the

value of a pure recurring decimal

COMPOUND INTEREST AND ANNUITIES.

Write as a denominator
9's as there
to the

35l

recurring digits as

many

are digits in the period.

EXERCISE CXXXI.

Sum

the following recurring decimals as geometrical

is

and show in each case that the result agreement with the rules just given
progressions,
1.

in

352
at the

THE PB00RE88I0N8.
end of the second year the amount
?)

will be
)

P(l

+ r) + rP(l +

P(l

+ ^)(1 +

=
be

^(1

+ rf,

at the

end of the third year the amount

will

P(l
and

+ rf + rP(l + rf = P(l + r)(l + r) = P(l + rf;

end of the wth year the amount will be

at the

P(l

?-)''-i

+ rP(l + r-)"-i= + r)\

^=

+ /)"->(! + = P(l + r)"P(l

. . . .

r)

The amounts
P(l

+ r),

P(l

P{1

+ ry,

P(l

+
+

r-)",

are in geometrical progression, the first term being

P(l+r),
r.

the last term

P(l

+ r)";

and the common

ratio 1

P(l

+ r)"-

(1)

To
logs.
3.

solve this

log P, log (1

by logarithms, it is necessary to take out /)", and the antilog of the sum of these two
for-

If the interest

mula

for the

be computed semi-annually, the amount becomes

^=
and if the comes
interest be

^(i

+ ~Y;

(3)

computed

quarterly, the formula be-

^=
247. Present Worth.

^(l

+ iTa

(3)

The present worth of

sum

of

some future time without interest is the principal which put at interest for the given time would

money due

at

amount
248,

to the given sum.

pound

II. To find the present wo7-fh, at comof a fixed sum due at a future date. In formula (1), if A denotes the given sum, / the cur-

Peoblem

interest,

COMPOUND INTEREST AND ANNUITIES.

rent rate of interest, and

363

n the given number

of years, then

P will

evidently denote the present worth.

Hence

To
sum.

solve this

by logarithms,

it

is

necessary to take out

of their

the log of A, the colog of (1

?)",

and the antilog

Of
(3).

course,

if

the interest

ally or quarterly,

is to be computed semi-annumust be found from formula (3) or

249.

time of a fixed
interest.

Problem sum

III.

To find the amount at a given

invested at stated intervals at

compound
as be-

Let
fore.

P denote the fixed sum,

Then the amounts

and use A,

r,

and n

of the stated investments,

on the

supposition that they are

made

annually, will be as follow

A^ = P(l + r)", A, = P{l + ry-\ A, = P{l + ry-K A,= P(l-f r)"-3,

A^
The sum
P(l

P(l

+ /)-("-" = P(l + r).

is

of these

amounts

+ r) + P{1 + rf -f P(l + r)3 +

is

-P(l

+ rf.
first

This

a geometrical progression, of which the

term

is

P(l

+ r),

the

common

raiio (1

+ r),

and the

number

of terms n.

Hence
.

--)--- (' + -) (i ^^P(i + ,)(llr_i,p +

,,

To

solve this

by means of logarithms,

first

find

by loga-

354

THE PB00BE88I0N8

rithms the value of (1 r)" + ', from this subtract 1 find the logarithm of the result, of P, and the colog of
and, finally, the antilog of the 250. Annuities.

r,
r,

sum

of the three.

An annuity

is

a fixed

sum

of

money

payable at equal intervals of time.

If the
is

payment continue
;

called & fixed

life

annuity

for a definite time, the annuity annuity ; if only during a person's life, a and if for all time, & perpetuity.

Annuities
or at

may pay annually, semi-annually, quarterly, any other stated times, but the principles of dealing
all

with

the cases being the same,

we

shall consider only

the case of annual annuities.

251.

Problem IV.
givei}

annuity of a Let

amount payable

To find the present value of an at the end of each of n

successive years.

denote the amount of each payment,

,

the pres-

P^, etc., the present worth of the successive payments, beginning with
the
first.

ent worth of the whole annuity, and P,

Then

+ r)-', P,^A{1 + r)-\

P,

^(1

P=
Hence

J(l

+ r)-".

P = ^{j^ + ^^-^, + ....^^^|

1

L_
oo
,

In case of a perpetuity, n becomes

and

r^ be-

comes

0.

Therefore

P= r

COMPOUND INTEREST AND ANNUITIES.

355

That is, the present worth of a perpetuity is the quotient obtained by dividing the amount of the annual payment by
the interest of one dollar for one year.

252.
to

Problem V.
ivliich

run for n years

In formula (6),

To find the amount of an annuity can be purchased for a given sum

of money, the rate of compound interest being knotvn.

P
A

denotes the present value or the pur-

chase-money, and
(6),

the amount of the annuity.

From

we obtain

_ ^~
Formula
fixed annual
dollars

rP
1
(1

rPjl

"(l

+ rr + r)"-!'

,..

^''

+ r)
of

(7) is d,lso the

payment

formula for finding by what dollars an obligation of P

may

be cancelled in a given number of yearSj

r being the interest of one dollar for one year.

253.

Problem VI.
to

annuity

begin after

m years

To find the present worth of an and to continue for n years,

allowing compound interest.

By
years

(6),

the value of the annuity at the expiration of

is

All
r
\

L_V n+rYJ' + r)"

(1

and by

(4),

the present worth of this

sum due

in

m years is

(1 + ^- TI' (l-l-r)" r)"

^((l

+ r)"-l) + r(l +
?)"
"

^'

356

THE PROGRESSIONS.

EXERCISE CXXXII.
1.

What
at
?

will

be the amount of 3000 dollars for 15

the interest

years

per cent,

being

compounded

annually
^

2.

What

will be the

amount

of 800 dollars for 9 years

months at 4 per

cent,

the interest being

compounded

quarterly ?
3.

What sum
months

of

money
?

will

amount

to $1240.60 in

5 years 6

at 6 per cent, the interest being

com-

pounded semi-annually

In how many years will 968 dollars amount to 4. $1369.40 at 5 per cent, the interest being compounded semi-annually ?
5.

What

is

the present worth of a note for 600 dollars

due

9 years hence,

allowing 4^ per cent

compound

in-

terest ?
6.

At what

rate per

annum

will

3600 dollars give

$416.40 in 3 years and 9 months, the interest being com-

pounded quarterly
7.

In

how many

years will 500 dollars double itself at

5 per cent, the interest being

8.

compounded annually

In

how many

years will a

sum

of

money double

itself at

4 per cent, the interest being compounded quar-

terly?
9.

What

is

the present value of an annuity of 500

dollars to continue for 30 years, allowing 4 per cent

com-

pound
10.

interest ?

What What

is

the present value of a perpetuity of 300

dollars, allowing 5
XI.

per cent

compound

interest ?

is

the present value of an annuity of 400

HABMONIG PROGRESSION.
dollars to begin

86T

8 years hence and to run for 16 years,

allowing 4 per cent

12.

compound

interest ?

cel

What fixed annual payment must be made to canan obligation of 3000 dollars in 8 years, allowing 3|
?

per cent interest

13.

What

annuity to continue 12 years can be pur-

chased for 4000 dollars, allowing 5 per cent compound

interest ?
D.

HARMONIC

PROGRESSION".

Three quantities are said harmonic progression when the first is to the third as the difference between the first and second is to the dMerence between the second and third. An harmonic
to be in

254. Harmonic Progression.

progression
a, i,

is

denoted by the abbreviation H.P.

and

c are in

H. P. when
a

a-.i ^=

b:h

c.

series is said to

secutive terms are in

be harmonic when every three conH.P.

255.

Theorem

I.

If three qiiantities are

in

Tiar-

mo7iic progression,

their reciprocals are in arithmetical

progression.

Let

a,

b,

and

be three quantities in harmonic pro-

gression.

Then

Whence
or

a a{l c) ~ ab ac =
a:c
1
c

l-.i

c. c{a b), ac be.

Dividing each term by abc, we have

_1 _1

_]^
a'

b" b

358

THE PS0GBE88I0N8.

Harmonical properties are interesting because of their In importance in geometry and in the theory of sound. algebra, the theorem just proved is the only one of any importance.

no general formula for the sum of any H.P. Questions in H.P. are solved usually by taking the reciprocals of their terms, and making There
is

number

of terms in

use of the properties of the resulting A. P.

256.
tities is

Theorem
equal

II.

The harmonic mean of two

qtian-

to tivice their

product divided by their sum.

If a, b,

and

are in H.P.,

a
1

^,

and

are in A. P.

a
,

1_2 ~ b'
2ac
-\-

a
257.

Theorem

III.

tities is also the

geometric

The geometric mean of ttvo quanmean of the arithmetic and har-

monic means of
of

the quantities.

Denote the arithmetic, geometric, and harmonic means a and h hj A, 0, and H, respectively. Then

G=Vab.
rr

2ab
a-\- b

.:

A.H=zai=CP.
To insert n harmonic means between

258. Problem.

a and

b.

Insert

arithmetical

means between - and ^, and the

a
b

reciprocals of these will be the required

harmonic means.

SARMOmO

PR0OREB8I0N.

359

EXERCISE CXXXIII.
1.

Insert two harmonic Insert two harnjonic

means between

and

12.

2.
3.

means between 3 and

1/5.

Find the

fifth

term of the H.P. 1/2, 1/4, 1/6.

4.

Insert three harmonic

If a, b,
:

means between
and
b, c,

and

25.

5.

c,

are in A. P.,
c
:

d,

are in H.P.,

prove that a
6.

=
-

d.

Sliow that
3(&

if a, b, c, d,

be in H.P., then will

b){d

a)(d if

c)

= {ca,
c,

a).

7.

Show
d,
e,

that

a, b, c,

be in A. P.,
e,

b, c,

d, in

G.P.,

and

c,

in H.P., then will

be in G.P.

CHAPTER

XXVII.

BINOMIAL THEOREM.
259.

Theorem.

Wlien n
+ +

is

a positive integer,

(a

+ xf = a" + a" -^x-\- ^^^ ~

1.2.3
.

^\ " - V
""
"^

to

?i

+1

terms.

1.

When
a;)^

TO

=
a;

1,

we haye
*a;,

(a

= + = a" + wa" ~

since

a^"*

= " z=

1.

By

actual multiplication,

when w

2,

we have

since

= " = 1. When w = 3, we have

o?~'^

(a^xf = a^ + Sa^^a; + Zao^ + a;^ = '- + wa " ^a; + ^^^~"^l

When w =
(a

4,

we have

+ a;)*= a* +

4a'a;

+ GaV + iaa;' +
n{n

a;*

a"

+ wa""
-

^a;

+ 1.2"^"^+ +
TO(n

n{n-l)

3)
"^

l)(w

^) ,,_,,

1.2.3

'''^

1)(TO

2)(TO

_
'^

1.2.3.4

360

BtNOMlAL THBOBBM.
"We thus see that the theorem holds true
3, 3, or 4.

361

when n =

1,

3.

Now
{a

multiply each

member

of the expression
^'
a'^-^oi?

+ xY = a" + nO'-^x + ^^^ ~ 1 Z

.

^ +
+
+
+!

1.2.3
.
.

'^

to (w

1) terms,

which we have found to hold true when m by *j s-ud we obtain

(a
2;)"

= 1, 3, 3, and 4,

= " + '+

[a^a;

wfl-a;]

+L

rr,(n-l)(^-2) "1-2. 3

^(w-i)(^-2)(n-3)

-|
"

"^^

1.3.3.4

""J

+
(

to

3 terms.
of the last aggregate
is

Note that the second term

ob-

tained by multiplying the fifth term of the expression of

+ xY by a.

Note also that each aggregate contains two terms in ax 1 denote with identical exponents, and that, if we let ? the number of the aggregate, the coefficient of these two

terms of each aggregate after the

first will

be respectiyely
1) ... (w

n{n-l). .(n- r-1))

.

n{n
^""^

- r)
'

1.3.

...r.

1.3. ...r
n{n
"^

+1
{n

n{n-l).
n{n

.(n- (r1)

1))

1)

- r}
>

1.3. ...r

1.3. ...r
1))
Fi
**
i

+1

...(

(r

1.3

b+"^]

362

BINOMIAL THEOREM.

n{n-l)...(n-(rl.a....r
l)n{n

1))

^
(m

n+1 +1
1))
'

_^n + ~
whatever r
the

1) ...
.

(r

1.2.

.r{r+l)
is

may

be,

and

this

the general expression for

sum

of the coefficients of the term in

ax in each bracket

after the first.

Therefore we have
(a

+ XY + = + !+
-'

(,i

+ l)aa; + i^til^^a- - v 1 z
.

(n

+ l)n{n - 1)
TTaTs
. .

.
"^

^++ l)n(n l){n 1.3.3.4

(n
w',

- 2)
"^

"^

+ to (w + 3) terms. we will have If we put w + 1 =

.

+ ^>' - y^;' - ^) -a^3 +

which agrees with the theorem.

to (^'

+ 1)

terms,

We therefore
of n.

conclude that the theorem will be true for

the next higher value of

if it

be true for any one value

But by actual multiplication the theorem has been shown to hold true when w = 1, 3, 3, and 4. It therefore must hold true when n = 5, 6, 7, or any positive integer.
260.

The Binomial

Coefficients.

The quantities
3)
^*-'
'

n{n-l)
**'

n{n '

l){n

1.3

1.3.3

are

known

as the

binomial coefficients.
factors in the numerators begin with

Note that the


BINOMIAL THEOREM.
and decrease by
1,

S63

and that their number is one less than term in which it occurs; also that the factors in the denominators begin with one and increase by unity, and that the number of factors in the denominator is the same as in the numerator. The coefficient of the fifth term of the develope.g.
the

number

of the

ment

of (a

a;)" is

^^

"
J.

"
/^
*

'

>

Note carefully that the binomial coefficient of the next term in the development of a binomial expression can be
obtained by multiplying the coefficient of the last by the

exponent of a in that term and dividing by the number of

the term.

Thus the binomial

coefficient
is

of the

third

term

is

^j

-J-,

and the exponent of a

term
is

3.

The binomial
-.

coefficient of the fourth

^^

^^^

This

is

the coefficient of the third multiplied by {n -3) and di-

vided by

3.

261, Developments.
is

When a single algebraic expression

of a series of terms,
it
is

changed into the

sum

said to

be developed, and the series is called its development. A development may be true in form, yet may equal the funcNo development tion only for certain special values of x. can equal the function except for the values of x which

make

it

convergent.

EXERCISE CXXXIV.
Find the binomial
following expressions:
1.

coefficients of the

development of the

{a

4.

7.

+ xf{a + xf. {a + xf.

2.

8
8.

+ xf. {a + xf. (a +
{a
a;)9.

3.

{a-\-xY-

6.

{a-^-xy.
{a
-\-

9.

xf^

364

BINOMIAL THEOREM.
Note in the above examples that middle of the development, the coefiReients of the
is

262. Coefficients.
after the
first

half are repeated in the reverse order.

in the development no middle term, and the the terms each side of the middle of the series

When n

odd, the

number of terms
will be

will be even. coefficients of

There

will be the same.

When n

is

even, the

number

of terms in

the development will be odd, and there will be a middle

term whose

coefficient will be the largest of all.

263. Exponents.

Note

also that the

sum

of the expo-

nents of the two terms of the binomial in each term of the

development
the

is

equal to n, and that the exponent of the the

second term of

binomial

is

always one

less

than

number of the term in which it occurs in the development. The exponent of the first term will be n, minus the
exponent of the second term.
e.g.

In the sixth term of the development of {a

-\-

xf

we have a%^.
264. Signs.

When

developed are positive,

positive, since all

all

both terms of the binomial to be the terms of the development are

is

powers of positive quantities are positive.

When

the

first

term of the binomial

is

positive

and the

second term negative, every other term of the development

beginning with the second

e.g.

negative.

Write the product of the powers of the first and second terms of the binomial (c %oi?Y in the fourth term
of its development.

(?{-

2a;)3

c8

X -

Sa;"

= - 8cW.

EXERCISE CXXXV.
Write the product of the powers of the two terms of the following binomials in the given term of their development.

N.B.

When the terms of the binomial expression to be

all cases

developed are complex, they should in

be thrown

BINOMIAL TUEOREM.

365

with their signs within parentheses, the powers to which

these are to be raised should be indicated, and the binomial
coefficient

should be written before and then the indicated

operation should be performed.

1.

In the

fifth

term of (a

2a;3)".

2.

In the fourteenth term of (3

a)''.

3.

In the fourth term of (5a^

In the eighth term of In the seventh term of
\ I

4.

(5a a;/5)".
Ix^)''.

6.

3a;

%xl
1
4a;
\

6.

In the eleventh term of

Rules.
is

%Vxl
work of developing a by the following arrange-

\"
.

265. Practical

The

power ment:

of a binomial

facilitated

1. In one line write all the powers of the first term beginning with the wth and ending with the 0th, or unity. 2. Under these write the corresponding powers of the

second term, beginning with the 0th, or unity, and ending

with the wth.

3.

Under

these,

in a third line, write the binomial

coefficients.
4.

Form
The

the continued product of each column of

three factors, and connect these products with the proper

signs.
e.g.

result will be the required development.

Develop
3fl!,

(2a

3a:^)*.

Powers

of

SSa^

+ iea*
3

+8a
+9:1!*

+4a

-|-3a

+1.

Powers of

Ss^

1 1

27a!

+81a;8

243a!'.

Binom. Coef
(2a

+5

+10
way

+10

+5

+1.
243!e'.

- Zxy =

33as

- 340aV+ 720aW- 1080aV+ SlOas^-

Perhaps the

easiest

to write out a binomial expres-

366
sion
is

BINOMIAL TimOHEM.
first to

throw the complex terms with

their signs

within parentheses, indicate the powers to to be raised, and then find the binomial coefficients by
the coefficient of the next term to the one already obtained.

which these are

successive applications of the rule already given for finding

EXERCISE CXXXVI.
Develop the following expressions
1.

BINOMIAL THEOREM.

367

The exponent of a will be w (r 1) or w r + 1 The last factor of the numerator will be w r + 3; The last factor of the denominator will be r 1. Hence the formula for the rth term is
n{n

l)(w

2)

(w

(r

+
_
7;

2) ^_

1.2.3
e.g.

TT^

-1)
j2)i3_

The seventh term

of (2V2

In this case w .= 12 and r term will be

hence the seventh

":":y:!:"W (- ->
=
924
.

(64a'5-^^)

o9136a'5-'2.

EXERCISE CXXXVII.
1.

Find the fourth term Find the tenth term

of {x

by^.

2. 3. 4.
5.

of (1

+
(

2x)^.

Find the twelfth term Find the fourth term

of (2a;

iy\

of {a/3)

+ Uyo.
b/Sy.

Find the

fifth

term of (2a
of

6.

Find the seventh term

Find the
fifth

term of
of (x of
(

1 [-^ - ^

/ 2,3/2

5/2Y

,5/2 \

8.

Find the value

9.

Find the value

Find the value

+ V2y + {x - V^y. ^2 + 1)" - 4^2 - 1)6

(

10
11.

of [2

^{1

-x)Y+[2+
-\-

^{l-x)Y.

Find the middle term

of {a/x

x/ay.

12.

Find the two middle terms

of

^
-

13

Find the term without x

in

a;^

dx

368

BINOMIAL THEOREM.

We 267. Binomial Theorem for any Rational Index. have seen that when w is a positive integer, the binomial function develops into a finite series, the number of whose
terms
is

vanishes

+ 1. when r
as

This is because the factor w n -{\.

Now
when n

is

necessarily integral,

-\-\.

cannot

vanish for any fractional or negative value of n.

is

Hence
develinfinite

negative or fractional, a function

when

oped by the binomial theorem must produce an

series of terms.

It is

shown in Higher Algebra that the development

all

is

true in form for

rational values of n.
is

It

must, however,

be borne in

mind

that the series

in reality

of the function only for those values of x

series convergent.

an expansion which render the

EXERCISE CXXXVIII.
Develop each of the following binomials
1.

to five terms

{a-xf/K

2.

(a (3

+
-

a;)V2.

3.

(l-a;)"*.
1/
(a^

4.

7,

+ xy 1/ y/\ + X.
(1

5.

1x)y\

6.

f1 -

X.

8.

\/{^

+ m).

9.

2a;- '/^) - V<.

CHAPTER

XXVIII.

PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS.

268. Permutation.

To permute a group
may

of things

is

to

arrange them in a different order, and the various different

orders in which the things in a group
called the permutations of the group.

be arranged are
letters differ-

ahc

Thus I permute the group formed by the three when I change their order into ach, and the six

ent orders in which the letters of this group

are called the permutations of this group.
tions are
abc, acb,
lea,
hac,

may be

written

These permuta-

cat,

cba.

269. Combination.

To

combine a given number

of

things into groups each of which shall contain the same

number number

to select from the whole the requisite and put them together without regard to the order in which they are placed, and the various groups that may be formed in this way out of the whole number

of things

is

of things

are called the comiinations of the things.

a time, or

Thus the four letters a. l, c, d, may be combined two by twos, in six different ways, namely,
al,
If the letters
ac,

at

ad,

Ic,

id,

cd.

were taken three at a time, or by threes,

to

it

would be

possible

make only
acd,

four combinations,

namely,
abc,

aid,

bed,
369

370

PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS.

270. Symbols of Combination and Permutation.

If

number of things at our disposal be denoted by n, and the number to be put into each group be denoted by r, then the number of possible combinations will be denoted by the symbol "C^. This symbol is read, n things
the whole

combined by

r's.

Thus

in the above

example
*C,

and

'C3

= 6, = 4.
2's

When
ba.

things are combined by

there are two possible

ab, or

permutations for each group.

Thus we may write

d,

Of the four by
3's are

letters a, h,

c,

the possible combinations

ab,

ac,

ad, be, bd, cd.

tations.

Of each of these groups there are two possible permuHence the possible permutations of the four letters

by

2's are

ab,
ba,

ac,

ad, be, bd, cd,

da, cb, db, do

ca,

=12.
combinations by

Of the same four

3's are

letters the possible

abc,

abd,

acd,

bed.

ions.

Of each of these groups there are six Hence the possible permutations

)y 3's are

PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS.

In any
case, the

3Y1

the product of the

number of permutations is equal to number of combinations and the number

as above, the

of permutations of each combination.

Using n and r
that are possible
is

number

of permutations

denoted by the symbol "P^.

Thus,
271.

'P,

12

and

*P,

= 24.
fact to

Number

of Permutations.

The important

which attention was called a short time since may be symbolized thus:
"P,.

"c;

X Tr-

This
If
it

is

a special case of the following general principle

one operation can be performed in

m ways,
X

and

if

after

has been performed in any one of these ways a second

operation can be performed in n ways, the

of performing the

number of ways
n.

two operations

will be in

The truth of this statement is evident. For there will be n ways of performing the second operation for each way of performing the first; that is, n ways of performing the two for each way of performing the first and as there are m ways of performing the first, there must be m X w ways
;

of performing the two.

There are ten steamers plying between Liverpool e.g. and Dublin. In how many ways can a man go from Liverpool to Dublin and return by a different steamer ? There are ten ways of making the first passage, and with each of these is a choice of nine ways of returning. Hence the number of possible ways of making the two
journeys
is

10

90.

This principle applies also to the case in which there are more than two operations each of which may be performed in a given number of ways.
e.g.

Three

travellers arrive at a

town

in

which there

are four hotels. In

how many ways can

?

they find accommo-

dation, each at a different hotel

372

PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS.

first traveller

The

has a choice of four hotels, and after

he has made his selection in any one way, the second has a choice of three. Hence the first two can make their choice
in 4

=
of

13 ways.

With any one

of these selections, the

third can select his hotel in two ways.

Hence the

possible

number
272.

ways

is

4
I.

34.

Problem
is

To find the number of permutations

of

dissimilar tilings taken r at a time. equivalent to finding in

This

how many

different

ways we may put one thing in each of r places when we have 11 different things at our disposal.
Evidently we
the
first

may

select

any one of the n objects for

fill

place ; hence

we may

that place in

different

ways.

After any object has been selected for the

first

place

there remain

objects,

any one of which

may

be se-

lected for the second place.

Hence the

first

two places may

'/*

be

filled in

n{n

1) different ways.

After any selection

has been made for the

objects,

place.

3 first two places there remain any one of which may be selected for the third Hence the first three places can be filled in
3) different ways.

w(
that

l)(?i

And

so on.

Notice that a
is filled,

new

factor

is

introduced for each place

of factors will be equal

so that the

number
factor

always to the

number

of places, filled.
first
is

Notice also that the

at our disposal,

the

number number

of objects
is

and that each subsequent factor

is

dimin-

ished by unity, so that each factor

at our disposal diminished

the

of things

by a number which

is

one

less

than that of the corresponding place.

tor will be
TO

Hence the rth

fac-

(r

1)

=
~ -

4-

1-

Hence the number

at a time, or "P^

of permutations of
!)('*

n things taken r

or

= Tr =

**('i

n{n

l){n

3) ... r factors, 3) ...

(to

- + 1).
?

When

r in the above formula for the

number

of per-

PERMUTATIom AND COMBINATIONS.

mutations equals n, the mula becomes
last factor

373
for-

becomes

1,

and the

"P

=
is

n{n

l){n

2) ... 3

1.

This product

called /ac^orwZ n. It

is

usually denoted

by the symbol
e.g.
1.

Iw,

or

n\

Six persons enter a

room

in

which there are

?

six chairs.

In how many ways Here we have

ep,

may

they be seated

|6

6X5X4X3X2X1 = 720.

e.g.

2.

eight chairs.

Five persons enter a room where there are In how many ways may they be seated ?

Here we have
sPs
e.g.
3.

8X7X6X5X4=
different

6720.
of six
digits

How many

numbers
1, 2, 3,

may

be formed out of the nine digits

... 9

Here we have
9p,
273.
tions

= 9X8X7X6X5X4=
II.

60480.

Pkoblem

To find

lioxo

many

of the permuta-

^Pr contaiji a particular object. Denote the objects by the letters of the alphabet. Find first how many permutations there are of all the
but a when taken r

letters

1 at

a time.

a with each of these in every possible way.

these two operations

Then The

associate
result of

must be all the permutations of the n letters taken r at a time which contain the letter a. The permutations oi n \ things taken r \ 2X ^
time are
'^-^Pr-,

(n

l)(w

2)

(w

- r + 1).
it

In each of these groups a can have r positions, since

may

occur

first,

or last, or in every intermediate position

between the

letters of

each group.

374

PERMUTATIONS AA'D COMBINATIONS.

of permutations

Hence the number

letter a is

which contain the

r{n

l){n

-%)...
may

[n

r -{-1).

In a similar way we

find that the

number
is

of per-

mutations which contain two objects or

r{r

letters
1).

1)(m

2)

(w

- r+

For if the two letters a and I be left out and the remaining letters are arranged in groups of r 3 letters, the number of permutations would be
{n-^ 2){n- 3).
. .

(1

+ 1).

2 letters, i

Since each of these groups contains

may

be associated with each in r

the

different ways.
b

Hence

number

of permutations (r -

which contain

would be
r

l){n

2)(w

3)

...(-

+ 1).
a

As each of these groups contains r

be associated with
it

1 letters,

may

in r different ways.

Hence the num-

ber of permutations which contain a and b would be

r{r

l)(/i

2)(m

3)

(w

- r + 1).

In a similar way, the number of permutations containing three objects or letters would be
r{r

l)(y

2){n

3)

{n

- r+

1),

etc.

etc,

e.g.

How many
?

numbers
1,

of four digits can be

formed
of these
?

out of the six digits

will

2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ?

How many
and 2

contain 1

How many
and

will contain 1

How

many
1. 2.

will contain 1, 2,

3. 4.

= 6 X 5 X 4 X 3 = 360. r{n - l)(w - 2)(k -3) = 4x6x4x3 = 240. r{r - l){n - 2)(w -3) = 4x3x4x3 = 144. r(r - l)(r - 2)( -3) = 4x3x2x3 = 72.
P,

PERMXTTATlOm AND COMBINATIONS.

375

274, Problem. To find the number of permutations n things all together, when u of the things are alike. of Denote the required number of permutations by x. Now if the u things were all unlike they would give rise to "P, or u\, permutations, each one of which might be combined with the X permutations, and thus give rise to "P^ or w!, permutations. Hence
~ltp
^
-^
V,

np *
u\

or
Similarly,
if

a;

n\ =

r.

among

the

objects there were

alike of

one kind and v of another, then

Jj

MZ> Ju
j

vp

-'

np ^

>

or

a;

= Ul
n\

r,

etc.

v\

e.g. letters in

How many

permutations can be made from the

?

the word Mississippi

Here there are 11 4 i's, and 2 p'a.

letters in all,

and among them 4

s's,

11 .10. 9. 8. 7.6. 5.4. 3. 2.1 _ 11! ^~4!4!3l~ 4.3.3.1.4.3.2.1.2.1 = .34650.

If the

permutations were to contain no repeated

letters,

the

number

of different letters being 4, the permutations

would be
^Pj

24.

EXERCISE CXXXIX.
ITind the value of
1.

^^Pv

2.

"Pg-

3.

''P,.

4.

How many permutations can

word mimber
?

be made of the letters

in the

376
5.

PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS.

How many permutations can

word quadruple
?

be made of the letters

in the
6.

How many permutations can

word principle
In
?

be

made

of the letters

in the
7.

how many ways may 4

?

red, 3 blue,

and

5 white

cubes be arranged in a pile

8.

In how many ways can 7 cards each of a different

? ? ?

prismatic color be arranged in piles of 4 cards each

9.

How many

of these piles
of

would contain red

10. 11.

How many How many

them would contain red and green them would contain

red, green,

of

and

blue?
12.

pack

consists of 8 white,

6 red,

and 4 blue
?

cards.

In how

many ways may

To

they be arranged

275.

Problem.

Ji?id the

number of combinations

of n things taken r at a time. As we have already seen,

"P "C
e.g.

=: "c;

'Pr

= "c; X
Ir

|r.

= !^ =
Ir

n(w

l){n

-2)...{n-r

l)

''

How many different committees

men
?

of 8 persons each

can be formed out of a board of 16

Here ^^'

"(7
^

- 16.15.14.13.12.11.10.9 - 8.7.6.5.4.3.3.1 = 13870.

To find the number of times any
present in "CV.
all

276.

Problem.
"~
'

particular
If

object, a, tvill be

we form

CV

combinations from

the objects

except a taken r
these groups,

1 together

we can
all

place a with each of

and thus form

the combinations of the

PERMUTATIONS AND COMSINATIONR

n
objects taken r together which

3Y7

contain

a.

Hence a

occurs in "~'CV_, of the combinations.

particular objects will occur in
tions; etc.

two ""^0^-^ of the combinaSimilarly,

of a guard of 14 men, how many different men can be drafted for duty each night ? In how many of these squads would any one particular man be ? In how many of these squads would any two given men be ?
e.g.

Out

squads of 6

1.

"Cj
I'Cs
12(7^

2. 3.

= = =

3003.
1287.
495.

e.g.

From

of 4 books be

10 books in how many ways can a selection made, 1 when a specified book is included,
is

when
1.

a specified book
is

excluded

Since one book

to be included in each selection,

we have only

to choose 3 out of the ^Cs

remaining

9.

84.

2.

Since- one

select the

book is always to be excluded, we must 4 books out of the remaining 9.

'Ci

126.

EXERCISE CXL.
1.

In a certain district 4 representatives are to be

elected,

and there are

8 candidates.

In how

many

difEer-

ent ways

may
?

a ticket be

made

up, each ticket to contain

four names
2.

Out

of 9 red balls, 4 white balls,

different combinations

and

6 black balls,

how many
Out

may
and

be formed each con3 black balls ?

sisting of 5 red balls, 1 white ball,

of the 9 red balls 126 combinations

may

be formed

378

PEBMUTATIOm AND COMBINATIONS.

balls.

each containing 5

Bach

the 4 white balls, and there

of these may contain one of may be formed 20 combinations

out of 6 black balls taken 3 at a time.

As each

of these

may be combined with

combinations will equal

the 136 previous groups, hence the

136
3.

30

10080.

How many combinations

can be formed out of 5 red,

7 white, and 6 blue objects, each combination to consist of 3 red, 4 white, and 3 blue objects
4.

On

the supposition that the colored objects of each

set are all of different shape,

how many permutations

of

these objects could be formed with 3 red, 4 white,

and 3

blue in each resulting set

6.

Out

of 13 doctors, 15 teachers,

and 10 lawyers, how

many

different committees can be formed, each containing

?

4 doctors, 5 teachers, and 3 lawyers

e.

There are

fifteen points in a plane

are in a line.

How many

triangles can be

no three of which formed by join-

ing them in threes ?

277.
(a

Keaning
-|-

of the Binomial Coefficients.

-\-\-

a;';

+ xf = (a x){a x) =^ a^-\- 2ax x^; {a + xY = + x){a-\- x){a -\-x) = a^-\- Zc?x-\-2>aQ^ + (a + xf = (a + a;)(a + x)(a + x)(a + x) = a^ + t^aH +6ff^a:2 + 4aa;' + n factors (a + xY (a-\- x)(a -\-x)
{aa;*;
.
.

= " + na" ~^x

of the

-\

^^r-^

-a"

~V...ton-\-l terms.

These products are formed by taking a letter from each n factors and combining them in every possible way. We may take an a from each and combine these n a's

PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS.

into a product iu every possible way.
all alike,
f(" is

379

As

the letters are

there

is

only one

way

of

combining them.

Hence

one term of the product.

letter

The
(

x can be taken once, and a the remaining

and the number of combinations of a""^ number of ways in which x may be taken out of the 11 factors, and this is the number of ways of Hence the term taking n things 1 at a time, or "Ci = n.
1) times,

and X

will be the

ft"

" ' will

occur "fi times and we have

"Cia"
" ^x.

Again, the letter x can be taken twice, and a the re-

maining {n

2) times,
is

2 x's can be taken

the

number
1
.

and the number of ways in which of ways of taking n things

.

2 at a time, or "Cj

= ^r^
2

Hence the term

"

will occur "Cj times,

and we have

And, in general, x can be taken r times [r being a and a the remaining (w r) times, and the number of ways in which r x's can be taken is the number of ways of taking n things r at a
positive integer not greater than n),

time, or

np ^'-

w(w

l)(w
1

2) ...
.

(w
. .

(r

1))

Hence we Hence
{

shall

have

" C,.rt " ~

''a;''.

+
.
.

a;)"
.

- a" + " C^d"- "

'a;'-

^b

+ " C^a" " V

= a;"].

+
We
taken
the number
1, 2, 3,

nCrOT-

... to ["Ca"-"a;"

thus see that the binomial coefficients are simply

of different
.

ways in which n things can be

up

to

at a time.
"C's,
. .

They

are

1,

"Ci, "C^,

"C; ... up to "C.

380

PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS.

are often written Co, Cj, C^, C^,
1.
.
.

They
If

.6^. ..C, Co

being understood to be

we make both a and x equal

to

1,

the formula

becomes

or

+ 1)" = 1 + a + c, + ^3 2" = 1 + d + C2 + C3 +
(1
. .

C;

+ c, + + Cw.
.
.

e^i,

expression to

1,

sum of the binomial coefficients in any w + 1 terms is equal to 2" 1. Or the sum of all the possible ways of taking n things 2, 3, up to n at a time is equal to 2" 1.
That
is,

the

CHAPTER XXIX.
DEPEESSION" OF EQUATIONS.
278. General Equation of nth. Degree in x.

The most

general form of an integral equation of the wth degree in

is

A,x^
in

+ A.x"-' + ^,^"" +
is

A,.,x

+ ^ = 0,

which w
If

a positive integer.

we

divide this
a,, etc.,

equation through by J,, and put

= a., ~ =
a;

we

obtain

+ !"-' +

fla*""'

+
x.

--!

+ n = 0,
of

(1)

which we

will consider as the general

form

an integral
fractional,

equation of the wth degree in

The

coefficients

fli,

a^, etc.,

may be integral,

or surd, but

we

shall consider only the cases in

which these

coefficients are rational.

If

none of the
is

coefficients ai,

a.^,

etc.,

are zero, the

equation

said to be complete ;

and

if

one or more of them

are zeros, incomplete.

Any
It is

value of x which causes the

first

member

of (1) to

vanish, or

become

zero,

is

called a root of the equation.

proved in Higher Algebra that every equation of

the above form has at least one root, and we shall assume
this to

be true in the present chapter.

279.

Theorem
x^

1.

If a
cijpc'"''

is

a root of the equation

. .

+ ai*""^ +

a-ii

the first

memler of the equation

is divisible

= 0, hy x a.
ff

381

382

DEPRESSION OF EQUATIONS
division of the first

The
this

member hj x

may
x.

be con-

timied until the remainder does not contain

Denote

remainder by iJand the quotient obtained by Q. we have

{x
as a

Then

a)Q-\-R 0,
to as-

form which the general equation may be made

is
a;

sume.
if

But a we put

assumed

to be a root of the equation.

first

Hence

= a,

the
.-.

member must

vanish.

0.<3+i2
i?
is

or

= 0, = 0.
first

Therefore
280.

a;

contained in the

member

with-

out a remainder.

Theorem

II.

Conversely, if the first

member of

the equation
a;"

+ aiK""' +
by

a.iX^'^

+
is

a^-^x

+ =
to take the

is divisible

x a,

then a

a root of the equation.

In

this case the equation

may be made
0,

form

{x-a)Q =
the
first

member

of

which vanishes when x

= a.

Therefore

a must be a root of the equation.

COK.

If the first

member

of the equation
. . .

Ja;"

+ Jia;"-' + ^ace""' + +
b,

A_,x

+ ^ =

be divisible by ax
281.

then

is

a root of the equation.

Theorem

III.

An

equation of the nth degree has

roots.

We have
a;"

assumed what may be proved in more advanced

algebra that the equation

+ aiX"-' +

fflaa;"-^

-!;

+ =

has at least one root.

DEPRESSION OF EQUATIONS.
Denote by a;
{x of
this root
a,

383
is divisi-

ble

by a. Tlien the first member aud the equation may be written

. .
.

which

- a){x^-' + b^''-' + 5.iX+ J) = 0, X = a is a solution, and of which a farther

be obtained by putting
a;"-'

solu-

tion

may

b.x'^-'

bn-ix

+ 5 = 0.
to

equation by unity.
as (1),
root.

This division lowers, or depresses, the degree of the The new equation is the same in form

and therefore may be assumed

this root
b,

have at least one

is divisi-

ble by

Denote X
{x

by b. Then the first member and the equation may be written

a;

i){x^-'

+ c,x^-' +

c,,.,x

+ c) = 0,
solu-

of

which

=
X

5 is a solution,

and

of

which a further

tion

may

be obtained by putting
-\-

C^X

Cf^^iX -\~ c^ ^^ u.

The degree
as (1),

of this equation has been depressed

It is still of the

units from that of (1).

two same general form

root.
is

and may be assumed to have at least one Denote this root by c. As the first member

divisible

hj X

c,

the equation

may

be written
. . .

{x

- c)(a;"-= + dtx"-'+
X

d^-iX

+ dn) = 0,

and may be solved by putting

c = 0,
d^-iX

and

a;"-^

d^x"-^

+ ^ = 0.

The degree of our original equation has been depressed now by three units. This process may be continued till the degree of the original equation has been depressed w 1 units, and we
reach an equation of the
of
first

degree of the form x

k = 0,

which k

is

the root.

384

DEPRESSION OF EQUATIONS.
division

As each

of the equation

by a by unity,

linear factor depresses the degree

it

must be divided by w

fac-

tors to depress it to the first degree.

roots,

This implies n

which together with the root

of the resulting linear

equation

CoK.

make n 1. The

roots.

equation

x" -f a^x^'^

flaa;""^

fln-i^

+ =
=
0;
(3)

may

be written
{x

a){x

b){x

c)

... to w factors

and the equation

Jx"

+ A^x'' + A,x--' +
-'

A^.,x

+ A^ =
= 0.
(3)

may

be written

A^(x

a){x

i){x

c)

to

factors

COE.

3.

The

substitution of any other than one of the

for x in the first member of (2) or would not cause it to vanish. Hence an equation of the wth degree has only n roots. Of these ii roots some may be rational, some may be surd, and some may be imaginary. Also some of the n

values a,

h, c, etc.,

(3)

roots

may
3.

be equal.

CoE.

The

solution of an equation of the wth degree

consists merely in resolving it into its linear factors,

and

equating each of these factors to zero.

CoE.
its roots.

4.

The degree

of

pressed by unity by dividing

an equation in x may be deit through by x minus one of

tested for a suspected

CoE.

5.

An equation in x may be
it

root by dividing

CoE. 6. X are known, the equation may be depressed to a quadratic equation, which may then be solved by the rule already
given.

through by x minus the suspected root. When all the roots but two of an equa-tion in

DEPRESSION OF EQUATIONS
EXERCISE CXLI.

385

Form
1.

the equations which have the following roots

1, 3,
1,

and

3.

2.

4,
3,

3,

3, 4,

and

5.

3.

3,

3,

and

0.

4. 6.

5.

-3, -3,

4/3, and 4/3.

1, 3/3, ^d - 4, - 1/4, and

1/3.
1/5.

and

Prove that the numbers given are roots of the equation In testing for suspected roots, find the other roots.

use method of synthetic division

Equation.
7.

Number.
4.

8.

9.

10.

11.
12.

13. 14.

- mx + 84 = 0. - 90 = 0. 3*3 -f hx^ x^ + 2x^ - 11a; + 6 = 0. 4a;* - ix^ - 7x^ - 4,c + 4 = 0. 9a;* - 34a;3 - 2x^ - 34a; + 9 = 0. 3x^ - Ux^ + 30a; - 8 = 0. - 15a;2 + 10a; + 34 = 0.
x^
43.-C
a;*

a;5-4a;*-6a;^+30a;2+4a;-16=0.

15_

a;=-74a;S-34a;2+937a;-840=0.

CHAPTEK XXX.

UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS.
A.

FUNCTIONS OF
I.

FIlSriTE

DIMENSIONS.

282.

Theorem

An

integral expression of the nth

degree in x cannot vanish for more than

cept the coefficients of all the

values of x, exzero.
. .

powers of x are
1

Let
vanish for the

Ax""

5a;" -

C'*"

"
.

+
. . . .

values of x, a,

i, c,

It
.

must then
from

be eqiiivalent \a A{x
If

a){x

. . .

'b){x

c)

now we

substitute for x any value

a, 5, c,
,

Tc

different

each of the n values

A{]c

we have

- a){Jc -

h){h

- c)
.

Now
If

as

is

different

from

a, h, c,

the expression
itself is zero.

cannot vanish for the value x

k,

except

A
is

be zero, the original expression reduces to

i?a;"-i+ Ca;"-2+..

.,

which

of the {n

l)th degree,
n

and

as before can vanish

for only

n Hence an

1 values of x, except

5 = 0. And so on.

expression of the n\h degree in x cannot vanvalues of x, except the coefficients of all and when all these coefficients are

ish for more than

the powers of x are zero ;

zero, it is evident that the expression

must vanish

for all

the powers of x.
283.

Theorem

II.

nth degree in x he equal

If two integral expressions of the to one another for more than n

PARTIAL FRACTIONS.
values of x, they will he equal for all values of x,
the coefficients of the

38Y

and

all

same powers of x in

the two expres-

sions

must

be equal.

Let

Ax''+Bx''-'^+Cx''-^+

=4'a;"+5'a;''-i+C"'-2+...

Then must

A ^

A',

B=

B',

C^C

By
{A
and

transposition,

we have

A')x"

+ {B

- 5>"-i + (C- C>"-2

for all values of x for

0,

which the tvro original expressions are equal, and therefore for more than n values of x. Hence by Theorem I,
this

must be true

A-A' = 0, B or

B'

=0,

C-

C"

= 0,

A = A',
When

B=B',
all

G=G',
finite

...

two integral expressions in x of

dimensions

are equal for all values of x,

the coefficients of the same

power of X in the two expressions must be equal to each other. For in this case n is finite, and the possible values of X infinite, and therefore > n.
B.

PARTIAL FRACTIONS.

284. Definition of Partial Fractions.

The sum of the

the parts which
It

two fractions
1

and """

:;

+
;

is "~

.-K

a?'
partials.

With reference to the make it up by addition are

is

last fraction,

called its partial fractions.

its

often necessary to separate a fraction into

it is

In this separation

the partials shall be of the

understood that the denominators of first degree when practicable,

but at any rate of a lower degree than that of the original

fraction.

2 -U
e.g.
1.

9,x

Separate
1

^^

into partial fractions.

'

388

UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS.

Since the denominator

2

(1

a;)(l + ^)>
B

assume

8a;

l-x^ ~l-x^l-\-x'
in

which

and

B are

coefficients to

be determined.

Clearing of fractions, 2

we have
a;)

8a;

= J(l + + B{1 - x) = {A + B)afi +{A~ B)x.

we may

And

as this is to be true for all yalues of x,

II,

apply Theorem

which gives

and
.: Also,

^+5= AB=

2,
S.

= 10, 25 = 6,
2A
partials are

and and

A = 5.

B = 3.
3
1

Hence the

-.

and

+x
derive the following

From

the above example

we may

rule for separating a proper fraction into its partials

factors,

Resolve the denominator, if possible, into real linear and form fractions with undetermined numerators,
their

and put

fractions,

sum equal to the original fraction. Clear of and equate the coefficients of the like poivers of x.
EXERCISE CXLII.

Separate the following fractions

linear denominators
7a;

into

partials

with

+17
6'

34
x^

2x
8'

x^+5x-{25
x^

+ 2x13a:

X -

a;

3a;

12"

*
a:^

26 40

PARTIAL FBA0TI0N8.
17a;
5.

389

10
72;

2a;2

- 15
a;2

6.

6a;2

- 15a; - 26a; + 24"

into partial

e.g.

2.

Separate

3a;

+2

6(x-l)(a;- 2)(a;-3)

fractious.

Assume
a;2

4-

3a;

+2
3)

6(*- l)(a;-2)(a;Then, clearing of

~ %{x -

+ - 2^ - 3' 1) ^
a; a;

C.

fractions,
a;2

we have

3a;

=^(a;-3)(a;-3)+65(a;-l)(.a;-3)+6C(a;-l)(a;-2)

=^a;2-5Jx+6^+65a;2-245a;+185+6Ca;2-18Ca;+12C

= A

390

UNDETERMINED COEFFIGIENTa.
shall

Then we

have
6

2A,
shall

and
have

^ =

3.

If

we put

a-

=: 2,

we

13
If

=we

&B,

and
have

B=
C=

-%.

we put

:)

3,

shall

20
It is

12C,

and

5/3.

much

shorter to use this

method when by

inspec-

tion

we can

find values of

x which

will cause all the

terms

except one of the right-hand

vanish.

member

of the identity to

EXERCISE

CXLIII.

Separate the following fractions into their partials

x^

- Ux + 37
9a;

(a;- 3)(a;2-

+ 20)'

2.

(2a;

23*
(2a;

\la?
'

l)(9-a;2)"

- 69 - 9) 3a; - 2 {x-l){3? - 5x-\9a;

36a;

2){a;2

&)'

X
(a;

a?
6.

-\-

-\-

l)(a;

+ 3)(a; + 5)'
,
,

(a;+

l)(a;2

- 5a;+ 6)"

e.g.

3.

Separate

T^g/

into its partials.

In forming

this

fraction

by addition there may have

-,

been a fraction in the form of

{x-^lf
,

A
A

^-

one in the form of

B
a;

1'

and one in the form of

a;

-.

Hence
all these.

in

our

as-

sumption we must make provision for

Assume

7a;2

{x

+ -6 _ + lf{x-%)
7a;

B
a;

C
x

(a;

1)2

'

+1

'

%'

PARTIAL FRACTIONS.
Clearing of fractions,

391

we have

Ix^^lx-Q- A{x-2)-\-B{x + l){x-2)+C(x+lf. Putting X = 1, we have 6 = 'dA, and A =.%. Putting X = %, we have 36 = 9C, and C=4.
Equating
coefficients of x^,

we have

5+ C=7.
XX ^^^""^
rtx^

+ lx-Q _
l)l{x-%)

{x
4.

- {x+lf ++l + :s_3

into partials.

e.g.

Separate 3

The denominator
dratic factor
is

{x

l){x^

-{-

x-\- 1),

and the quafactor for

not separable into real factors.

But
its

a proper fraction

which has a quadratic

a linear factor for
its

denominator

may have

numerator.

We

must make provision

5a;^
a;^

for this

by assuming that

1 ^X

+l _ ^

Bx-\-C
1'

x^

-\-

-\-

bx>+l
Putting
a;

= A{x^-\-x->rl) + {Bx+ G){x-1). = 1, we have A 2. 6 = ZA, and

coefficients of x^,

Equating the

we have

A-\-B^b.
.-.

5=5-^ =
A+
C =1.

3.

Equating the constant terms, we have

392

UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS.

Whence
Therefore
Sz"

C=

=
3a;

1.

+1_ 2 1 X
each
of

1
-\-

x^

-\-

Observe
just as

that
is

the

separations
:

into
it

partial

fractions given

characterized by this

that
as

introduces

many undetermined
satisfy.

coefi&cients

equations for

them

to

This

is

characteristic of

any proper

application of the

method

of

undetermined

coefficients in

which the number of

coefficients is finite.

EXERCISE CXLIV.
Separate the following fractions into partials
12*2
1.
a;3

_
a;^

a; _|_

+1"
42a:2
a;2

"
4- 10

10

7?-l

2a;3
a;*

a;'

5.

+1 +1
a;

(a;

2)(a;2

I)"

{x^ -\-l){x
C.

1)2"

FUNCTION'S OF INFINITE DIMENSIONS.

II.

285.

Theorem

If two integral functions of x of

order, are

infinite dimensions,

and arranged in ascending

equal

to

one another for all values of x ivMch

make

the

series convergent, the coefficients of the liJce

powers of x in
G'x^

the two series loill be equal.

Let

A + bx-\- Cx^^
all

A'

-\-

B'x

be true for

values of x which render both convergent.

Then
For
will

will

A=

A'

B=

B',

C=
C

C,

etc.

if

the series are both convergent their diif erence

be convergent, and we shall have

A-A' + {Bfor all values of x for

B')x

+ (C -

which the

series is

convergent.

EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS.

393

But when x is sufficiently small, the series is convergent and A A' is greater than all that follows, and its sign must control that of the series; that is, the A A' will be

>, =,
zero.

or

<

zero according as the series

series

is

>, =,

or

<

But the whole

.-.

0.

A~A' = 0,
A
B'
;

or

A=

A'.

By

striking out

manner prove

C= {B - B')x + (C - C')x +
B=

and A' as equal, we may in like and then C, etc. For since
.
. .

for

all values of x which make the original series convergent, and therefore for other values of x than zero, both members of the equation may be divided by x and the conclusion be

drawn that

B~B'+{Gfor values of
a;

0')x

+ ... =0

which make the original equation convergent.

D.

EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS.
be developed into an infinite series in
is

A function may
function
its
is

various ways; and whenever the series

convergent, the

equal to
It is

its

expansion.

is then called important to bear in mind that when

is

development, which

the series into which a finite function

developed becomes
its

divergent for any value of x the function cannot equal

development.

proper fraction

may

be developed into an infinite

division

series in

ascending powers of x by division.

are

The four following expansions by

portant:
1.

im-

-^ =l + x+x^ + x'>+x* +
z

2.

l-\-x

=l x + x^ x^+x* +

..

394

UNDETERMINED C0EEFICIENT8.
3.
4a;s - xf s 1 + 3a; + 3a; 4- + 5a:* +
.

(1

(1

+ xf

=
is

- 2a; + 3a;2 - 4a;3 + 5a;* +

may

A function -wMch
oped into an
,/-

not a perfect power

be devel-

infinite series in

ascending order by evolution.

a;^

e.g.

T^a; =

l-------^...
,
a;

a'

5a;*

If a function of

x which has but one value for each

value of X be expanded in ascending powers of x, the powers

must all be integral. For were the exponent of any term to become fractional, that term would be many-valued for each value of x, which
contradicts the hypothesis.

The following example

fraction

illustrates the

expansion of a

by the method of undetermined

coefficients.

Expand
of X.

1-x
l-[-x

+ x>

to five terms in ascending

powers

Assume
1

Z~^~^, = A+Bx+Cx + Dx^+I!x*+Fx^+ Gx^ +

l-x-x^ = A{l+x + x^) + B{x + a^ +
x^)
-\-

+ C{ci? + + F{x^ +
=

a;'

a;*)

a;

x'')

+ D{x^ + * + x^) + E{x'^ + x^ + G{x^ + x''+a^) +

.
. .

x^)

A+A x+ A

EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS.
A-{-

396

B = -1,
0,

and
and

A+ B+

B+C^-1, G+ D = C+ D+ U = D + B+ F=
0, 0,

and and
and and

i?'

and
1 1

E+

a;
a:

i?'+

G^

0,

B = - 2, C = 0, JD = 2, B = - 2, = 0, G = 2.

a;^

+ +
may

=1-

2a;

x"

+ 3*3 - %x* + 2x^ +

In certain cases the operation of expanding fractions

into series
1.

be abridged.

numerator and denominator of the fraction contain only even powers of x, we may assume a series conBx^ -\- Cx* taining only even powers, as ^ 2. If the numerator of the fraction contains only odd powers of x and the denominator only even powers, we may assume a series containing only odd powers of x. 3. If every term in the numerator contains x,
If the

but not every term in the denominator, we

numerator.
4.

may assume

a series beginning with the lowest power of x in the

If the

numerator does not contain

x,

we may

find
first

by actual division what power of x will occur in the

term of the expansion.

e.g.

^j

gives by division l/Sa;-' as the

first

term

of the quotient.

~
dx^

Hence we may assume

X^

= Ax-'+Bx-' +G+ Dx +

396

UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS.
EXERCISE CXLV.

Expand each

of the following fractions to five terms in

ascending powers of x
1
^'

+ + dx 2a:

3x^
4a;"

3
^-

4g^
5T''

+
3x

6.

3x^'

EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS.
EXERCISE CXLVI.
1.

397

Expand

^/{l

+ x + x^)

to

a;*.

2.

Expand y (-)
Expand
|^(1

to x^.

3.

Ex.

+ x) to Let y 3x 2x^ +
a;

x*.

3:(^

4**

Express

in ascending powers of

to y*.

Assume x

= Ay + 1/ + Ch/ + Dy* + = A{3x- 2x^ + 3 - ix* + + B{9x^ - 13x8 + Z'Zx* + ...)

.

./

+ C{27x^- Six^-j+ D(81:?;^ + ...).

X
=

..)

x*+,

398

UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS.
EXERCISE CXLVII.

1.

If

2a;

a;2

%7?

Za/-\-

find

x in terms

of

to y*.

2.

liy

= x-\-a?-\-3?-\-a^-\-,..,

find

x in terms of

to 2/^
3.

lty=x Q?-\-3? x''-\-...,

find

a;

in terms of

to 3/^

CHAPTER XXXI.
CONTINUED rHACTIONS.
286. Definition of a Continued Fraction. sion of the form

An expres-

a
c

;.

etc.

is

called a continued fraction.

For convenience, continued

in the form

fractions usually are written

e g

etc.

In

this chapter

we

shall consider only the simpler

form

a,-\
I

etc.,

in which the numerators are each unity and a^, a,

etc., are positive integers.

a,,

The

fractions a,
etc.,

etc.

are called the

first,

sec-

end, third,
287.

elements of the continued fraction.

The Convergents.
is

The fraction obtained by stop,

ping at any element

fraction.

called a convergent of the continued

Thus a,,a.-\

'a,

and

a,
'

A
,

+ 3
,

are the

first,

400

CONTINUED FRACTIONS.

second, and third convergents of the continued fraction

given above.

These convergents may be reduced to the

forms ^S ''-^1, and

For, evidently, a^

K.+ lK + ..
-j,

a,

a,

fl,

a,

and

CONTINUED FRACTIONS.
convergent by
last
^-^,

401

the preceding convergent by

^^-^

the

but one by ^^'^.

Then

in the case of the third convergent

we have
/- \

Pn

P'riPn

-1 'T

Pn-H

gn~

aqn-i

+ qn--/
from the one preceding
it

Now

each convergent
-\

differs

by having a

substituted in place of a.
first

Thus the

second convergent differs from the

aSj -|

simply in having

in place of a,
a,

the third differs from the second

in having a,-]

in place of a,

and the {n
-\

+ l)st will

differ

from the n only in having

this

in place of a.
^ji+

Making

change in

(1),

we have

(n+r
\

Pn-A + Pn-.
'

"n +

_ +!

an+,{anqn-l

{anPn-l+Pn-2 +) Pn - _ Cin+lPn + Pn + qn-!!+) qn-l~an + iqn + Qn-l'

1
1

which agrees with the theorem. Hence the theorem which holds for the third convergent holds also for the fourth, the fifth, and each subsequent
convergent.

Therefore the formula for the

'th

convergent

is

Pr
qr

_ ~

(lrPr-l

r?r -

+ Pr-1 + 5'r

?'

402
289, Partial
,,
rt,,

CONTINUED PBACTI0N8.
and Complete ftuotients, The integers may be called the ^ar^wZ quotients, being partial quotient. When the number of partial
is

a,, etc.,

the nih.
quotients

finite

the continued fraction

is

said

to
is

be un-

terminating.

If the
is

number
called

of these quotients
infinite

limited the fraction

an

continued fraction.
a continued

Since a,, a,, a,,

fraction of the

etc., are positive integers,

form

a,-\
a,

1-

etc.

must be greater

a,

than unity; while a continued fraction of the form of

+
,

must be

less

than unity.
is

The

complete quotient at any stage

the quotient from

is

that point on to the end.

quotient,

Thus
ci^2
-f-

ft

the nth partial the correspondat

and

-|

'

is
. .

ing

stage

The complete quotient may be denoted by K. As we have seen, the wth convergent is

a^ + i complete quotient.

-\-

any

qn

? -

g'

This value evidently

may

be converted into that of the

whole continued fraction by substituting in the place of Denote the value of the entire fraction by x. Then will ff.

290.

Theorem

II.

The

difference

between two sucis

cessive convergents is a fraction

whose numerator

unity

and whose denominator is the product of the denominators of the convergents, and this difference tahen in regular order is alternately positive and negative.
Pn
qn

Pn

f^nPn -

Pn

Pn ? -

qn-1

~ l'nqn~l-[-qn-ii

GONTINUED FRACTIONS.

403
1

_ {anPn-l +Pn- Mn- "~

1

(r.gn -

+ gn - 2)^ 1

{^nqn

-1+qnPn -

Mn.
1

Pn
qn
--

Pn

zQn -

Pn -

iQn -

qn-x~

Mn-i
{Pn-iqn-i-Pn-iqn-l)-

i'rfn-l

- Pn-iqn -

So

also in succession ^^

Pn -

\qn -

Pn -

sgn -

i'n

- zgn -

T i'n - sgn -

2-

p.q-,-p.,q,

-p.q.+p.q,-

But

^,9,

- ^.9, =

(a,a,

+ 1) - a., = 1 =

(-

1)2.

Also, since the successive convergents, beginning with

the

first,

are alternately less and greater than the fraction,

less

the successive convergents are alternately greater and

than the preceding.

Therefore the successive difference

will be alternately positive

ator of the fraction will be

and negative, so that the numer( 1)", in which n is the num-

ber of the convergent used as a subtrahend.

Hence
Hence,

Pnq^-i Pn-iqn
also,

= {

I)"-

(1)

^ -^^^^ = inDl^
?u

qn-i

(3)

qnqn-1

Cor.

1.

All convergents are in their lowest terms.

For every measure of

common measure p^qn _ Pn-iqn

i

of ^

and

must

also
1.

be a

and, from

(1), of

Hence j and
Cor.
2.

'

can have no

common

measure.

In the continued fraction

_L

J_

J-

'

404
which
is less

CONTINUED FRACTIONS.
than unity,

Pnq.-.-Pn-.qn={-ir-' and

^-^ =

^~^^""'
>

since the first convergent will be too large, the next too
small, etc.

291.
value
to

Thboeem

III.

the continued fraction than

Each convergent is nearer in any preceding con-

vergent.

Let X denote the continued fraction, and

and
2'n+

'

denote three consecutive convergents.

Then x
(w

differs

from

^"

''"

only in taking the complete

j.

9)1+2 3) quotient in place of +

Hence

X~S:^

_ K{Pn+-i.qn~ Pngrt^^) _

and
j>n+l
5'+
I

_^_
~

i>n+l
'^

l^Pn+1

+ Pn
+?
+1

S-n+l
j^n

^qn+,
j^iigii

+ l'n "^

Now

K>
^
qnKq^ +
!

and

'

<

'+,;

hence on both accounts

>
?' -

'

+ iKqn + !+?''

Combining the
390,
it

result of this article with that of article

follows that

'

CONTINUED FRACTIONS.
The

405

convergents of an odd order continually increase,

less

iut are always

than the continued fraction

The convergents of afi even order continually

but are always greater than the continued fraction.

decrease,

292.

Theorem

IV.

The

value

of x differs

from

by

less

than

*'*^

^2/

i^ore than

Let -^,
gents,

""^
,

-JL+J?

be {n

three
-\-

consecutive conver-

and

let

K denote the

2)th complete quotient.

Then

^=^^-iiiL".

+ gn ?( + + gu) _ ^^ iqn + Agn - Kp^q ^ - j?g qn{Kq + + gn)

(

^gn +
+

g-n)

-^S'n

qriqn +

^)
1,

Now
by
less

is

greater than

therefore

differs

from x

than
?rfn +
.

and by more than

!Zn? +
1

+ gn

And
must be
293.

since q^
less

<

? +
^

1 ,

the difference between

-r-5

^ and
in

a;

than

qj'

and greater than *

2^^ +

Theorem V.

The

last

convergent preceding a

large partial quotient is a close approximation to the value

of the fraction.

406

CONTINnEB FRACTIONS.
the last theorem, the error in taking

By

~
,.

instead of

the whole continued fraction

is less

than
'?+

or, since

(^n

i^an + ie +?-!.
than
-3.

less

than

j-

j
is,

.-.

or

less

Hence the

larger a +1

the nearer

does

approximate
a ^.
1

to the continued fraction.

Therefore
differs

when
little

is

relatively large, the value of

but

from that of

^.
In

294.

Theorem

VI.

Every fraction whose numerator

integers can he converted into

and denominator are positive

tyy%

a terminating continued fraction.

Let

be a fraction whose numerator and denominator

are positive integers.

Divide

mhj n

and

let a,

be the integral quotient and

the remainder.

Then

m
n
Divide
'

p
n
'

P nhj p
and
let a,

be the integral quotient and q

1

be the remainder.

Then
n
q
'

p
g

Divide p\>y q and let , be the integral quotient and r be the remainder, and so on.
Therefore

= n

a,

+
,

+
,

a,

CONTINUED FRACTIONS.
If

407

m<

n, the first integral quotient will be zero,

Put^ = n
The above
greatest

and proceed

as before.

m
process
is

the same as that of finding the

of
,

w and n, a, a,, , being the and k, being positive integers, are commensurable, the process must terminate after a
common measure
As
successive quotients.

finite

number

of divisions.
Tit

Cor.

Evidently

and

Ktyi-

-r^- will give the same contin-

ued fraction,
e.g.
1.

Eeduce

--- to

251

a continued fraction.
divisor of 351

Find the greatest common

usual method.

and 803 by the

251
quotients.

.251 ' 802 ~3 +5 +8

e.g.
2.

1111
1416

+6'

Eeduce 3.1416

to a continued fraction.

408

CONTINUED FRACTIONS.
3.

e.g.

Show

355
that
it

-^
by

is

a close approximation to

3.14159, differing from

less

than .000004.
7

14159

15
1

25
1

3.14159

- ^ + y ^ 15 1 25"^ i;^ ^ ^ ^ JijT

111111

The

successive convergents are

CONTINUED FRACTIONS.

409

Calculate the successive convergents to the following

continued fraction
9.

+L L L ^6+1+1
i

+ 11+2
1
i
6"

JL

1.

10.

2+2+3+1+2 +

1.

"
10

1111 2+3+1+4"
Find a

"^3

+ 1+2+2+1+9"

13.

series of fractions

converging to .24326, the

excess in days of the tropical year over 365 days.

14.

metre

is

39.37079 inches; show by the theory of

continued fractions that 33 metres are nearly equal to 35

yards.
15.

kilometre

is

very nearly equal to .63138 mile.

Show

that the fractions

*9

^j ,

ol

r^
103

are successive ap-

proximations to the ratio of a kilometre to a mile.

Two scales of equal lengths are divided into 162 16. and 209 equal parts respectively. If their zero points are coincident, show that the thirty-first division of one nearly
coincides with the fortieth of the other.
17.
is

The modulus

of the

common

system of logarithms

approximately equal

to .43439.
its

Express this decimal as

a continued fraction, find

sixth convergent,

and deter-

mine the

limits to the error

itself.

made

in taking this convergent

for the fraction

18.

The

base of the Fapierean system of logarithms

is

3.7183 approximately.
fraction, find
its

Express this decimal as a continued

in taking this convergent for the

eighth convergent, and determine the

limits to the error

made

fraction

itself.

410

CONTINUED FRACTIONS.

295, Periodic Continued Fractions.

When the

partial

quotients of a continued fraction continually recur in the same

order, the fraction
is

called aperiodic continued fraction.

is

periodic continued fraction

said to be simple or

mixed according
or not.

as the recurrence begins at the

beginning

Thus,
1

"""S+c+a
is

1111. + S+c
1

+'...

a simple periodic fraction.

L
is

1.

a+b-\-h-\-b-\-...
a

mixed periodic
296.

fraction.

Theorem
Eeduce

VII.

quadratic surd can

be

ex-

pressed as an infinite periodic continued fraction.

e.g. 4^8 to

a continued fraction.

The

integer next below

4/8

VS

is

2. 2.

Hence

= 2 + V^ as

V^
rational

expressed
is

an equivalent fraction with a

numerator
(

V^-2)(l/8
Vs

+ 2) _
"
4/8

+ 2'
"*"

.-.

i/8=:2

+ --=^^ = 2+ 1/8 + 2 V^+2

^^1/8
is 1.

The

integer next below

1/8

+2 _

Hence
1/8

=2+V = 2 + . %. 1^8-2 1+1/8-2

CONTINUED FRA0TI0N8.
1

411

=3+^
=
The

V8

2)(

V8

a)

^+^ + -/S 1

integer next below

+ VS + 3
2'

is 4.

Hence

V8+3=4+V8-2 = 4=
At
this point the steps

(V8-2)(4^ + 2)
V%-\-2

4 4+-^ = 4 + V+2

'

/8+
4

begin to recur

4/8-2
Thus Vs
is

1 1 L + 1 4+1 4+ 1 + +
""

seen to be equivalent to a periodic fraction

is

with one non-periodic element, which

quotient of the recurring portion.
for every quadratic surd.

half the last partial

This law holds good

in the recurring portion

for

Note in the above example that the last partial quotient the given surd. is an integer The following is a very compact and convenient form working such examples

f8
4/8

4 + 4/8 - 2 = 2 + y^+2'
,.

+2_

V8

2
1

+
___

4/8

+ 2'
,

V8

+ 2 = 4 + 1^-2 = 4+^=^

4/8+2

412

CONTINUED FRACTIONS.
V9,-\-%

ANSWERS.

ANSWERS TO GILLET'8 ALOEBBA.

EXERCISE
VI.

1.

70 and 105.
$1.30, $1.80, $1.35,

2.

37 and 45.

3.

and $0.54.

4.
6.

$45000, $30000, $34000, and $18000.

$100.00, $35.00, and $300.00.

EXERCISE
1.

VII.

2.
3.

5. 7. 8.
9.

- %ab + 9,ad + 6. in 20cx %5cy '6m 7 + 34c - 33J - 13a;. 18ra + 16a - 34S + 33c.
3

4&

-\-

-\-

b<?.
4.
6.

bx ~ ab - ac .+ 7a. 3a;+6a;+31, or 8a;+31.

52:-3(a + 35-3c) + 9; 5a;+ 3(- a - 35 + 3c)+ 9. 7a5-4c(3J-4Z-6c)+3; 7aS+4c(-36+4(Z+6c)+3. 37 - 2a\- 3c + 55 - 6) 37 + %a\Zc - 55 + 6).
10a;

10.

- 5{ - 42;^ - 5

A+

7)

10a;
VIII.

+ 5(4a;2+ 5A- 7).

9.

EXERCISE
1. 3.

8 and 13.

2.
;

3
;

and

Harness

= $60

horse

= $180
18.

carriage

= $480.
99.

4.

$3000 the first month, $5930 the second month, and $33730 the third month.
30. 35, 48,
6.

5.

36. 46.

7.

8.

133.

9.

10.

and

EXERCISE
1.

IX.

345 bushels in 331 in

all,

98 bushels of rye, and 70 bushels

of barley.
2.
3.

all,

154 baldwins, and 43 greenings.

miles,

miles, second and third 33 and fourth 80 miles. Louis had 330, and Howard 80. 4. First 77, second 81, and third 68. 6. Winning candidate 18156. Losing candidates 17344, 6. 17634, and 17400, respectively. to 31 miles, JV^to S% miles, and 8 to T S\ 7.

First and second 30

first

and

miles.

ANSWERS TO QILLET8 ALGEBRA.

i.

ANSWERS TO GILLET'8 ALGEBBA.

EXERCISE
XIII.
3. 6.

1.

25a.

2. 6.

37A.

sea&i*.

4. 7. 9.

56a;.

&3?.
8.

2a(?x.
8.

3i/2

Sfflc

5.
c.

4a2a;

-9x + 6ab +
19/12a;

10. 12.

5x^

- ax^ - 9ab - c?^ - c + 7.

(a;

11. 18. 15.

=
I).
6').

ly^a;.

7/121/.

+ 5(a + 5) 5(m + n).

16(a
c(a'
0.
4a;

14. le. 18.

a
4(5

t/)-

a;).

17. 19.

2a
a*

20.

21.
23. 28.

^5'
a;

+ + 2 + 5^. + +5 +
3/
a;2/.

22. 24. 26.

4. J + 5c + 3?. xy.
3a2
third 6500,

3a

+ 10c + M x.
and fourth

(Z.

First 7500, second 7000,

27.

(4a;

50) dollars.

28.
29.

8000
(a

dollars.

6000.

+ b)x mq
5

EXERCISE
1.

XIV.

(a
(3

3. 4.
5. 6.

aj

(mw + pq)x 2iy, + vi)x + (J + n)y. + 6J + 7a)a; - 6y + m + n. 8(a + J + + (S - 10)/. + 8 and + 8.

2.

l)a;

2a;

Albert

is

12 and

Howard

24.

7.

In 9 hours. a

72 miles and 54 miles.

b

-\-

9.

10.

U.
12.

'm)x + (J n)y + (c p)z. 2(^ - f)x ^^e-d)y + 4(/ + e>. l/12{8a + 95)j/ - 2(1 - 3a)a;. (2a 3J)a; (4a + b)y.
(fl

13.

Herbert
T

is
n

l/2a, and Horace a.

14.

In

a
^

ab
'

.,

hours,
c

b -' c

muss, and ^
b

ac

miles.
Q

ANSWERS TO GILLET'S ALGEBRA.

EXERCISE XV.
1.

Sa"

3a;

3.

23

+ + 4a2 _
142.

2.

ia
14.

-\-

2c.

iSa

+
5. 7.

4.
6. 8.

20aV
4/3a;2

10.
12.

- 7/2a; - 1/2. 2a 9& 8. 2 - 75 - 3.

has $72.50, and

16a^x.

4a5

a
a;

9.

- 2. - b + c. 8aV +
11.
a;^

13.

11.

and 18.

B
11.

$77.50.
14.

13. 15. 17.

19.

5x

-\-

y.

2a;
a;'

-\-

4:y -\-

7a

16. 18.

+ +
a;

1.

4(a

I).

2(c
a;

8.

a;).

2a\hx)-{-^ab{al).

20.

21.

6a

+m g

and

5m
g

6a
.

EXERCISE
1.

XVI.
3a;

2&

dab

m 2ly.

2ax.

2.

3. 5.

4c.

4.
6.

10a;
0.

2a. - 7y +
7.

52.
8.

9aa;

0.

3w.

EXERCISE
1.
a;

XVII.

(a

6).

2.

3_
5_

a;_(_a_(_3-2/). a;- (-a; + 2a -25).

a; ( a+5 c m+w).

4.
6. 8.

7.

9
11.
13.

a;-(-2a; + 2i-2w). lo. 12. a;- (2m + 3a -25). X {a-{-l-\-p q-\-m

EXERCISE
1.

- (m + n). - (35 - 2c - 5(Z). a;-(-3+a + 5). ( a + 5). - (- 2a; + 2a5 - m).

a; a; a;
a;

a;

x-{%am^b-\-p-q-n).

n).

XVIII.

m p-\-q-\-a
m-\-a
15aa;

2.
8.

b-\-p

4.

G-\-d.

n-\-k.
0.
7i.

iby.

8.

b-^s-\-t-\-m

6.

$8360, $16120, $23880, and $31640,

ANSWERS TO GILLETS ALGEBRA.

a-\-b
4
8.
-\-

3b

+c
9.

and

a+b
2
6&/

4
-{-

llax.

10. 12. 13.

2x
{in

2y.

11.

2ax 46.
5.

cz.

Q)y

2a;

+ 4a5

6, 18, 36, 54,

and

73.

EXERCISE XIX.
1.

31flJ.

SOa^b.
5.
.

3.

4.
7.

d'lr'xy^.

da^^xh^.

6. 9.

a^bcdm.

8.

abcdx*.
105a^m^xy^.

- 32a''a;y. 42m^wV/'. aWcxi^.

Aabmn.
i:ax^y^-

10.
13. 16.

11.

la.

168a5^mV.

14.

305^a;y2!.

17.

bgmny^ 15aWnx^yz.

18. 18.

^abgxyz*.

19.

20.

Zab^c^x^y,

21.
24.

iabexy.

22.
25. 28.

24:a*xY-

23. 26. 29.

m^n^x^.
da^bcdV.
Za^bcxy^.

a^bx*y^.

9acm^x^y^.

apqoc^y^ ^/bacm^n^x^.
=

27.
30.

EXERCISE XX,
1.
a;

20.

2.

a;

40.

3.

$19000, 19000, $12000, and $7000.

9, 10, 17, 19,

4.

and

26.
XXIII.

EXERCISE
1. 3. 5.

- ZQx'yh 3a;^

48W/V.
3a;.

2.

a'JV
a'Jc

+ ^xy +

4.
6.
8.

- a^JV. ab^c + aJc'.

aWc

- abV + a^Jc^.

UaV + 28aJ*.
56a;y

7.

15a;y-18a;y+34a;y.

+ 40a;y.
ff'S'c'*.

9.

10. 12.
14.

16. 17.

bx^yh"^ + 3oi?yV Sx^jfV. - 48a;5/825 + 96a;y2^ u. <dlx^y^ + lOSai^w* - 8a:y2 + 10a;y2*. _ aS&V + a'*^<;' + ^g _ 3^2 ^ 9/2a5 - 6ac. ^g a'J^c - aWc + a2J2c2_ - 5/3a;2 + b/ixy + 10/3a;. l/4^a; - l/165a; - 3/8aca;.

ANSWERS TO GILLET'S ALGEBBA.

18. 20.

7
_|_

21/2xhj

22.

- 3V + 7/3aV. - xY x^ + 16/49a;'/''.
1.

19.

o/2a*x^

21.

\/27?f

- 5/3aV - S^y.

^3^4^

EXERCISE XXIV.
1.

0^

2. 4.

ai'z/
al^ 3.4

S. 5. 7.

-3a;5

+ 9a;^-3a;^+12a;l
3^8

+ x^
a;* a;= aj^

a;3 _(_
2/^^-

2; _|_

3^

+ + ^ x^ x - 1.
s'^.*/^

^"it-

i^x^
9.

_)_

gg_
x'^y^

10.

+ y^ a;=+5a;*4-10a;5+10a;2 + 5a;+l.
8.
a;'

a;''

+
=

y*.

11.
13,

a;

11.

12.
14.

120000, 152000, and $48000.

5.

15. 16. 18. 19.

+ lOaV - 13aV + 13a*a; - 6a\ 4^a;^ + 3a*x

5ax^
a".

a;*+2a;"y a;^ 4:a;y a;y+29;/'+4/^

a? {a b 1 + a^
a;

17.

a;*

a*.

20.
22. 24.

(5c c + ab)x + 5c. + 2a;* + + 27a;^ 642/^21. 640826 - 125JV. 125aV + 37Sy. 23.
-\a;^ a:^ a;' a;*
a;'.

c)x^

b^.

1300, $550, and $350.

25.

8.

EXERCISE XXV.
1.

2.
3.

4.
5.

7.

8.
9.

10.

+ 27? + 4. + - 2x^ - 2af - 5x* - + + - 222;^ - 5x^ + + 2x^ - 10a;= + 2x^ + + 3a^ - 3x^ + - 4. 1 1 + + 6x\ 1 + + 19a;8 4 + 12a;3 + +^+ + 2x^ + +
9a;* 3a;s

6a;

a;

a;''

a;^

5a;2

9.

5a;*

5a;

1.

7a;=

5a;*

4a;

6a;'
a;

5a;.

6.

lafi

8a;2

15a;*.

9a;
a;'

4a;*-

a;^

2a:'

a:'

a;^

1-

5a;'

2a;=

6a;*

Sa;^.

EXERCISE XXVI.
1.

bxy.

2. 6.

3a^.

3.

^a^.
5/'.

4.
8.

tx^y.
9c^.

6.

17a;.

9.

2a;V.
9a;2/V.

10.

lloi^y.

7.

3o?b.
13.

11.

4:/ha^y.
lf>{x
-\-

12.

yY;fi.

8
14.
16. 18.

ANSWERS TO QILLETB ALGEBRA.

5%a^h\c

- 5)V. - dYxf. -Mc{b-dfy.

39(a

15.
17. 19. 21, 23.

ZOcd(a

Vfod^yK

6(a

Vfx.

14a;(5

20.
22.

3aV.
a;

c)a;.

21x*y.

=
-\-

60.

48 and 133.

EXERCISE XXVII.
1.

x^ a'

xy

-\-

y^.

2.

c^
8a;'

ab

-\- i-

3.

5. 7. 9.

%a% + 5^5/6*-l/5a3&-l/3aW.
5a;^^

4.
6.

+
2a25

Z^x^y

+
-

37jr3.

^a.
4c.
c.

63;^^

+
4.

8.ry.

8.

3a " 35

3a;

3^

10.

3/3a

1/65

EXERCISE
1.

XXVIII.
3.
a;

4.
7.

a;

3. 3. 4a; 3.
a;

2. 5.
8.

a:

3. 3. 4.
11.
a;

7.

3a;
5a;

6. 9.

3a;
7a;

+ 8. + 5.
a;

10. 12. 14.

a;^

-\-

a;_v

y"^.

/.

9V +
"ix"
a;^

13a5a;

+ 165^
Sy^.
1.

13.

2V a;=

3c58.

+
X

5a;2/

16.
18.

3a;^

x^

+ +
3a;

15. 17.
19.

y.
6.

20. 22. 26.

30.

a;2+.5a;
8.

+
23. 27. 31.

21.

5.

8.

24.
28.
32. 35.

a;

18.

5.

7a; 45.
a;^ a;*

34.
86.

1/3.
a;

37.

3a;

+ + etc. + + + etc.
a;^

- Sa;^ + + 1. :^ xy y^. x^ 2x 3. 72 - 55 + SS^. 5. 5. 25. 10. 29. 10. 39a'+37. 0. 83. 0^ - \/1x + 3/4.
-\-\-

3a;2

Sa;'

38.

3(a;

= =

yf

4(a;

- yf 2.
a; a;

{x

y).

EXERCISE XXIX.
1.
a;
a;

5-^.

4. 7,

20.

5.

= 3. 11,

3.

3.

6.

31 doz.

8 sheep.

ANSWERS TO QILLETS ALGEBRA.

EXERCISE XXXII.
1.

S.

x^y^.

3. 6. 9.

81a;y2^

4.
7.

5.
8.

125xh/.

10.

81a^a;.

11. 14.

12. IS.

4/9a*a;i.

13. 16.

^ZiV.

EXERCISE
1.

XXXIII.
2.
4.
ffl^

3. 6. 7. 9.

a^ \Qxy 25y^. 9a;^ Qxy + 81a;2 - 36cey + 4y. p^q^ 2pqr r^.
-\/^.

6a5

+ W.

Gad

+ W.
Dt/^.

4a;2
9a;2

6.
8.

+ 12xy + + 2,0xy +
2abcx
-\-

SSt/^.

35252
a;^

\Qabc

-\-

lo. 12.

c^.

aW(?.

11. 13.

a^x^

+ iabxy
2ax

-\- 4b^y'^-

16
x

15.
17.

- 8a; + al - 2/dbx + l/9b\

-\-\- a'.

14.
16. 18.

a;2

x^

+ 4/3aa; + 4/9a2. - 3aa; + 9/4a2. 16 + +

x^
8a;
a;^.

EXERCISE XXXIV.
1.

2.

ffiS

+ + + + + + 4a; + 10a;2 + 20a; + 25a;* + 2'kc' + 1 + 4a: + 10a;2 + 30a;3 + 25a;* + 34a;5 + 36a; + + 40a;8 + 25a;K'. 3 ^ _ 3a& %ac - 25c 2ad + %bd 2cd. 9a + 452 + c + + 13a5 - 6ac; - 45c + %ad. + 4&cZ - 2cd.
1 1
4a;2
9a;*

4a;

63;^

13a;S.

16a;.

30a;''

_(_

_j_ c3 _|_

_(_

(?

EXERCISE XXXV.
1.

a?

-\-

Zaa?

-\-

ia^x

-\- a^.

2. 4.

01?

3aa;^

3fl^a;

a'.

3. 9.

a^-6x^y+12xy^-Sy^.
27x^

^x^-\-\2x^y'-\-Qxy'^-\-y^-

135a;2/

225xy^

125y\

6. 7. 8.

aW + Za%h + 35c2 + c\ 8aW ma%^c + 545c' - 27c^ 125a= - Iba^hc + 15a5V - 5V.

10
9.

ANSWEBS TO QILLETS ALGEBRA.

^+
64a;

10.

12a;y 64/, ^^xY 240a;y SOOa;^?/* - 1352/.

EXERCISE XXXVI.
1.

a^

3a;2

+ + 1.
a;

2. 5.

l/3a^
3

5.

l/3a;/
6.

+ l/4/2
42.

3.

4 and

9.

4.

5 and 8.

and

EXERCISE XXXVII.
1.

a*5c.

2. 5.

8a^/9.

3.

3aJc.

4.

- na%\
a^ 42 a'

x^yh.

6.

a;'^^.

EXERCISE XXXVIII.
2

1.

2. 4. e.
g.

a;^

3a^a;

ax^.
4c*.

2a^
7. 9.

11.

13.

a;*

- 35a; + 2Jl 'io^y + y^. x^ %oi?y 4a;y^ + 5a;' %xy + _^

4a;
2a;/^
/^
a;

+ 4aV _

a;3

10. 12.

/'.

a;^ + 3a;' 4a;/ 3/. 2a; - 5a; + 3. _ 3a;2 ^ 3a; _ 4. - 3 - a^ + 2a'. 2 l/2xy /.
/'.

a;^

EXERCISE XXXIX.
1.

106929.

2.
5.

14356521.

3. 6.

714025.

4.
7.

25060036.
.00092416.

387420489.
.00000784.

25836889.
4816.36.

8.

9.

10.

1867.1041.

11.

1435.6521.

12.

64.128064.

EXERCISE XL.
1.

3789.
3.1319.

2.
6.

5006.

3. 7.

5083.

4.
8.

139.63.

5.

.9486+.

2.4919+.
XLI.
a;'

.0923+.

EXERCISE
1.

a'+3a2+3ff+l.
a'a;'

2.

6a;2

3.

4.
6.

3 aV/ + 3aa;/ /. 8?w' 12to^ + 6m 1. 64a' - 144a2Z> + 10Sa - 27Z>'.

+ 12a; + 8.

ANSW^ms TO GtLLET'S ALGEBRA.

6.
7. 8.

11

1
1

9.

10.

+ Qx^ + Ix^ + 6x* + Zx^ + + 2W - 44a;3 + 63a;* - 54x5 _ 2,a\ + 13aS2 - I2ahc + Sac^ + W ^3 - VlVc + - ^. 8 - 36a5 + 66rt - 63ff3 + SSa^ - 9a + - lOa;^ + 12a;* - 13a; + lOa;" 1 + - x\ +
3x 6x
.

+
-

_(_

27a;6.

_)_

Qg2i)

6J6'^

1.

3a;

6a;2

6a;"

3a;8

EXERCISE
1.

XLII.
3. 6.

-X.

2.

4.

%xy
1

a;

z^.

5.

+ + 8&.
1

2a;.

4a;
2a;

3y.
3a;^.

7.

+ +

X
a;^.

8.

-g-^--etc.
9
XLIII.
3.

EXERCISE
1.

2460375.

2.
5. 8.

11089567.

1191016.
102503.232.

4.
7.

17173512.
820.025856.

109215352.
20910.518875.

6.

9.

056633104.

EXERCISE XLIV.
1. 5. 9.

478.
37.55.

2.
6.

3.84.

3. 7.

4.68.

4.
8.

9.36.

1.587+.
15
ft.

10.

1.357+. .7368+.
ft.

11.

.5848+ 3.045+
a;

12.

.2154+. 2.503+.

13.

14.

2.
4c2.

15.
17.
19.

by 12

16.
18.

3^3

1.

48

ft.

by 40
20.

ft.

90 of port and 150 of claret.

44.

EXERCISE XLV.
1.

14a;

- 43a; + 20.
3a;

2. 4.
6. 8.

30a:2

3.
5.

28
x^
a;2

7.
9.

x^ X x^
a;2

47a; + 15a;^ + 16a; + 63. + 54.

30
a;2 a;2

30.

10. 12.

30a; _ 8a; + 15. - 4a; - 77. x^+3x 38.

x^

62a;

+ 48.

11.

+
-

6a;

+ 9.

13.

64.

14.

:s*

-8x +
36.

16.

12
16.
17. 19.
35a;"''

ANSWERS TO GILLET'S ALGEBRA.

+ SOa'
19.-;;

108.

16.

'^'2-t?

+ 13a; - 34.
6a;

34a;2

175.

18.

18a;'

180.

4aa;3-(5+4J)a;+5J.
5a^a;'

20.

18aa;''+(24a+6c)a;+8c.

21. 22.
23.

+ {ah 5ac)x be. (3a + 2ab)x^ - (a5 + 6* - 2ac)a; - 5c.

34

- 36a;

lOSa;^.

24.

63

- 44a;

32ay^.

EXERCISE XLVI.
1.

3.
5. 7. 9.

- 47a;2 + 21. 30a; - 16a;3 - 33. 21* - 202^ _ 96.

20a;*

2. 4. 6. 8.

+ 47a;* + 20. + 54yi' + 3/ - 77.

21a;8
43a;"'
4a;=

6.

a;+12Vi"+35.

6a;
9a;

Vx"-

48.

11.
13. 15.

17.
19.

21.
23.

49. b. 5i8 - 18m* + 16. s" + s^ - 56. 49. 4a;* - 16. 9a; - 175.
X
a?
(?

10. 12.

14.
16.

18.

+ 24 Vx+ 16. 5. 3w + 21^3 - 180. a" - 3a'' - 99. m^ 36.

wi
25a*a;

20.

45.

9.

22. 24.

36a;

147.

x^

-\-

4.

4a;* -|-

EXERCISE
1.

XLVII.

{a

2.

3.

+ xf-Z{a + a;)-28 = + (2a-3)a;+a2-3a-28. (m + x)^ m-\-x72 ~ x^{2ml)x-\-m^-\-m 73. {x-if + 4(.a;-5)-45 = 3~'-{2b-i)x + P-U-i5.
a;'

-{-

4.
6. 7.

(a; to)' 5(a; ot)

x^
(a;
a;^

m-^5. - 4)2 - (a;

8.

a;"

84=a;^ {3w+5)a;+m'4-5 84. x^ Z a. a)' = {2a - 8)a; - a^ + 16. 1 - 3a;8 + + + 1.

6.
-\a;

9.

3a;*.

10.
13.

X = 5^Vj' (a;- 5)2{x

a;

11(a;

54-

days.

12.

30 min.

+6)2= -

22a;-

11.

14. 16. 18.

+ 7)2 23.

(a;

I6.

5)2
a;

= 34a; + 24. 23. =

If.

17.

x^

11.
7a;

19.

3.
a;

20.
23.

220

x-\-5, - 16a:.

21.

+ 148.

22.

44 hours.

AlfSWERS TO QILLET'S ALGEBRA.

EXERCISE
,1.
4,
6. 8. 9.

13

XLVIII.
3.

7?-\-

aK
cl

2.

x^

^
T^ x^

27.
6. 7.

x^

343.

8x'

27aK
49.

+ 4.x+ 16. + 2x' + 3x* + + 3'dx' g.-r^

4aV Uax^ +
sg^-io
g^jia.

4:X^

+ 3x^ + 2x+l. 63:r + 663;8 _ ^

11. 13.

10.

a+

1/2753.

12.

l/125aV2+l/2165%i5.
l/16aa:i

14.

- 8/27SV. 9fflV + aV + l/9aV.

l/8ffV

l/24a8J3a;

+ 1/365V^
2.

EXERCISE XLIX,
1.

x^
a;2
a;''

+
-

3. 5. 7. 9.

a;2
a;2

+ 16. + 9/4. + + 49/4. - 3/4a; + 9/64. + + ^74.

8a; 3a;
7a;
Ja;

m^
w^
t/^

4. 6. 8.

10m + 25. - 5w + 35/4. - 9/ + 81/4.

y
-\-

z^
a;^ y'^

10.
12.

+ 5/6^ + 25/144. - hlx + 25JV4.

1/4.

11.

0? -\-x-\- 1/4.

EXERCISE
1.

L.

a;

+
-

3. 5. 7. 9.

X*
a;

+ 5x^ + 25/4.
6a;5

9.

2.

4.
6. 8.

+
-

ia;3

a;!"

2/3a;=

+ b^/4. + 1/9.

l%m^ + 36. + 7a^ + 49/4. - + 1/4. n^ - 3/4^^ + 9/64.

m^

a^
z*

z^

(a;+2)>=+6(a;+2)+9.

10.

(a;-5)2-3(a;-5)+9/4.
LI.
a;^

EXERCISE
1.
a;''

3. 5. 6. 8.

a:2

12a;+ 36 6. + 16 18. a;2-7a; 4-49/4-233/20. + 49/4-52/4. l/16a;* + l/2a;3 + ix^ + 32a; + 256.

8a;

2.

7a;

4.

27 days.

7.

3^ days.

y^-2y

+ 81/4 -

69/4.

9.

2+ll2+121/4-149/4.

10.

arS+to+&V4-*-^^.
72 miles.

12.

f-by+b^i-^^. 16/81a;* - 40/27a;3 + lOO/Oa;^ - 250/3a; + 625.

11.

13.

14.

5,^ hours.

14

ANSWERS TO OtLLBT'S ALOBBRA.

EXERCISE
Lll.

1.

3a;

+ 9/4.

g.

x^
a;^

--bx
9a;

-)-

25/4.

3.

x^-3x+ 9/4. 4. + (x + ay - 5/3(a; + a) + 25/36.

+ 81/4.

6.

AmWBRS
7.

XO 61LLETS ALOBBRA.
8.
(?/

15

9.

13)(a;-l). (a+2)(fl!-6).
(a;

5)(2/

- 13).

10.
12.

(5+.23)(S
86.

+ l).
65).

11. 13. 16.

16.

ft.

3(2

+ )(2 +

a).

14.

3(4a

3(3rt2

5a;2)(3rt2

+ 65)(4a 17).

b3?-).

5a;(5aa:^

3a;2/^)(5fl!3^^

"ixy'^).

17.
19.

+ 10)(a; + 4).
11).

18.

(+l)(2:(a:

(a;+ l)(a;-

20.
22.

+ 29)(a; + 1).

21.

lOy

hours; 21tV hours.

67.
LVI.

EXERCISE
1.

,(a;

3.
6. 7.

+ 5)(a;+7). + 4)(a; - 8). {x-l){x + Q). - 8)(a; + 3).

{x
2(a: (2a;

2.

(x
(

4.
6.
8.

3)(a; 3)(a;

- 9). + 10).

9.

11. 13.

- l)(3a; - 7). (5a; - 3)(7a; + 12). A can do it in 17-^

13^ days.
2(2
(5

lo.
12.

+ 5)(a;-4). + 5)(3a; + 11). (4a; + l)(5a: + 8). 4(7a; + 5)(2a; - 5).

(a (

days,

in 14|| days,

and C in

14. 16.
18.

- a:)(3 + 4a;).
3a;)(7

15.
17.

-(-

4a;).

20. 21. 22. 24.

5)(Ja; + 7). (x {a b))(x+

{ax

19.

- 7a;)(2 - 3a:). + 7)(3a; - a). {ax b){cx d).

4(6
(2a;
-\-

{a+b)).
23. 25.
7(a;

({a

+ b)x + 2)({a-b)x-4:).
6)(a;

3(a;+
93.

3).

6)(a:

+ 5).
3).

10(a;-2)(a;+7).

5a(3a;

2)(5a;+

26.

EXERCISE
1.

LVII.

44.
x^

2.

3. 5. 7.

X,

28.

9.

y'-if = 0. r-2/" = 0-

11.

f + y' = ^y'-

16
13.

ANSWERS TO QILLETS ALGEBRA.

y'

+ y' = 'if.
a/"-

14. 16.

-/"

/"

0-

16.

'f^-y'"^

y''-\rt'=
LVIII.

^2/"-

EXERCISE
1.

It

is.

2.
5.

It It

is.

3. 6.

It It It

is.
is.

4.
7.

It is not. It is not. It
is.

is.

8.

It is not. It is not.
It is not.

9.

is.

10. 13.
16.

11.
14.

12. is.

It is not.
It It
is. is.

It is not. It is not.

17.

It
It

is. is.

18.

19.

It is not.
a;^

20.

21.

22.
23.

01^
a;'

24.

+ Ix- + SV + 5V + x^ + Wx + It? 5V hH + h^ with 2S= as remainder. + + SV + SV + l^x-\- with 26" as remainder. - h^x^ + - with x' - bx^ + iV - &V +
&.
-\-

Sa;"

S*a;^

6a;

5''

2J* as remainder.
26. 26.
27.
a;* a;" a;'

28.

+ 5V + Wx with 2&' as remainder. _ ^ + &V - 5V + bx^ b^x + x^-ba^ + b^a? - bV + b^x - .

+
Sa;'
-\-

by?

_|_ 543.2

js^.

j6_

-\-

6^.

AJfSWMBS TO OILLET'S ALOEBBA.

EXERCISE LX.
1.

17

3. 6.

13i hours. 50 days, 21^ days.

A's 11650, B's $1320.

2. 4.

120 hours.
36.
s.

27 days.

EXERCISE
1.

LXI.
3.

5oi?y.

2. 5.

Ixhfz.

l%abcd.

4. 7.

a;y.

17a*iV. + -". 14a; + 6. 6a; + "+18aj' 15a;"+^^ 8a;'" + ^ 24a;" + ^ 20a;* + - 303;^ + + I 12a;'" + 1/2 36a;" +

8.

3a;

62;"

- 4a;^
EXERCISE

y y y

LXII.

1.

18

ANSWERS TO QILLET'S ALGEBRA.

'

ANSWERS TO GILLET'S ALGEBRA.

EXERCISE LXIX.
2a X
3a;

19

3ab
'

X
4.

4c

a
x-\-b
7.

~W
2x
-

x-r
11.

8.

3a:

+1
y w
24^a;*
14.

x"

3"

10.

a;-f2'

3a;
12.
a;

+9
3
13.

3a;

4a;

EXERCISE LXX.
\%a?c^
2.

4^a;^

12.

13.

14.

IS.

20
19

ANSWERS TO GILLET'8 ALOEBBA.

X^^
a;*""

^.Sm+n

_j_ -I-

^mi-Hn
ajS^+S"

^3_
_1_ ^.m+Sn.
l

20

4-

3;'+"

^^n^

EXERCISE LXXI.
1.

1.

2.

a!

-.

3.

l/x. '
ISa;^

4.

'

^ X

x^
5.

13a;
a;

+ 42 r +4

-26^
a;

+8

" 6.

+7

?!?
7.

ax
'

c?

2a4.

ANSWERS TO OILLETS ALQEBEA.

^

21

100(5

a)

n
-'

9.

27y\ minutes after 5 o'clock.

rp q+l

10.

and

q+1
2. 6.

,'

EXERCISE LXXV.
1.

-3f
1. 7.

11.

3.

7.

4.

-8.

5.

3.

If.

7.

1.

10.

8.

9.

10. 14.

11.
IS.

12.

1.

2.

'l3.

1/4.

-3rV
3.

If.

EXERCISE LXXVI.
1.

5f
1/3.

2.

6.

9-j-\.

4.

1.

5.

li.

EXERCISE LXXVII.
1.

2.
6.

41.

3.

4i.
3.

4. 7.

-4/7.

lif.

6.
9.

H.
-

8.

-4i.

3^.
SyVa.

10.

0.

11.

-^

ah

cd
-.
12.

EXERCISE LXXVIII.
1.

55 minutes.
$30000.

2.

3. 5.

4.

37^ min. and 25 min. $84000.

6.

A 39

miles and
first
-^^

37 miles.
5-^,

283.

7.

536.
=-^.

8.

Of the

and
10.
12.

of the second

9.

11.
13.
1.5.

$750 and $500. $15.36 and $4.56.

300.
14.

192 miles.

Hound

72 and fox 108.

cents,

Man

84 cents, boy 42
18.

85 gallons of spirits and 35 of water.

1500.
17.

16.

28.

3 shillings.

EXERCISE LXXIX.
1.

V?.

2.
6.

VliK

3.

4/9^.

4.

V2baV.

V^aF.

6.

V-iUxY

22

ANSWEES TO GILLET'8 ALGEBRA.

1.

Vl/miV

or

i-^.
1/16

8.

Vl/9aY
4/

or

^^-^.
"1/9
i\

9.

/ %'

25ffiV

or

V25aV
'";Z.
.

10.

|/9ji

+ 2aJ +

11.

AMSWJEBS TO QILLET'S ALGEBEA,

23

9.

^7-Vt VlOx^ + x-2. 3a; 4" 1

3a;

10.

5-^-^ Vl2z^-iGx+i2.
3a;

11.

TT^T. i/20 4

+ 7a;-6xl

12.

4a;

Vl3a;2

+ 7 - 13.

EXERCISE LXXXIII.
1.

18

1/3".

2.

37 V2.

3.

^^15"-^

4.

3/5 p6.

5.

35a2a; VSa;.

6.

i^.

7.

18ab

V2aW.

8.

EXERCISE LXXXIV.
1.

4 Vs.

2.

0-1

3a>b

h.

3/T-

3.

3& V^.

4.

25V3a.
(13c

5.

90^6.
8.

6.

-\9aVab.
^'^

7.

Zbcd ) V2^.

ic-x -^zr~xj

-'^-

EXERCISE LXXXV.
1.

96

^.

2.

|i

H.

3.

34

i/6.

4.

1/34/6".

5.

^4/5:

6.

iai'S^.

7.

6 6

VT0

+7
6a;

4/15
9.

+ 8 4^6 + 34.
6

8_

11.
13.

+ 4^. 6a + 5 4^0^ 64/5 + 14.

33-104/7.
a;

l^aT13. 14.

46.

10.

3 V^.

3 4^7

- 47.

15. 17.

16.
18.

+ 18 4/^ + 81.
3

53-144/5. a; + 7 4/^+ 13. x + Vx - SO.

19.

a;

^^+

3.

20.

2.

24
21. 23. 25. 27.
29.
31.

ANSWERS TO QILLET'S ALGEBBA.

lb-\-iVTI.
2a;

22.

Vx^

'dx

40.

+ +
3

2 Va;^

+ 3a; - 24.
26.
4:h.

24.

V'a;^

49.

3a;+2
24:a^x
25a;
34fl3

V'a;2- 9.

15a;2

Va^

i3(jj

_^ 42.

8a

58

VUx + 28. - 24 Vx^ - x - 42.

34.

35a5a;

245a&.
63a^ Va;*
32.
a;

30.

98^2 -f 30a2 i/a^

25a;5

-2a- 15.
35.

33.

+ 2.

36.

9aV - 72aV -

- 13. - 175a;*.

- 16. - 29. -7x 26.

EXERCISE LXXXVI.
1.

ANSWERS TO OILLET'S ALGEBRA.

26.

25

2+^.
Vax.

27.

^. y
4
-f-

28."

-i^.
5

29.

80.

VTs^

EXERCISE LXXXIX.
1.

y'lOO,
12,"

Vl25,
/:')S

and

Vll/2.

2.

V(fl

V(a-&),
4.

and

^{a?-\-x^f.
5.

3.

V'lom.

1/^1/ ~.
4
3/2 1^8/3.

k'^

6.

2/-^.
14.
13.
2. 6.

7.

EXERCISE XC.
1.

8.

3.

20.

4.
8.

2|.
2.

5.

6/5. ItV14.

7.

144.
5.

9.

4f|.

10.

11-

12.

12.

13.

{a-hf.
3/4.
23.
20.

-^^(

IS.

1/6.

16.
19.

IT.

Va

21.

If42i.

18.

2/5.

1.

22.

9a/10.

EXERCISE XCI.
1.

24/17.

2.

l|i.

3.

3i.

4.

12^.
25/168.

5.

?^^^l
(-^^.
XCII.

6.

8/45.

,.

8.

EXERCISE
1.

16.

2.

1/64.
6. 9.

1/5.
7.

4.

1/6.

5. 8.

1/1000.
a-^'^^'^.
fli/s _|_

36.
*/^6^^-

W^
a-^5-'/^.

10. 12.
14.
a;2/=/2

11'
13"

ji/3

a:</3.

aVV/5

a^ftyy^.

a;^/^^'''^

+ ay^+ a^/^/^

26
?/>

ANSWmS
1

TO BtLLBT'B ALGBBMA.

16.4/^'-^.
i,-,..

16.

-TI aWb

1
3 ya

...

20. 28.

1
a?

- 'J?^\

21.

a'/*

2a;8/2

+3+

2a;-8/

+ l^*+

22.

a^

1.

a;-^.

4n

2tc

2n

4k

25.

a;V2
a;^/*
a;^/'

2/'/'.

26.

a;"'

27.
28.
29.

a;^/^

- a;Vy/3 + ^s/s. - Zx^^yy^ + x'^^.

?/.

a;'i/'

+/'.

4a:*/5/i/2

83?/^^*

16/.

80. 31.

Vio
a;

+ flS/iV/^ 4- aV%3/5

-(- aVi0a;S/5 _j_ a;V5.

EXERCISE
1.
a; a; a;
a; a;

XCIII.
s.

4.
7. 9.

11.

= 2, = 3. = 4, = !. = 5, = 6. = 3, = 1. = 3, = 8.
?/

2. 6.

a;

2/

= 3, y = 5. x = 2, y = \. = 1, y 2. a;= 3,2/=4. x 1, y 2. = 7, = 5. lo. x = 2, y = 3. 12.

6. 8.
a-

15.

17.

a;

19.

21.

23.

= 15, y = 16. = 2, y = 1/2. X 5, y = 5 a ^ X = 7 y = a " a x = a,y = h.

X
_
'^

16. 18.

a;

.r

20.

rt-

= 3, ^ = 2. = 1, = 7. = -^, w =
?/

1)C

ac
--,.

c
=.

22.

a'

2o

y ^

= 2a o.

24.

^.'y = ^^-

ANaWUBB TO GILLET'S ALGEBRA.

7a

27

+ 85

8rt

-h lb

EXERCISE XCIV.
1.

7aiidl.

2.

8/15.
6.

3.

45.
it

4.

54.

5. 7. 8.

58 years and 18 years.

Each would do

in 50 days.

9.

10.

Tea 28 cents a pound, and sugar 3 cents. gals, from the first and 3 gals, from the second. 2 gals, from the first and 10 gals, from the second. Tea 30 cents a pound, and sugar 3^ cents.

EXERCISE XCV.
1.

= 2, y = Z, 2 = 4.

2.

x=l,

3.

i,

x-1,
^ = 3, z= -5. x= 15,

5.

= - 2, = Z. z x = A,
2/

6.

2/=z=2.
8.
a;
/

3,

1.

y^l8,
2
10.
a;

=
=
5n

20.
8,
/

= 3, = 6, = 9.
3n

9.

= 3, = 5, 2 = - 3. = 3/3, y = 3/3, z = 5/6. = 9, y= 18, z = 6.

a;

2/

a;

a;

=
fin

6,

=
7n

5.

11

3a;"6" _(-

42;^
2

I3a;'^

- 6a;* + lOa^'.

12. 13.

a;2_^a;
4a!V3
_)_

^a^^ + ^
_j_

a;

'

35a4/s

ig^a

12^

aj^.

24.x^/\

EXERCISE XCVI.
1.

3. 5.

6.

37, 25, and 16. 2. 9, 11, and 18. $33, and $16. 4. A, $420; B, $640; C, $1040. $24, A in 40 days, B in 120 days, and C in 60 days. A in 10 days, B in 15 days, and C in 12 days.

7I

234.
2rst

8.

253.
-r,

9.

428.
;

2rst
'

10.

A,

rs-|-s# r^'
,

B,

rs + s^ + r^'

^ O,
'

2rst

rs s^-|-?-^

28
11.
still

ANSWERS TO OILLBT'8 ALGEBRA.

Eate of stream, 3 miles per hour; rate rowing in

water, 10 miles per hour.

12.

Rate of the current, 3 miles per hour; rate of crew

water, 13 miles per hour.

in

still
13.

Eates 36 and 37 miles per hour respectively, and Eates 35 and 30 miles per hour respectively, and

distance 756 miles.

14.

distance 330 miles.

15.

15 persons, and 5 dollars a piece.

16.

Number

of

persons ^

om

an

'

each

received

^+^) am an
1.

dollars.

EXERCISE XCVII.
{x

+ V^^){x -

V^^).

2.
4. 6.

3.
6.
7.

(a;+4 V~i)(x-4:
b{x

V^).

3(a;

8.

9.

10.

11. 12.

+ V5){x - Vb). %{x + 1/3 V&){x - 1/3 VQ). 3(a; + 1/3 V'^^15){x - 1/3 V- 15). b{x + 1/5 \^){x - 1/5 VlO). 4(a; + 1/4 V- 12){x - 1/4 f- 13) = 4(a; + 1/8 V'^){x - 1/2 V^^), ^x + 3/3 V3)(a; - 2/3 4^). 7(a; + 1/7 V- 35)(a; - 1/7 V'^^).
EXERCISE
XCVIII.

+ Vf){x - V^). + Vz){x - VE). 7(a; + V^^){x- V^^).

{x

2.

3(a;

+ l/3)(a; + 3).

ANSWERS TO OILLBT'S ALGEBRA.

4.

29

6(x

-4 +
12

'^^8V

-412 2

-^^8'

yf+

'I
,

= 6U
5.

+ V22\f^

-V^22 \

4(3;
2(a;

3 4- V^^~87\f

3- V- 87
7.

6.

8.

10.

+ 4)(a;+l). 7{x + l){x + 2/7). + 3)(a;-3/3).

3(a;

66f at $25, and lOSi at $40.

7{x

9.

+ 2+V5){x + 2~V5).

11.

30
17.
a;2

AmWEllS TO GIILBT'S AL&MMA.

19.

21,

a;^

- 4a; - 4 = 0. - 18a; + 85 = 0. 34a;8 - 44a; + 21 = 0. 2a;

x^
a;

i8.

x>

lOx

20.

'^53?

35a;

+ 23 = 0. + 13 = 0.

22-.

- ^^
x
3
X

23.

+
-

7-.
3

24.

a;

EXERCISE
1.

CI.
3.
3.

7,

1/3.

2. 6. 8.

2,

2, 3.

4.
7.

4, 5, 3, 5,

1/4.
e^V.

1,

1, 2.

6.
9.

-3/4,-9/4.
a, l/.

7/32.

10. 13.

13/11.

11.

2, 1/3.

12.

1/2,

- 3.
-3.
10.

1/6.

EXERCISE CM.
2. 6.

5/7, 3/4. 3/3,

3.

a, i.
6,

4.

3/4,
6,

5/4,

6.

9.

7.

8.

3/3, 3/4.

9.

^ll,^.

EXERCISE cm.
1.

2. 3.

4.
6.

15 and 8, or - 33/2 and - 37/3. 3, 4, and 5, or 1, 0, and 1. 30 and 8, or 14 and 26. 5, 6, and 7, or 1, 0, and 1.
1, 3, 3,

6.

4 and

3.

4; or
or

5, 6, 7, 8.

7.
8.

3, 4, 5, 6,

4/3,

1/3, 3/3, 5/3.

9.

30 barrels; 6 dollars a barrel.

160.
11.

10.

8 miles an hour.

12.

7 miles

$80 or 120. an hour.

EXERCISE
1.

CIV.
3.

-3, -4.
1,

2.
5.

20,
1, 1,

-6.

5, 3, 2,

-5/2.
1/2.

4.
7.

41.

3^.

6.
9.

4,

-4i

8.

-3/4.
1/3
.

-3/9.
,

w
10.

1 /o 7,-1/3.

11.

6 5

12.

a-\-b,a
,

h.

AMWBMS
13.

TO GILLET'8 ALGEBRA.

81

a, 3ai.
0,

14.

ab.

is.

a, b.

16.

a-\-o

--7,

ir.

2ff 6,

35 3a.

18.

a,l/a. '

19.

b,'^.

20.

|(-34/3).
3/6,-2/3.

21.

VH^^.
3,

22.

l/8(-25V33).

23.

24.

+ 1/6.

EXERCISE CV.
1.

3.

30 and 40 miles per hour. '^ hours.

36/3

2.

40 and 45 miles per hour.

4.

^^ hours.
1
,

aV^'

1
7.

(to
'

512-

"
(x

)&? c5 + ^a;

"

9.

c'

-T^.
0''

10.

22/)(7a;

11).

EXERCISE
1.

CVI.

5/2, 3/2.

2.

6.

2/3 Vd,
5,6.
8.

6.

Vb.

S.

6,

5f._

4.
7. 9.

1^, 1/2 4^. 1/2 V3, 1/3

3/2,

VQ.

2/3, -/S, 1/3 1^31. 1/6 Vq, 1/3 V%.

2.

10.

3/5,

4/7.

13.

1,

1/2.

14.

-^121, 4.
evil.

EXERCISE
1.

3 miles

an hour, 34 hours.

2.

5 miles an hour, 5| hours.

3&2

_ 75aV
25^?

31

^5

+ 85

3-

5.

8 days.

6-

11 16 <%s.

82

ANSWERS TO OILLBT'S AL6BBBA.

EXERCISE
CVIII.
a;

1.

a;

3,

2/

a;=_3,
3.
a;

= 5, /=5.

2.

= 7/3, y= x= - 7/3, =
/

5/2,
5/3.

3V3, y=%'/b, x=3V2, y=)lV5.

25, 9/16.
{a^ + fa-^-'^ -

4.

x='5mn,y={m+3n), x=n3m, y {m+'3n).

6.

6.

243,

^^^

7.

c\

8.

{5x

+ 8b){x - 2a).
y
6,
2/ 2/

EXERCISE CIX.
I.
a;

3.

a;

= 2, x= = 5,
a;

7/5,
/

?/

= 3, = 49/5.
3,

2.

a;
a;

4.

a;

= 4, == 5,

6,

=
=

4:.

9' 3.

a;=-3, v/=-5.
5.

a:=-l,
6.
a; a:
/ ?/

2/

7.

9,

= 6, = 8, = 8, = 6. z a + 1, y = a, x= a, y = a X = 1, y = 1, = 1/2, = 3.
a; /
/

8.

a;

= 5, = 3, = 3, = 5. = 4, = 6.
/ /

1.
10.
a;

a;

2/

a;

II.

2)",

(-

14/3)"/l

12.

= 4, = 13, = - 36/7, 2/= -12/7. (3a - 3) (5a; + 2b).

x

EXERCISE ex.
1.
a;

3.

i,

7.

a:

= 6, = 7. 5, y = 2, x=2, y = 5. x = 1, y = 5, x= 6, y = 2, = 9,
a;

a;

= = =

7,

/
?/

z.

6,

4,

e.

1.
g,

2/

a;=9,
9.
a; a;

2/=-2.
/

=
=:

7,

4,

n.

x
a;

= Q, =

4,

2/

= 4, = y = 4, =
/

10.

7.
12.

6.

= S, = 8. = 3, y = 7, x = 7, y = 3. X = %, y 8, X = 8, y 2. x = Q, y = 12, x=-12,y = &. = 5, = 3, x = 3, y = 5. x= 5, y- 8, x = 8, y = 5.

y
/

a;
a;

= 8, = 3,

a;

?/

AN8WEB8 TO OILLET'S
13.

ALQEBIiA.
2/

33

x-Q,
a;

y
t/

15.

= =

3,

= =
a,

3,

14.

a;

6.

x
le.

= 9, = 7, = y ^,
"I,

-\-

y=ah,

x= (2a J), /=(a 25),

x={a%b),y={2ab).

xba,

y=ab.

EXERCISE CXI.
1.

x=
a;

4:,

/ /

14,

= 1, = T 4.
2.
2/

2.

a;

S.
5.

Xa;

Q,

y=

4.
6.

a;

= 4, = 5; = 3 4/3,2/=V^.

= = = = x =
a; a;

8, 3,

^z
/

9, 2,

V2,

= =F 5, = 5. = 4. = 4, - ^ V2. y
3/

EXERCISE
1.

CXII.
3.

4.
7. 9.

4 and 7. and 5. 2. 3 and 4. 4 and 10. 6. 1 and 2. 2 and 3. 8. Cows 30 dollars apiece and sheep
3

5 3

6.

and and

9.

7.

3 dollars apiece.

10.

34
16.

ANSWERS TO OILLET'S ALOEBBA.

By using
6

four-pound weights and 3 seTen-pound

fifty-

weights.
17.

By

using the

and twenty-cent pieces respec-

tively 1, 17; 3, 13; 5, 7; or 7, 2.

18.

By using

the half-dollars, quarter

1, 18,

dollars,

and

dimes respectively
19.

1; 4, 10, 6; or 7, 3, 11.

5 pigs, 10 sheep,

and 15

calves.

20.

93, 90.

21.

19/9, 3/5; 10/9, 7/5; or 1/9, 13/5.

EXERCISE CXIV.

ANSWUBS TO GILLET'8 ALGEBRA.

9.

35

13.

36
14.
15.

AN8WEB8 TO GILLET'S ALGEBRA.

4a

bl,

3a

2.

U, 2a
16.

3h

4:,

d=
187.
0.

-3,

5a + ib. = 21. 17. -

28f.

EXERCISE CXXVII.
1.

634.

2. 6.

3.

255. 357.

4. 7.
9.

810.

6.
8.

1/2 (w'
80.

+ 3w').
10. 13.

n{a

+ If
11.
.
. .

n{n

l)a5.

1941.

1080.

12. 14.
15.

1160.

12/y
8729.

8 + 12 + 16 + + 14^1 + 16ft + 97if

+ 76.
=
2200,

/S'

680.

(S

16.

41832.

EXERCISE CXXVIII.
1.

693.

2.

3375.
7.

3.

13.
8.

4.

33. 2^.

5.

10 days.
9 days. 40. 14.

6.

8 days.

5.
11.

12.

9.

10. 13.

50500 yards.

$5195.

4,

8,

12,

16,

20.

14.

30, 2, 8,
20,

EXERCISE CXXIX.
1.

10, 50.

2.

12,

- 48,

192,

3.

15, 45,
.6, .12,

135, 405.
.024, .0048,

4. 5.

00096

1/3, 2/3, 4/3, 8/3, 16/3, 32/3.

1.

19680.
191i,

2.

4.
7.

EXERCISE CXXX. -9840, 3. -682, 5. 6.

64/65,
1/2.
14.
9.

1281/512,

53144/2187,
27/58,
4,

-463/192.
.999.
6,

8.

10.
13. 15.

11.

12.

24, 96, 384, 1536.

12, 36,

108.

24, 60, 150; or 27, 63, 147.

EXERCISE CXXXI.
1.

5/33.
4/5,

2. 7.

5/27.

3.

44/111.
8.

4.

3/7.
9.

g.

1/77.

6.

52/165.

7/60.

143/740.

EXERCISE CXXXII.


38
8.

ANSWERS TO GILLET'S ALGEBRA.

l-7a;2/+21a;y-35^y+35a:y-21a;y+ Ix^if-x^f.
729a
64a;

9.

973a

+
+

540a*

80ff2
-\-

leOa^

32a;*

20^

on j. 1^^

?i^ _u

64 +

64

-.

ll_
12.

13.
14.

15. 16.

+ 4f2/8^-s/* + d-^. m-= - 6m-V2?i + 15HrV - 20m-3/V + \bm-hi^ - 6Hr^/%>" + 10a;*'"/^"+40a;2"/*" + SOa;""*/*" 32^1". a'^ + 20a9a;V2 + ISOfl^a; H+ 6253;^. 96aiV3 + 256a5/2 + 256a*/lea^ve a^ + + 15xi2/=/-V=+90a;V32/-*/H 270a;/5/-/'+405a;'/5z/-8/5 + 243/-^.
c/3 _|_

4c3(^-V*

6c*/3(^-''*

m'^.

a;="'

80a;2'"/"

500a'a;'''^

_|_

a;^

17.

a'/6-/s+7aV25-K'/3+31a8/2&-2+ iba^/^b-^^+Zba-yW^ 21-Vii58 a-vsjiy. 7a-V26io/3

18.

ANSWERS TO OILLET'S ALGEBRA.

3.

39

+
-

4a;

4.

Ix

+ 10a;2 + 20^:3 -f 35^*. + 38a;2 - 84a;3 + 210a;*.

Ja;

5.

3V4
1
1

^VW
+
l/'ix

^^^'
2

^x^ .

^
-a;^

77

16v'3^i"

128^3^'

6.

+ 2/9a;2 + 14/81a;S + 35/243a;*.

3

7.

11

44
625

125
.1-2

8. 9.

4a;-''y

+ 16a;-y -\-

64a;-

-i

l/2ff-=a;-V2

h/%a-H'^

Y + 256a;-iy15/16-%-3/2
+

+ 195/128a-"ar^
EXERCISE CXXXIX.
1.

8648640.
720.

2. 5.
8.

259459200.
181440.
840.
96.

3.

5040.

4. 7.

6.
9.

90720.
480.

27720.
240.

10.

11.

12.

9189180.

EXERCISE CXL.
1.

70.

10080.

3. 6.

5260.
455.

4.

1512000.

178378200.

EXERCISE CXLI.
1.

%^
x"
a;*

2.
3. 4.

6a;2

+
-

11a;
19a;2
a;2

=
=

0.

4a;3 4a;^

+
6.1-

46a;

+
0.

120

0.

5.

6.

- 11*3 - 48a;2 + 12 = 0. + 30a;3 - 47a;2 - 120a: + 144 = 0. 20a;* + 21a;3 - 240a;2 - 13a; + 12 = 0.
6a;*
Qa;"
19.a;

8.

2,

i.

10.

-(-3

1^-7).

18. 3, 2.

2, 4.

15.

7,


40

"

ANSWEB8 TO GILLET'S ALQEBBA.

EXERCISE CXLII.

1.

x-{-%
X
?;

r^

and

x-\-Z'

rs.

2.

x
a;

^ 2

3
5

and
and
,

4:'

3.

i
-.

6.

2x

5^6 +
r~7>

and

a;+3

p-p:.

4.

8
T

+o
;

^^^

X-

E5'

6.

3x

and

2x -

6'

EXERCISE
3

CXLIII.

4
i

X
2

2a;

3.

1.4 2a;-1^3 +
1

2,5 a;-3'a;
aj

+3
1

3-a;
7
2(a;

4
1)
a;

2(a;

3 1

- 2+
5
5)

'

3)
1

4(a;

+ 3) ~ 8{x +
7
3(a;

~ 8(a; +
,

I)"

13
4(a;

6.

12(a;

+ 1)

2)

"^

3)'

EXERCISE CXLIV.
a;

a;

1.

3(a;

+ 1)

7
^-

5a: -3
3(a;
a;

1)"

a;-l+a;2
5a;
a;2

'

+ + l* -4 +6 _
'

3a;

*
*

5(a;

+ a;+l~a;-a;+l" -8 1 + 1)" + 2) +
4a;
5(a;

1
2(a;

1)

"^ 2(a;

1)'

AmWBRS
l-bx-\-

TO QILLET'a ALGEBRA.

41

EXERCISE CXLV.
1.

2.
3.

4.

23a;2 - S&3? + 346a;*. - 7 + 282;2 - 91a;3 -f 322a;*. 2 3 - 19a;2 + 95a;* - 475a; + 23752;^ 2 - lla;^ + 44a;* - 176a;6 + 704a;^

5.

'

243 27 ^^ + 81 + ^534^' 4 16 32 r+^* +^^+ 81^+243^

^x
2

+ -a;^ +
,

-256
,

^'

EXERCISE CXLVi.

2.

a;

+ -a;2 ~ ^^ + +

g**-

3.

l+3*-^=^

81^'-243*-

EXERCISE CXLVII.
1.

2.

12,33 ^=^y-p' + T%y x = y - y^ + y^-y*.

1

13

~my-

1-

1111 8+1+5'
1

EXERCISE CXLVIII.

^-1+3+1+3+1+3"
i 1 1

ILllli
1

3 3-

3+1 i i ^ i ^ i. ^^i4_i-|_i+i+3+2+2
1

1+2+1+2+1+2+1+2"
1

5-

^+34-3+1+3+2+1+2"
1

6-

111111 111 11111 1+1+1+1+1+1+1 +1+1+2-

42

ANSWERS TO GILLET'S ALGEBRA.

* L
9.

2+3+4+5+6+7'
1/2,

2/1, 13/6, 15/7, 28/13, 323/150, 674/313.

2/5, 7/17,

10. 11.

9/22, 25/61, 159/388.

3/1, 10/3, 13/4, 36/11, 85/26, 121/37,

1/2,
1/4,

1174/359.

12.
13.

3/7, 4/9, 19/43.

111111,1 ^7+...'
+ 3+3+3+1 +
231700
1

7/39, 8/33, 39/161, 47/194.

1 76 175' 362325'

18.

+ -ij^2^i-{-i-\-'i-\-i-\-T-\-\\) +
103589'
98548'

11^11111^
EXERCISE CXLIX.

.'

1^. IT'

'
2-

^1+1+1+4+1 + + 1 + 4+... 11^1^1111111^ +1+1 + 1+1+6 + 1+1+1+1+6+..

1

+2+2...

*'

'^

+ 2 + 4+3+4+

..

4+1 "'"2

+ 1+3 + 1 + 2 + 8
1 1
8.

11

111
1_

+2+1 +3+1+2 +8+.

7.

V2-I.

VQ-1.

9.

1/5(34/39-9).

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Andersen's Bilderbuch. Vocad. (Simonson.) Boards Die Eisjungfrau und andereGeschichten. (Krauss.) Boards Boards.. Ein Besuch bei Charles Dickens Vocab. Stories, with Grimm''s, from Bronson's Easy Prose.
30 30
25

in in
2it

go

214

.!

Educational Publications
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Boards Baumbach's Frau Holde. (Fossler.) Poem/'^oir^l'.\V\ Benedix's Der Dritte. Play, (Whitney.) Boards... Dr.Wespe. Piay. Boards Eigensmn. Piay. Boards Beresford-Webb's German Historical Reader Carov^'s Das Marchen ohne Ende. Vocab. Boards. Chamisso's Peter Schlemihl. (Vogel.) Boards Claar's Simson und DeHla. Piay. Paper Cohn's Uber Bakterien. (Seidensticker.) Paper. .. Ebers's Eine Frage. Boards
.
.

Auerbach's Auf Wache with Roquette's Gefrorene Kuss. (Macdonnell)

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Eckstein's Preisgekrbnt. (Wilson.) Eichendorff's Aus dem Leben eines Taugenichts, Fouqu^'s Sintram und seine Gefahrten. Paper Undine. Vocal>. (Jagemann.) " Boards

|
214

Boards!/

".
.

.'.....

30
25

nz na
112

80

Francke's German Literature Freytag's Karl der Grosse. (Nichols.)

"
'

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21 ; 121 118

.."...!!!..!.!!.!."!!.'.
!

Die Journalisten. Piay. (Thomas.) Boards Friedrich's Ganschen von Buchenau. Piay. Paper .,',".'..'.' Goethe's Egmont. (Steif en .) Piay. Boards Faust. Parti. Piay. (Cook.) Hermann und Dorothea. Poem. (Thomas.). Boards Iphigenie auf Tauris. Piay, (Carter) GSrner's Englisch. Play. Paper Gostwick and Harrison's German Literature Grimm's Die Venus von Milo; Rafael und Michel-Angelo. Boards Grimms' Kinder- und Hausmarchen. Vocab. (Otis.)... Boards. (Different selections and notes, mo Vocab.). Selections, with Andersen, from Bronson's Easy Prose. Vocab, Gutzkow's Zopf und Schwert. Piay, Paper Hauff's Die Karawane. From Bronson's Easy Prose. Vocab Das kalte Herz. Boards Heine's Die Harzreise. (Burnett.) Boards Helmholtz's Goethe's Arbeiten. (Seidensticker.) Paper Heness's Kinder-Komodien. Piays Hey s Fabeln fiar Kinder. Vocab. Boards Heyse's Anfang und Ende. Boards L'Arrabbiaia. (Frost.) Vocab Die Einsamen. Boards Madchen von Treppi; Marion. (Brusie.) Boards Hillebrand's German Thought (chiefly in Literature) Hillern's Hoher als die Kirche. Vocab. (Whittlesey.) Boards The same. (Fischer.) Jungmann's Er sucht einen Vetter. Piny. Pai^er Klemm's Abriss der Geschichte der deutschen Litteratur Klenze's Deutsche Gedichte Knortz's Representative German Poems Koenigswinter's Sie hat ihr Herz entdeckt. Piay, Paper Korner's Zriny. (Ruggles.) Play. Boards Lessing's Emilia Galotti. (Super.) Play. Boards Minna von Barnhelm. Play. (Whitney.) Nathan der Weise. Play. (Brandt.) New Edition Meissner's A us meiner Welt. Vocab. (Wenckebach.) Moser's Der Schimmel. Play. Paper Der Bibliothekar. Play. (Lange.) Boards Mugge*s Riukan Voss. Paper Signa die Seterin. Paper MUller's Elektrischen Maschinen. (Seidensticker.) Paper
.

75 30 35

40
48 30 48 25
2

120 107 107 107

108 118 103 112' 113

00 40
40 90 40
75 20 30

100

113 214 118 214

113 113 123 119 114 114

30
48 30 25

20
25
i

40
25

114 218 104

114

60 25 i 20 90 2 00 35 50 30 48 60 75 25 40
15

80
120
104

219 105 120

108 220 108 220
115

20 30
35 25

Miilier's (Max) Deutsche Liebe. Boards Nathusius's Tagebuch eines armen Frauleins. Paper Nichols's Three German Tales L Goethe's Die neue Melusine. 11. IH. H. v. Kleist's Die VerZschokke's Der tote Gast. lobung in St. Domingo Paul's Er muss tanzen. Play. Paper Petersen's Princessin Use. Boards
: ,

120 119 115 115 123 115 115

60 25 20

221 120 115

vi

Complete List of Henry Holt 6r Co/s

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20 25
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Putlitz's

der Wald erzShlt. Paper Vergissmeinnicht. Paper Badekuren. Play, Paper Das Herz vergessen. Flay, Paper

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"9
119 116 116 117 120 221 222 109 223 i^o 224

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Schoenfeld's German Historical Prose Schrakamp's Sagen und My then Beriihmte Deutsche.

00 48 80
75 85 10 25

no
226 226 226 106
117

Simonson's German Ballad-book Storm's Immensee. Vocah. (Burnett.) Boards Three German Comedies: Elz's Er ist nicht eifersiichtig, Benedix's Der Weiberfeind, and Muller's Im Wartesalon erster Klasse.

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30 20
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119 117

"7
229
119

Wilhelmi's Einer muss heirathen. Play. Boards Zschokke's Neujahrsnacht and Der zerbrochene Krug.

(Faust.)

20 25 25

FRENCH LANGUAGE.
Alliot's Contes et Nouvelles Hubert's Colloquial French Drill.
i

00

Parti

Part II Bt Uows's Dictionary for the Pocket. Roan tuck The same. Morocco tuck French and English Dictionary. Larger-type Edition

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00
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Bevier and Logic's French Grammar Borel's Grammaire Francaise. Half roan Bronson's Exercises in Everyday French. {Key^ 60 cts.) Delille's Condensed French Instruction Eugfene's Students' Grammar of the French Language Elementary French Lessons Fisher's Easy French Reading Fleury's L'Histoire de France
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124 125 125 126 126 126 231 127

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127 128 128 128 128 128 129 129 129 129 129 235 131 131 131 132
132

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70 80
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100
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Joynes's Minimum French Grammar and Reader Joynes-Otto'a First Book in French. Boards Introductory French Lessons Introductory French Reader Mdras's Syntaxe Pratique de la Langue Francaise Ldgendes Fran^aises No. i. Robert le Diable No. 2. Le Bon Roi Dagobert No. 3. Merlin I'Enchanteur dans I'fitude du Fraiijais Moutonnier's Les Premiers Pas
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132 132 133 133 134 134

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,

40 45 45 go 60
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134 135
135 135 135 135

00 20 30 go
65 70 50

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Introductory French Reader Bellenger's Guide to French Conversation

136 137 138 23g 140

141

FRENCH LITERATURE.
Achard's Le Clos Pommier. Paper The same with De Maistre's Les Prisonniers du Caucase ^sop*s Fables in French

AUiofs Les Auteurs Contemporains

Aubert's Litt^rature Fran9aise Balzac's Eugenie Grandet. (Bergeron.)

25 70 50 20

148 148 162 142

142 231 156 148 148 232 162 162

Bayard

et Lemoine's La Niaise de Saint- Flour. B^dolliere''s Histoire de la Mfere Michel. Vocad

Play.

Paper

The same. Paper Bishop^s Choy-Suzanne. Boards Carraud's Les Gouters de la Grand'mfere. Paper With S^gur's Peiiies Filles Modeles Chateaubriand's Les Aventures du dernier Abenc^rage. With extracts from Aiala^ Voyage en Atnerigue^ etc. (Sanderson.) Boards Choix de Contes Contemporains. (O'Connor.) The same. Paper ClairviUe's Petites Mis&res de la Vie Humaine. Play. Paper Classic French Plays

00 80 20 60 30 30 20 80

35
i

00
52

20

233 i4g 149 156

145 145 145 156

100 Vol. I. Le Cid, Le Misanthrope, Athalie 100 Vol. IL Cinna, L'Avare, Esther i 00 Vol, III. Horace, Bourgeois Gentilhomme, Les Plaideurs College Series of French Plays Vol. I. Joie faitPeur, Bataille de Dames, Maison de Penarvan. i 00 Vol. II. Petits Oiseaux, Mile, de la Seiglifere, Roman d'un Jeune i 00 Homme Pauvre, Doigts de Fde 20 Coraeille's Cid. (Joynes.) Play. Boards 20 Cinna. (Joynes.) Play, Boards 20 Play. Boards Horace. (Delbos.) Cure's La Jeune Savante, vrith Souvestre's La Loterie de Francfort. 20 Plays. Paper 80 Daudet's Contes. Including La Belle Nivernaise. (Cameron.) 25 (Cameron.) Boards La Belle Nivernaise. Drohojowska's Demoiselle de Saint-Cyr. With Souvestre's Testament 20 Patural. Plays. Boards de Mme. De Neuville's Trois Comedies pour Jeunes Filles. I. Les Cuisiniferes. Le Petit Tom. HI. La Malade Imaginaire. Paper.. II. 35 90 Erckmann-Chatrian's Le Conscrit de 1813. (Bocher.) 48 The same. Boards go Le Blocus. (BGcher.) 4^ The same. Paper 90 Madame Th^rfee. (Bocher.) 48 The same. Paper i 00 Pallet's Les Princes de 1' Art
:

156
145 146 146

160 149 149

160
162

150 150 150 15 150

150

Thesame. Paper Feuillet's Le Roman d*un Jeune Homme Pauvre. The Novel. (Owen.) Thesame. Paper Le Roman d'un Jeune Homme Pauvre. The Play. Boards. Le Village. Play. Paper
,

5= go 44 20 ?o

15 150
151 iS^

157 i57

viii

Complete List of Henry Holt Gr Co/s

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40
i

F^val's Chouans et Bleus. (Sankey.) The same. Paper Fleury's L'Histoire de France Foa's Le Petit Robinson de Paris. Vocaif The same. Paper Contes Biographiques, Vocab The same. Paper Fortier's Histoire de la Litt^rature Frangaise Girardin's La Joie fait Peur. Piay. Paper

10 70 36 80 40

100
Boards
20 40 70 40 70 80 20 20
20

151 161 151 151 151 151 143 157

Haldvy's L'Abbd Constantin.

Vocah.

(Super.)

(Warren.) Ruy Bias. Play. (Michaels.) Boards Hernani. Play. (Harper.) Janon^s Recueil de Podsies Labiche and Delacour^s La Cagnotte. Play, Paper Les Petits Oiseaux. Play. Paper Labiche et Martin's La Poudreaux Veux. Play. Paper Lacoinbe''s Petite Histoire du Peuple Frangais La Fontaine's Fables Choisies. (Delbos.) Boards Leclerq's Trols Proverbes. Plays. Paper Mack's Bouchde de Pain. Vocab The same. Vocah. Paper Madame de M.'s La Petite Maman. With Mme. de Gaulle's Le Bracelet.
Selections.

Hugo's

233 234 157 234 144 158 158 158

161

60 40 20

100
52

146 158 152 152

162 158 152

Paper Mazferes' Le Collier de Perles. Play. Paper de Maistre's Voyage autour de ma Chambre. Paper. M^rimde's Colomba. (Cameron.) The same. Boards Moli^re's L'Avare. Play. (Joynes.) Boards Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme. Play. (Delbos.) Paper Le Misanthrope. Play. (Joynes.) Boards Musiciens Cdl&bres The same. Paper Musset's Un Caprice. Play. Paper Porchat's TroisMois sous la Neige The same. Paper Pressensd's Rosa. Vocab. (Pylodet.) The same. Paper Pylodet's Gouttes de Rosde Legons de Littdrature Fran^aise Classique Thd3,tre Franjais Classique. Paper La Litt^rature Fran9aise Contemporaine La Mfere TOie. Boards Racine's Athalie. Play. (Joynes.) Boards Esther. Play. (Joynes.) Boards Les Plaideurs. Play. (Delbos.) Regent's French and German Poems. Boards St. Germain's Pour une fipingle. Vocab The same. Paper Sand's La Petite Fadette. (B6cher.) The same. Boards Marianne. Paper Sandeau's Mademoiselle de la Seiglifere. Play. Boards La Maison de Penarvan. Play. Boards Scribe et Legouv^. La Bataille de Dames. Play. Boards Les Doigtsde Fde. Play. Boards Paper Scribe et Mfelesville's Valerie. Play Segur's Les Petites Filles Modules. Paper Siraudin et Thiboust's Les Kemmes qui Pleurent. Play. Paper
,

20 20 28 60 36 20 20 20

100
52 20 70 32

237 237 146 146 147 153 153 158 153

153 154 154 144 144 144 144 163 147, 147 147

100
52 50
i i

30 20
10

Sou vestre's Un Philosophe sous les Toits The same. Paper La Vieille Cousine, with Les Ricochets. Plays. Paper.... La Lotecie de Francfoi't, with Curo's La Jeune Savante.
Plays.
selle

40 20 20 20 20 75 36 00 52 30 20 20 20 20 20 24 20 60 28 20
20

163 163 154 154 154 159 159 159 159 159 163 159 154 154 160
160 i6d

Boards
Patural, with Drohojowska's

Le Testament de Mme.

DemoiBoards.
20 50
237

de Saint-Cyr. Plays. Boards T"ine's Les Origines d^ la France Contemporaine.

(Edgren

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35
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8
2^3
jj,,

Walter's

Classic French Letters

,0 ^^
'j

25S

.'

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GREEK AND

LATIN.
i

Brooks's Introduction to Attic Greek Goodell's The Greek in English Greek Lessons. Part I. The Greek in English. Part Greek of Xenophon Judson's The Latin in English Peck's Gai Suetoni TranquilH De Vita Caesarum Libri Duo
Latin Pronunciation

lo 60 25

164
165

11.

The
i

Preparatory Latin and Greek Texts

Latin part separate Greek part separate Richardson^s Six Months' Preparation for Csesar Scrivener's Greek Testament Williams's Extracts from Various Greek Authors

20 40 i 20 80 60 go 2 00
i

166 243 167 167

168 168 168

245
168 169

100

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Nota's La Fiera. Paper Ongaro's Rosa deir Alpi. Paper Parlate Italiano ? Boards Pellico's Francesca da Rimini. Paper

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171

173 173 173 173

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75

40 40 i 00

100
i

80

100

173 172 172 173 170 172 172

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