European Journal of Marketing

Emerald Article: A View to a Brand: Introducing the Film Brandscape Daragh O'Reilly, Finola Kerrigan

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This is an EarlyCite pre-publication article: Daragh O'Reilly, Finola Kerrigan, (2012),"A View to a Brand: Introducing the Film Brandscape", European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 47 Iss: 5 (Date online 11/6/2012) Downloaded on: 26-10-2012 To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com

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A View To A Brand: Introducing The Film Brandscape Author Details Daragh OReilly The Management School, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK Finola Kerrigan Department of Management, Kings College London, London, UK Corresponding author: Dr Finola Kerrigan Corresponding Authors Email: Finola.kerrigan@kcl.ac.uk Biographical Details: Dr Daragh OReilly is a Lecturer in Marketing at the University of Sheffield. He has published his work in a range of international journals and is co-editor of Marketing the Arts: A Fresh Approach (Routledge). Dr Finola Kerrigan is a Senior Lecturer in Marketing at Kings College London. She has published her work in a range of international journals and is co-editor of Marketing the Arts: A Fresh Approach (Routledge) and Arts Marketing (Elsevier) and author of Film Marketing (Elsevier). Structured Abstract: Purpose This article contributes to the development of a film brand theory and in doing so, illustrates the utility of a socio-cultural approach to branding. The purpose of this paper is to develop the conceptual framework within which the film brandscape may be considered. An illustrative case study of the James Bond franchise is provided so that the potential application of the framework can be clearly understood. Design/ methodology/ approach The paper approaches the topic from a socio-cultural perspective in order to take particular account of the symbolic nature of film offerings. It combines insights from contemporary production and consumption practices in the film industry with theoretical perspectives from marketing, branding, consumer, cultural and film studies. Although a conceptual paper, it incorporates an illustrative case, the James Bond franchise, in order to support the proposed brandscape. Findings Films are marked with signs of ownership and may carry other cues which function as risk-reducing shorthand devices. Consumers look to brand characteristics as communicated through brand cues. Particular brandscapes can be viewed as loosely bounded sites within which meaning is derived from making sense of the various, interrelated brands within this brandscape. Such meaning is dependent on cultural cues which evolve over time. Research limitations/implications This paper presents a theory of film branding which is primarily applicable to mainstream commercial films. The implications for marketing and branding scholars are highlighting the need to view brands within their wider brandscapes in order to understand how consumers understand brands in relation to each other. There is also a need to move beyond dominant relational modes of thinking about brands and consumers to consider the temporal nature of brand meanings. Practical Implications The paper offers a theoretical approach enabling scholars in a range of disciplines to engage in cross-disciplinary dialogue about film brands, thus facilitating debate and opening up new lines of research inquiry. The case study included is merely illustrative and further empirical studies are needed to test and develop the brandscape. Originality/ value We develop the cultural approach to branding through introducing the idea of the granularity of the brandscape: particular brandscapes can be viewed as loosely bounded sites within which meaning is derived from making sense of the various, interrelated brands within this brandscape. Such meaning is dependent on cultural cues which evolve over time. Managerial decision making can be understood through considering the various cast and crew decisions, genre and positioning. Through understanding the granularity of the brandscape, marketing and

Type header information here branding practitioners can have a greater understanding of consumer sensemaking which can be used in strategic decision making. Keywords: Branding, Brandscape, film industry, Brand Management, Intertextuality Article Classification: Conceptual Paper

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Introduction This paper presents a conceptual framework for the analysis of brands and branding within the film industry. We ask: what is meant by speaking of a film as a brand? What are the brand elements that must be considered in understanding the film brand and its position within the market? What can be gained from a theory of film brands? Branding theory has contributed widely to our understanding of consumer relationships to goods, services, organisations and places. Within the creative and cultural sectors, branding discourse has been applied to the arts (Schroeder, 2005a, 2009, 2010) and museums (Caldwell and Coshall, 2002; Hollenbeck et al., 2008). This paper is, however, the first to propose a theory of film brands. In order to do so it draws upon a cultural perspective on branding (Heding et al., 2008:256), or what Kelly (2010) and Diamond et al. (2009) refer to as socio-cultural braning research. In doing so, we make use of the ideas of text and brandscape (Sherry, 1998; Thompson and Arsel, 2004; SalzerMrling and Strannegrd, 2010) to offer a way of theorising film brands that takes account of a range of theoretical perspectives. There are several reasons why such a theory is timely and necessary within marketing. Firstly, films are a major part of the creative and cultural industries (CCIs), which have become increasingly important in government policy terms because of their economic, social and cultural impact. Secondly, films, particularly Hollywood films, act as placement and promotional vehicles for the leading global commercial brands. Thirdly, films are important platforms for brand extensions into other CCI sectors and for merchandising opportunities across a range of retail categories. Fourthly, films offer opportunities for implicit celebrity endorsement of placed brands by stars. Fifthly, the producers, directors and stars of films may themselves be read as individual brands. Sixthly, films have a narrative structure and power, therefore present opportunities for brand narratives (Cooper et al., 2010). In short, the role of commercial brands both as stakeholders in film projects and as artefacts which lend realism and style to film content, together with the attractive marketing opportunities which films present for brand development tie-ins, make it desirable for scholars and practitioners to come to a conceptual understanding of film brands which is useful for brand analysis and campaign planning. The purpose of this paper is to develop the conceptual framework, situated within the cultural approach to branding, within which the film brandscape may be considered. An illustrative case study of the James Bond franchise is provided so that the potential application of the framework can be clearly understood. Following this, conclusions and implications are discussed. In doing so, this paper contributes to the development of the socio-cultural approach to branding as well as to film marketing theory. This allows for the provision of a working framework which may be used in empirically testing future studies of brand relationships within films. Contemporary Film Marketing and Consumption In film marketing practice, two key terms characterise a films engagement with the marketplace: marketability and playability. Marketability denotes how attractive a film is to its prospective target audience; playability signifies how well the audience will respond to the film once they commit to watching it (Kerrigan, 2010). The marketability challenge is similar to that in other service sectors. What is distinctive about film is the lack of control which the organisation (in this case, the distributor) has over managing the brand. At the marketability stage, brand meaning comes from previous experiences that consumers have had with the various brand elements. Associating an actor, director or other cast/ crew with a particular film

experience, affects their interpretation of the brand elements on offer. Kerrigan (2010) identifies the key elements that constitute a films identity, namely; the star (actor/non actor); the script/genre; age classification and release strategy. These are the elements considered by consumers in their selection of films. These elements can also be conceptualised as the key signifiers of brand identity which are interpreted by consumers based on their cultural codes. Marketability requires clarity of message and harmony in relation to the various brand elements presented in the marketing campaign. These are the functional elements of the film that can be communicated to consumers through marketing communications texts such as posters, trailers, advertisements, reviews, and websites (Kerrigan 2010). Playability, on the other hand, impacts on future sense-making, as brand perception of the various elements resulting from actual consumption of a particular film can change pre-consumption brand associations. Drawing on Voss and Zomerdijk (2007) we can conceive of the film consumption experience as a journey. For the consumer, identifying brand meaning from a films marketing communications can be seen as the starting point of the journey, followed by the decision of whether to watch the film or not, with viewing constituting the main element of the journey. Following viewing, evaluations are made based on pre-journey perceptions of the film through the cultural codes available and the consumption experience itself may alter the perception of these codes. During this process, the consumer considers the playability of the film, and playability evaluations feed into future perception of the brands. Film choice is a key issue for both consumers and producers. Fan motivation and choice is influenced by a range of factors of which we consider a number here. Firstly, the UK Film Councils (2007) Avids study found that film audiences do not consume film merely as a form of entertainment; rather they do so in order to learn languages, gain understanding of different cultures and further their interests in history, travel, music and so on. Secondly, film consumption cannot be separated from other forms of cultural consumption. Increasingly, films can be linked to books, music, television programmes or other cultural texts (Kerrigan, 2010). And, just as consumers use film to access knowledge about other fields, they can be drawn to a film from other art-forms. Thirdly, work by De Vany and Walls (2004); Elberse and Eliashberg, (2003); Esan (2008) and Holbrook (1999a), has shown how certain film marketing elements such as cast, awards, etc. influence film choice. Certain actors or directors can signal a certain genre of film, or, in some cases where actors and directors work across a range of genres, what Kerrigan (2010) refers to as a certain grade of film. Chaudhuri and Holbrook (2001) and Matzler et al. (2008) highlight the role of branding in minimising the risk involved in choosing a product. Finally, as film is an experiential product, consumers have to make choices based on limited information such as their existing cultural codes and those transmitted by film marketers. Cultural codes are discursive resources which are available to film producers, marketers and consumers alike. They become well developed and trusted when directors, actors and other protagonists maintain consistency in terms of the style and content of their films. According to Kerrigan (2010), difficulties occur when films seek to challenge existing cultural codes, such as when an actor is cast in a surprising role, for example comedy actor Jim Carey doing a serious role. This involves both an artistic and a commercial risk. When the audience does not get the desired benefit and this clashes with their values in terms of film taste, this results in negative word of mouth (WOM). Elberse and Eliashberg (2003) found that WOM has significant influence on the box office performance of a film, and Moul and Shugan (2005) propose that distributors release films widely in order to minimise negative WOM. Holbrook and Addis (2008) and Kerrigan and Yalkin (2009) have considered the impact of user-generated reviews as a specific form of WOM. Holbrook and Addis (2008) measured share of online WOM and

found that this, linked with a significant marketing campaign, could lead to increased box office revenue, however smaller films benefited less from online WOM. Films as Brands? At a basic level, films may, readily enough, be regarded as brands. They are commercial products which: have a symbolic dimension; are the subject of capital and technological investment; are offered for sale; carry intellectual property rights; differentiate themselves from other films; and are strategic assets for their production studios brand portfolios. Certain elements in brandings discursive repertoire readily lend themselves to a discussion of films. For example, one could talk about a films brand equity when considering the Harry Potter franchise. It is possible to calculate the value of a film brand based on earnings from ancillary products and future box office earnings. One could talk about film brand awareness - how many people have heard about it - or film brand recall; how many people can remember the film, prompted or unprompted. Yet, there has been no previous work on how a film as such might be conceptualised as a brand. Within film studies, Grainge (2004; 8) deals with film branding, but concentrates on the film studio as a corporate brand. Although Grainge (2008) offers a complex and multilevel analysis which illustrates the development and deliberate mobilisation of corporate branding undertaken by the studios, his analysis underplays the role of consumers in shaping brand meaning. Grainge (2008) considers film as a promotional vehicle for other commercial brands and product extension strategies derived from successful film franchises, but his focus is on the strategic development of these brands rather than a detailed study of the range of branded entities which exist within a film project. Challenges to the Development of Film Branding Theory At a more fundamental level, however, there are several issues which complicate the development of film branding theory: (1) the question of brand ownership and management in a multiple stakeholder context; (2) the complex symbolic nature of film; and (3) the issue of film brand image. Firstly, films, like most art, are socially produced (Wolff, 1993), and, like many other types of art project, involve the interaction of many different actors (Kubacki and OReilly, 2009). They are produced from multiple elements, including the director, actors, and screenplay, as well as inputs such as capital and technology. The principal contributors of these elements are usually independent players who come together for the purposes of the film project. Whilst legal ownership of a fast moving consumer goods brand or a film brand may be clear, it is by no means apparent who owns a film brand, in the sense of who has the authority to speak for the brand (as distinct from merely speaking about it, or promoting it). Is it the producer, the director, the leading actors, the studio, the distributor, or somebody else, for example a successful novelist from whose story a film might have been adapted? Where ownership of the brand is unclear, strategic brand management theory may not be able to offer appropriate frameworks. Of course, films are not the only entities which present problems arising from the involvement of multiple stakeholders. Towns, cities, nations and organizations all present challenges to the working out of a coherent brand identity (c.f. Hankinson, 2007; Kavaratzis, 2004; Kavaratzis, 2005; Ashworth and Kavaratzis, 2009). Yet a film is not a town/city/nation, and, although it may be produced and distributed by corporations, a film is not in itself a corporation. Therefore, there are limits to the extent to which ideas from corporate and place branding may be transposed to the area of film. Secondly, films are cultural offerings, and any theory of film branding must take account of their status as cultural texts. From a culturalist point of view, they may be read as cultural texts

which are produced, consumed and regulated within cultural circuits (du Gay et al., 1997). Film texts are sets of signifiers which are structured according to codes which are already also in circulation, including codes of fictional narrative (McKee, 1999; Booker, 2004), visual interpretation (Schroeder, 2005b), and genre (Ellis, 1995; Langford, 2005). In order to understand film, possession of appropriate cultural capital and accompanying cultural codes (Bourdieu, 2003) are necessary. Similarly, there is a need to understand the totality of messages being communicated in order to locate the film within a particular genre or classification. As visual spectacles, films are a subject of particular interest to the study of brand aesthetics. Research in the area of fine arts marketing (Fillis, 2002, 2006), visual consumption (Schroeder, 2005b), and brand culture (Schroeder and Salzer-Mrling, 2005; Schroeder 2010) indicates this. Thirdly, when consumers watch a film, or are making a choice about whether to watch a certain film, they need to make sense of the combinations of different elements in the film or film promotion. Exploring film branding allows us to examine a naturalistic but bounded situation where, because of the multiple stakeholder involvement already mentioned, a number of brands co-exist in the same project, for example, people brands (director, actor, screenwriter) and commercial brands (product placements). A film consumer considering whether or not to watch a film for the first time considers the director, the actors, the screenwriter, genre, the grade of the film (Kerrigan, 2010) and the storyline (among other cues). These elements may be coming together for the first time. The actors, director and screenwriter will each have their own track record of previous film projects, successful or otherwise, and the consumer needs to take a view as to whether all of these elements seen in the context of the new offering might make the film desirable to watch. Studying branding in the context of film allows us to investigate the codependency that brands have upon each other in terms of creating meaning in the minds of consumers. Each brand within a film can be interpreted alone but also in relation to the brands with which it co-exists within the film. Brands in Film The film brand is both artistic and commercial, and these values cannot easily be decoupled. Artistic elements of the film brand include the people brands, such as the director, actors, or screenwriters, as well as the storyline, characters, music, genre of film, and various visual, aural and gestural identifiers. It may contain characters that become brands, or a music soundtrack which acts as a brand cue but may also be a branded product in its own right. On the commercial side, a film brand may have prequels and sequels, which can be regarded as brand extensions. It may contain brands which have been placed in the film as a result of funding agreements reached between studio and commercial brands, as well as tie-ins and crosspromotional campaigns. People brands Film production involves a number of key roles, including producer, director, actor, cinematographer, music composer, screenwriter and editor. Some or all of these key players can be seen as brands in their own right, in line with Nayars (2009) analysis of stars, Kerrigan (2010) broadens the notion of the star beyond actor stars to include directors and other key creative personnel. However, most research on the star phenomenon concerns actor stars. Film scholars such as Butler (1990) and Dyer (2007) have written about the actor star in the context of film production and consumption (see Cook, 1979/80). Within marketing literature, the star features as a key variable in a number of econometric analyses of box office performance (De Vany and Walls, 1999; Neelamegham and Chintagunta, 1999). Dyer (2007) traced the development of the star within the Hollywood system. Lorenzen and Tube (2008) stress that

the star plays a greater role in mainstream film success in Bollywood than in Hollywood as confirmed by Nayar (2009). Vincendeaus (2005) discussion of French film stars establishes that while stars are central to the French film industry, there is not a formalised system of managing these stars. From this, we can see that the power of the film star within the film brandscape can be determined by the circuits of cultural production which dominate in the relevant cultural context. Stars involvement with a film extends beyond the making of the film to the marketing campaign. Their discourse about their creative and professional vision and practice is employed in the service of the films marketing. These texts (in the form of media interviews, making of films and electronic press kits) construct characters or cultural identities which are implicated in and/or drive narratives. Protagonists in films are constructions of particular identities which work out fateful ideological choices and therefore embody particular cultural values. Successful films can, through acceptance by audiences, acquire both cultural power and brand equity. This power accrues, in particular, to the director and actors. In this sense, we may regard successful directors (Lynch, Tarentino, Spielberg) or actors as brands, signifiers of professional distinction. In contemporary society, the mass-mediatisation of film properties leads to many actors becoming celebrities (Rojek, 2001; Turner, 2004). This process of celebritisation confers upon actors the power to endorse commercial products, for example Nicole Kidman and Chanel No. 5. Throughout their careers, directors and actors accumulate the resonances of the film projects in which they have worked, lending a symbolic heritage to their own personal brands. Character Brands As alluded to above, characters themselves can become established as brands, for example; Batman, Jason Bourne, Lara Croft and Princess Leia. When characters become brands, this can be due to the media proliferation surrounding them, including cross-promotions, brand extensions, etc., or, these commercial opportunities may arise as a result of the popularity of the characters. When a character becomes a brand, this raises a casting issue. Fans who are used to the character being portrayed by a particular actor may reject a new actor, creating a challenge for the studio. Product Placement Product or brand placement describes the practice whereby film producers and commercial brands agree that the commercial brands products, name or brand will be placed within a cultural text originated by the studio. As costs of film and television production are continually rising, the focus on alternative revenue streams has moved to encompass product placement. Alongside these increasing production budgets, the advertising industry has been reinventing itself in the face of media fragmentation. Montgomery and Fitzgerald (2006) discuss the model of promotion/film production developed by the Huayi Brothers in China who developed a film and television production arm from their existing advertising agency. Productions are fully financed by a commercial client wishing to promote their product(s). In exchange for the production and promotion budget of the film (or television programme), the script is developed offering prominence to the clients product(s). This approach removes the risk involved in conventional film production funding models. These commercial placement activities may require close cooperation between creative teams involved in film production, marketing communications and possibly product placement agencies. Actors play a dual role in implicit or explicit commercial endorsement: in character, they may wear particular clothing brands, drive certain cars, or drink certain alcoholic beverages signifying the actors implicit endorsement of the brand. Additionally, actors may explicitly endorse commercial brands with which they may

or may not have been associated on screen. Commercial brands use product placements and endorsements heavily in their wider marketing communications campaigns (Lehu, 2007).

Place/Tourism Brands In the tourism literature, the impact of film on place or destination brands has been extensively researched. OConnor et al. (2008, 2010), Kim and Richardson, 2003 and Iwashita (2003) have shown how film related tourism can both attract visitors to an area and change the perceptions of such visitors about these areas. Indeed Croy (2010) has noted the strategic dimensions related to film and destination brand management. The importance of this area of research is illustrated by the number of special issues of journals (such as Beeton, 2010 and OConnor and Macionis, 2011) considering film within the tourism literature over the past number of years. The significant amount of research in this field indicates the impact which film locations have upon destination brands. While this is a distinct area of research within the tourism field, in the context of our paper, place can be linked to ideas of product placement and also related to the Country of Origin (COO) effect as discussed in our model. Studio brands Studios financing film production and distribution (e.g. Warner Brothers, Universal, Dreamworks) are themselves also brands (Grainge, 2004; Hesmondhalgh, 2007; Lash and Lury, 2007). They manage film-brand portfolios, whose revenues accrue through reproduction of the film in a variety of formats (video, DVD, Blu-ray), and exploitation of various release modes; cinema, DVD/Blue ray, video-on-demand, pay and free TV. Rights negotiated when films are commissioned include merchandising and other rights (books, comics, television, replica figures, and soundtracks), which add supplementary revenue and promote the films content and characters. Country of Origin (COO) The global success of Hong Kong martial arts films, Bollywood song-and-dance romantic dramas, or Korean New Wave thrillers, indicates a COO effect in film. Often this is temporal, for example, brand meaning is bounded within a specific time, rather than the type of mid- to long-range COO which we have seen in the automotive or electronics industries. Film movements are attributed to the work of a specific group of film makers working during this period. Examples of this include French Nouvelle Vague (late 1950s to early 1970s), German Expressionism (1920s), Danish Dogme 95 (mid 1990s) or Iranian New Wave (late 1960s to early 1970s). Once a country becomes known for a type of film, there is an expectation that future films from that country may be in a similar style. Theoretical Approach While cultural theorists (such as Lury, 2004) have considered branding in their research, the contribution of this paper is to ground the approach in a marketing perspective. This allows for the dual focus on the aesthetic nature of film as well as the important commercial considerations, therefore adding granularity to the film branding lens. We argue that the commercial success relies significantly on the interpretation of the cultural meaning projected to film audiences, and that the meanings of films are shaped and constrained by the conditions including economic and commercial conditions - of their production and consumption. Understanding the cultural dimensions of film can provide marketing and branding theorists with a better understanding of what they are marketing. A discussion of branding can bring

both streams of scholarship together because brands have both commercial and cultural connotations. We regard the statement that a film is a brand as a discursive move rather than an expression of some ontological truth. A film may be read as a brand if one chooses to use branding discourse to construct it as such. Branding is simply one of many lenses through which one may regard the phenomenon of film. Kerrigan (2010) illustrates the interrelationship between what she terms the elements of the film marketing mix in thinking about developing marketing campaigns. While highlighting these elements and the importance of considering the consistency between them in consumers minds, Kerrigan (2010) does not conceptualise this in terms of branding theory. This paper can be seen as a development of Kerrigans (2010) earlier, more managerially focused conceptualisation of how these elements interact and are managed by the film makers. The introduction of branding theory, focusing on the cultural and symbolic elements of branding allows us to consider the wider implications for the individual brands (actor, director, studio, commercial brands featured in a film etc) in terms of how they will be conceptualised in consumers minds as a result of their association with a specific film. This allows for a more sophisticated treatment of these interrelationships within what we call the film brandscape. This paper concerns the specification of the branding lens as it seeks to capture films. There is currently no theory which frames films as brands. We argue that, because of the symbolic nature of films as cultural texts, it is particularly necessary to accommodate this cultural dimension into any theory of film branding. Film is a particular kind of object, a vehicle for symbolic, cultural, representational and ideological meanings. A theory of film branding which ignores these dimensions would therefore fail to account thoroughly for the very product it purports to explain. Films project many different identities; thus, following Phillips and Hardy (2002: 52), we take the view that a socio-cultural, discursive perspective captures the fluidity of these identities as they are produced and consumed through film. We contend that this fluidity is evident more broadly in branding and therefore our paper has wider significance for the study of branding. Furthermore, within marketing, we find support for the use of a specifically cultural approach (see Heding et al., 2008:256) to the development of a film branding theory from Schroeder, who asserts (2009:124) If brands exist as cultural, ideological, and sociological objects, then understanding brands requires tools developed to understand culture, ideology, and society, in conjunction with more typical branding concepts, such as brand equity, strategy, and value. In attempting to answer the opening question, then, we start from the position that film brands are signs constructed in social interaction, meanings which are produced, communicated and consumed by film-makers and their audiences. In seeking to develop a theory of film branding, we therefore follow Schroeder (op. cit.) and Diamond et al., (2009) in drawing on cultural approaches to branding. To summarise, then, we adopt a theoretical position which regards films as both commercial products and cultural texts which are socially produced and consumed within circuits of culture articulated by, among other things, marketing practices. In this way, our paper contributes to cultural branding theory following Lury (2004), Holt (2005), Holt and Cameron, (2010), Schroeder (2005a, 2009, 2010) and others, by highlighting the importance of granularity in considering a specific brandscape. Additionally, the focus on the film brandscape contributes to the development of film marketing theory by highlighting the socially produced and consumed nature of the film brandscape elements.

Key Constructs for Film Branding

We agree with Salzer-Mrling and Strannegrd (2010:408) when they propose that, traditional marketing has put the focus on use-value or exchange-value, the increasing importance of brands has rather shifted the focus towards sign-value. We propose to make use of the notions of sign, text and brandscape to develop a theory of film branding; these are explained below.

Signs and Texts In order to guide our discussion of film brands, we refer to a film brand as a sign. Sign is also a key construct in cultural studies (Bennett et al., 2005: 321). Of course, to say that a film is a sign is rather simplistic. Rather, films offer a large number of signifiers set in certain relationships to one another according to choices made by studio executives, producers, directors, actors, cinematographers, production designers, scriptwriters, composers and marketers. The notion of signifier and signified is helpful in so far as it reminds us that there may be a difference between what is projected or communicated and what is received, a distinction which is retained in the notions of brand identity and brand image respectively. We consider a text to be a set of signifiers structured according to certain conventions, for example narrative. Text is a widely used construct in several disciplines. Hesmondhalgh (2007) proposes the use of the word text to cover cultural goods or offerings. Within marketing the notion of text has been widely used in engagement with different forms of text, textual analysis and textual representation. Inquiries have focused on advertisements (Stern 1991, 1993a, 1993b, 1996), popular novels (Brown 1995, 2001, 2002, 2006), management texts (Hackley, 2003), marketing-theory texts (Brown 2004), films (Hirschman and Stern 1994), consumption as text (Hirschman and Holbrook, 1992), representations of consumers (Stern, 1998), and cookery books (Brownlie et al., 2005). A variety of constructs have been deployed in the conduct of their analyses, for example, persona (Stern, 1993a), and point of view (Stern, 1991); and a range of analytical strategies have been attempted, including deconstruction (Stern, 1996) and rhetorical analysis (Brown, 2004). The notion of text is rarely used in this sense within the branding literature; an exception is Hatch and Rubins (2006) paper on brand hermeneutics. The primary text for analytical purposes is of course the film itself. Other texts produced by stakeholders - such as teasers, trailers, interviews, reviews, web-site content, and documentaries about the making of the film are considered as meta-texts. Brandscape Salzer-Mrling and Strannegrd (2010) argue that the advent of the experience economy is linked to a focus on the expressive or sign values of goods. They define (2010: 412) a brandscape as a culture or a market where brands and brand-related items such as signs and logos increasingly dominate everyday life and view it as a field of relationships where consumers experiences are ideologically infused (2010:413). Thompson and Arsel (2004) and Salzer-Mrling and Strannegrds (2010) can be seen as developing the notion of brandscape introduced by Sherry (1998); the former in terms of broadening the focus beyond the consumer and the latter by introducing the sign economy into the notion of brandscape. Their depiction of the brandscape is of a cultural space where brand meanings are developed and circulated within an ideological setting. We propose that in understanding the brand relationships that exist within a single film project, the concept of brandscape can helpfully be applied. Film Brand Frameworks

In this section, we present a number of frameworks which illustrate our approach to film branding, including the Film Production-Consumption Matrix (Figure 1 below), the SocioCultural Construction of Film Brands Framework (Figure 2 below) and the Film Brandscape (Figure 3 below). Insert figure 1 approximately here The 2 x 2 matrix in Figure 1 focuses on different aspects of the relationship between the producer and consumer. Quadrant 1 (P2P) represents the film production culture aspect; the interactions between a films investors, producer, director, actors, crew, placed brands, and intermediaries such as talent agents and product placement brokers. These interactions and discussions shape the eventual brand offering, incorporating back-office, off-stage and behindthe-scenes artistic or commercial activities. Quadrant 2 (P2C) represents communication between a films promoters and distributors and the films consumers, for example leading actors appearing on promotional talk-shows, or directors interviewed at film festivals, teasers, trailers, and posters. Quadrant 3 (C2P) contains action or talk initiated by fans, critics or other consumers and directed at the film-makers or stars including feedback on an actors web-site forum, applause in a cinema, sending fan letters and so on. Quadrant 4 (C2C) represents the film consumption culture. It covers consumer-to-consumer or fan-to-fan interaction, including attending fan conventions, taking part in online discussion forums, production of critical reviews, and so on. This is an important site where consumers, fans, critics, fellow professionals or audiences make sense of their response to the film brand by sharing through a process of discursive elaboration (Elliott and Wattanasuwan, 1998) their opinions and impressions, thus helping to create the meaning of the brand. The top right and bottom left quadrants together (P2C and C2P) represent occasions when production and consumption are articulated, joined together, or connected. The activities in all of these four quadrants use discursive resources including sounds, images, movements, gestures, and talk to produce texts, and these texts, when performed in real time, construct or shape the film brand meanings. When data from these four quadrants are synthesized as part of an analytical study, a holistic sense of the film brand as socio-culturally constructed in interaction between producers and consumers emerges. Moving to Figure 2 below, the four ellipses on the left of the diagram are adapted from the notion of circuit of culture du Gay et al. (1997); Hall (1997). They indicate that meanings are produced, consumed, articulated (i.e. connected) and regulated in a circuit. Insert Figure 2 about here.

All film branding takes place in a historically grounded cultural context(s). Production involves the encoding of discursive resources (ideas, images, words, sounds, gestures) into film texts (which we carry the brand identity), which are communicated and consumed, or decoded, for meanings or brand image. We see marketing in the context of this paper as the primary mode of articulation. All texts are about something, i.e. they have referents. It is important to consider a films referents in order to understand its meanings. The meaning or meanings of a film brand may vary amongst audiences and over time. Marketing is heavily involved in connecting the production and consumption of film through promoting the marketability of films via marketing communications.

Finally, in Figure 3 below, we illustrate the notion of the Film Brandscape. There are, we suggest, two levels of film brandscape: the industry and film levels. The industry level brandscape includes the studio, distributor, media and cinema/retailer brands which operate the relevant supply chain. The film level brandscape concerns those brands which relate to the production, content and consumption of the film itself. Insert Figure 3 about here. Across the top of the figure is the industry level brandscape. Understanding the associations between these kinds of brands and mainstream commercial brands is important because it illustrates which brands are actively involved in the production and consumption of a film. For example, a global brand such as Sony may be able to mobilise resources for both the production and distribution of the film as well as placed commercial brands and their related marketing communications campaigns. In order to fully understand a film brand, the brand analyst needs to take account of all of the aspects in the figure. These elements also matter to consumers who decide whether to buy, rent, watch, or re-watch. How much each element matters depends on consumers and their consumption situations. Other signifiers might include age classification, release date and visual identity markers. Case Exemplar: James Bond Franchise Following Stern (1996) (etc), we introduce a case in order to illustrate the brandscape, and, in doing so, we highlight the hierarchies which may exist as well as the need for consistency which is evident within this particular case. Owing to constraints of space, this case is illustrative only; a detailed treatment of the case would require a paper to itself. The James Bond franchise is one of the most successful projects in the history of film. Kerrigan (2010:45) identifies franchises as repackaged, repositioned and recycled film products. Originating as a line extension product (op.cit., 45), from a novel by British author Ian Fleming, the Bond films can now be seen as a franchise. The series now consists of 22 films, with a twenty-third in preparation under Sam Mendes as director. Bond proves a rich case for analysis due to the very well developed brand elements which can be identified within the franchise. The maturity of the franchise enables us to see how, over time, various brand elements develop, change and impact on other brandscapes. This can be useful both theoretically as well as practically. The long-time producer of the Bond films was Albert R (Cubby) Broccoli (died 1996), whose daughter and step-son have co-produced the remaining films. There is a dynastic element to the production of the films, and the continuity of the Broccoli brand lends stability to the franchise. The James Bond character is a secret agent working for the British secret service and licensed to kill on its behalf. This character has helped to spawn a wide range of other secret service characters from spoofs such as Johnny English to American versions such as the Mission Impossible franchise. The British secret service setting also plays to the country of origin (COO) in representing a quintessentially English gentleman spy who represents British interests in a wide range of geopolitical settings and exotic locations. These locations have included Jamaica (Dr No), Japan (You Only Live Twice), Thailand (The Man with the Golden Gun), and the Czech Republic (Casino Royale). This character brand is juxtaposed to screen villains, who are usually intent on world domination. They themselves can become lesser-known character brands, such as Goldfinger or Dr No., both of which are film titles. Other important figures are the Bond girls, whose actors can be important brands in their own right, such as Grace Jones, Ursula Andress, and Halle Berry, although the characters themselves rarely become brands. Other interesting characters are M, Q, and Miss Moneypenny, who also work in different

capacities for the secret service. Cooper et al. (2010) have identified three brand narratives evident in the James Bond character, namely lover, superhero and outlaw. Moving on from the character brand, it is important to consider the actor brands and their interaction with the character brands. Bond has been played by six different actors, and there is frequent media discussion about the merits of each. Transition from one Bond actor to the next attracts much scrutiny from critics and consumers. The actor brand must not be allowed to overshadow the character brand in the Bond franchise. At the same time, no actor will want his career to be entirely dominated by his work on the Bond series. Since 1962, a number of commercial brands have become associated with the Bond films. The association between Bond and Aston Martin can be linked to COO in that Aston Martin is an iconic British brand. When Bond switched to BMW as part of a three-picture placement deal, this was widely discussed in the marketing press (Baird, 1997). Bond reverted to Aston Martin once this deal had ended. Other examples of products that have a history within the Bond franchise include Omega watches, Heineken beer, and, more recently, Ford, Sony Ericsson and Virgin Atlantic (Variety, 2008). The inclusion of Sony products has increased since Sony took over MGM studios in 2008. These products seek to benefit from the prestige and reach of the Bond franchise. Apart from placed brands, we can see brand extensions such as video games that have emanated from this franchise over time. Sony, as a key player in the video games market has also been able to profit from such brand extensions. The opening credits feature the iconic film riff to signal that the film belongs to the franchise. It has become standard practice for Bond producers to commission high-profile musical talent (artiste brands) to write and/or perform the theme tune for each film. While each theme tune is unique, it incorporates key musical references associated with the franchise. Such continuity can also account for iconic film music composer John Barry composing 10 of the 23 Bond theme tunes and Shirley Bassey providing vocals on three. However, latterly, continuity is provided more by the musical references contained in the theme tunes, rather than those involved in composing or performing them. Music videos feature scenes or characters from the film and film idents, logos and gestures are also evident. These various brand elements co-exist in the James Bond brandscape where they compete for prominence in terms of meaning. We can see this through analysing the presentation of marketing materials such as DVD cover, poster, teaser, trailer, etc.. The films description on the DVD cover as Albert R Broccolis EON Productions presents Daniel Craig as Ian Flemings James Bond in Quantum of Solace illustrates the hierarchy within the brandscape and positions key elements for the prospective viewer. Conclusions and Implications At the beginning of this paper, we asked the questions: what is meant by speaking of a film as a brand? Secondly, what are the brand elements that must be considered in understanding the overall film brand and its position within the market? What can we gain from a theory of film brands? We argued for a cultural approach as a means of dealing with the challenges of stakeholder complexity, the cultural dimensions of the text and the issue of competing brand elements. We united various theories in offering understanding of the relationships between brands and film. A film can be viewed as a brandscape where individual brands compete for prominence while simultaneously contributing to the development of the various brands featured within the film. The film brandscape is complex due to the different modalities of

brand which compete/cooperate within this space. The model is meant as a map of the relevant elements which contribute to the overall brand identity of a specific film. Aside from the theoretical contribution, this paper has managerial implications through demonstrating that deliberative strategic brand development/management is possible to a degree, but that the cultural status of film must be respected and the role of the consumer in interpreting and creating brand meaning and associations must also be understood. Our approach and resulting frameworks acknowledge the complexity of the relationship between films and brands. They also focus particular attention on the cultural status of film and provide lenses through which analysts can study the process and results of film branding. Our strategy has been to synthesise perspectives from within marketing, consumer, cultural and film studies to provide theoretical generativity in the area of film branding. The culturalist approach enables a connection to be made with different approaches to the understanding of cultural texts generally, namely hermeneutics (Hatch and Rubin, 2006), discourse analysis (Phillips and Hardy, 2002; Ellis et al. 2010), and semiotic analysis (Metz, 1974, Mitry 2000). This in turn facilitates the use of theoretical and analytical constructs such as intertextuality (Allen, 2000; ODonohue, 1997), myth (Coupe, 1997), ideology (Eagleton, 2007), and narrative. Altogether, this provides a rich set of resources for the critical analysis and interrogation of film brands and their cultural underpinnings. Furthermore, the textual approach enables other analytical theories such as reader-response theory to be applied to the development of an understanding of film brand image (see for example Scott, 1994; Hirschman, 1997). Extant notions of text within marketing, film, cultural and consumer studies, united with different strands of discourse offer a fruitful theoretical approach. Films are marked with signs of ownership and may carry other cues which function as risk-reducing shorthand devices. Consumers look to brand characteristics as communicated through brand cues, much in the way that Aaker (1991) speaks of brand association as shorthand aimed at reducing consumer risk. Films with clear brand associations can be depicted as having high levels of marketability (Kerrigan, 2010), which may or may not translate into playability. Strategic brand management is concerned with instrumental development of brand identity and relationships; however, brand culture acknowledges that consumers in particular historical and geographical contexts congregate around brands and, as Eckhardt and Bengtsson (2010) note in their analysis of the development of branding in China, create brand identities which allow identification and distinction from one another. This notion that consumers develop brand identifiers and discourse in order to distinguish and differentiate products in the marketplace illustrates the intertextuality of the brandscape. This is particularly true in the film brandscape where brands may compete or compliment brand meaning in consumers minds. The purpose of this paper was to develop a conceptual framework within which the film brandscape could be considered. In doing so, we have drawn on existing literature which adopts a cultural approach to branding. The theoretical contribution of this paper is threefold. Firstly, we develop the cultural approach to branding through introducing the idea of the granularity of the brandscape. Such a concept indicates that particular brandscapes can be viewed as loosely bounded sites within which meaning is derived from making sense of the various, interrelated brands within this brandscape. Such meaning is dependent on cultural cues which evolve over time. Secondly, we contribute to the development of meaningful film marketing theory from the consumption perspective, we can see that our understanding of consumer decision making will be enhanced through the application of the film brandscape approach. Thirdly, from a production perspective, managerial decision making can be

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Film Production

Film Marketing

Consumer Feedback

Consumption culture

Figure 1. Cultural Context

Figure 2: The Socio-Cultural Construction of Film Brands Framework

Figure 3: The Film Brandscape