Circuit Elements and Laws

Microsoft PowerPoint Presentation Graphics for
EE 313: Basic Electrical Engineering I

Prepared by Brian Manhire, Ph.D. Professor of Electrical Engineering
Microsoft PowerPoint Presentation Graphics

Copyright 1998 Brian Manhire
For Part 1 of
Introduction to Electrical Engineering, 2/e

by C.R. Paul, S.A. Nasar and L.E. Unnewehr
Stocker Center, home of Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology
8:43 PM
1992, McGraw-Hill, Inc.

2
Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology
Chapter 2
Circuit Elements and Laws
Chapter 2: Circuit Elements and Laws
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 Introduction Charge and Electric Forces Voltage Current and Magnetic Forces Lumped-Circuit Elements Kirchhoffs Voltage and Current Laws The Resistor Voltage and Current Sources Signal Waveforms Analysis of Simple Circuits
Introduction to Electrical Engineering
Chapter 2: Introduction (pp. 9-10)

In electric circuit analysis the most fundamental quantities are voltages and currents Voltages and currents are interrelated and in many practical applications ideal (linear) relationships (e.g., V = R x I) suffice Useful electromechanical devices have electric circuit counterparts (see next slide = text Figure 2.2) The ability to employ electric circuit analysis skills to these counterparts is essential in the analysis and design of electromechanical and electronic devices
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Chapter 2: Introduction cont.
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2.1 Charge and Electric Forces (pp. 11-13)

Charge (Q1 & Q2) is the stuff of electricity There are two kinds of charge: positive (+) and negative (-) Unlike charges attract, like charges repel
Q1 + + F=9
x 10 9
2.2 Voltage
Charges exert forces on one another Moving a charge Q1 in the presence of another charge Q2 entails doing work (expending energy) on that charge (Q1) Work per unit charge (1 J/C) is voltage (1 V.)
b +
Q2 +
where: F in N, r in m. and Q in C
Q 1Q 2 r2
F = 9 x 109 Q1Q2 r2
v ba = wba/Q 1 Q1 +
Where w ba is the work done in moving Q 1 from a to b
Q2 +
Fixed in space
r
See Example 2.1 (pp. 12-13) for application
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a
7
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_
See Example 2.2 (pp. 15-16 for application)
2.2 Voltage cont.: Example 2-1

Text Problem 2.7 (p. 49) Calculate the voltage vba
Fixed in space
2.2 Voltage cont.: Example 2-1 cont.

Solution strategy: Since vba = Wba/Q, where Wba is the work done (energy expended) in moving charge Q from a to b, conceptually move a test charge of Q =1 C from a to b (then evaluate the vba voltage paradigm above).
Q=1C x + + Q 1 = 2 10 9 C a
1 m.
+ Q 1 = 2 10 9 C a
1 m.
vba = ? +
b
3 m.
+ Q 2 = 3 10 9 C
5 m.
b
3 m.
+ Q 2 = 3 10 9 C
5 m.
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10

The net force opposing the movement of Q is Fnet = F 2 F1 where: QQ F2 (x) = + 9 x 109 2 2 (5-x) QQ F1 (x) = 9 x 109 1 2 x
Q=1C + + Q 1 = 2 10 9 C a
1 m.
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Which for the given charge values yields: 27 18 (5-x)2 x2
Fnet(x) = +
Q=1C + + Q 1 = 2 10 9 C a
1 m.
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b
3 m.
+ Q 2 = 3 10 9 C
5 m.
b
3 m.
+ Q 2 = 3 10 9 C
5 m.
X 5X Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology
11
12

Then the work done in moving Q is: b 3 27 18 2 dx Wba = Fnet(x)dx = 2 x a 1 (5-x) Which yields Wba = 5.25 J Ergo, vba = Wba / Q = 5.25 J / 1 C = 5.25 J/C vba = 5.25 V. Q=1C
+ + Q 1 = 2 10 9 C a
1 m.
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2.3 Current and Magnetic Forces

Current is a measure of the rate of flow of (net positive) charge per unit time 1 Ampere = 1 Coulomb per second See next slide = Figure 2.10 (p. 17) for a graphical illustration of the charge/current relationship dq(t) (2.4) i(t) = dt q(t) = i()d
b
3 m.
+ Q 2 = 3 10 9 C
5 m.
(2.5)
13
8:43 PM
Units: i(t) is in Amperes when q(t) is in Coulombs and t is in seconds Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology
14
2.3 Current and Magnetic Forces cont.

q(t) = i()d
2.4 Lumped-Circuit Elements

Macroscopic (big picture) treatment of electrophysics Physical behavior of a region of electrical activity is averaged (lumped together) into a so-called lumped-circuit element The overall electrical activity associated with the element is captured, inter alia, by its voltage and current i(t) = Current through element
< Lumped Circuit Element +
v(t) = Voltage across element
i(t) =
dq(t) dt
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15
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16
Voltage-Current Power Relationship

Voltage units are Joules / Coulomb Current units are Coulombs / second Voltage-Current products units are (Joules / Coulomb) (Coulombs / second) = Joules / second = Watts Ergo, P(t) = v(t)i(t) (which is Power)
X
Passive Sign Convention

Given the passive sign convention shown below ... Then if at some time t both i(t) > 0 and v(t) > 0 Then positive charge is moving through the element from top-to-bottom at the rate i(t) (in C/sec.) and The rate (per unit charge) of work (energy) being done to push the charge through the element is v(t) (in J/C) The power absorbed by the element is p(t) = v(t)i(t) in Watts (1 W = 1 J/s)
i(t) = Current through element
i(t) = Current through element
<
Lumped Circuit Element
+
< Lumped Circuit Element

17
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+
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18
Voltage Polarity Meaning

The amount of energy (in Joules) that each Coulomb of charge looses (expends), as a result of its journey from top-to-bottom through the element, is numerically equal to its voltage (in Volts)
i
One Coulomb of charge
+
Power Supplied vs. Power Absorbed

< +
v(t) = 3 V.
<
i(t) = 7 A.
i(t) = 7 A.
Pabsorbed = ? PSupplied = ?
+
v(t) = 3 V.
Case 1
Case 2
<
More energy here
<
Less energy here
v(t) = 3 V.
< Pabsorbed = ? PSupplied = ?
i(t) = 7 A.
i(t) = 7 A.
v(t) = 3 V.
+
19
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The voltage is the amount of energy lost per unit charge

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Case 3
Case 4 20

i(t) = 7 A. i(t) = 7 A.

i(t) = 7 A. i(t) = 7 A.
<
<
<
+
v(t) = 3 V.
<
+
v(t) = 3 V.
+
v(t) = 3 V.
+
v(t) = 3 V.
Case 5
Case 6
Case 9
Case 10
i(t) = 7 A.
i(t) = 7 A.
<
v(t) = 3 V.
<
i(t) = 7 A.
i(t) = 7 A.
<
<
v(t) = 3 V.
v(t) = 3 V.
v(t) = 3 V.
+
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+
21
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Case 7
Case 8
Case 11
Case 12 22

i(t) = 7 A. i(t) = 7 A.
2.5 Kirchhoffs Voltage and Current Laws

The behavior of electric-circuit currents and voltages are governed by these laws KCL is a statement of conservation of charge (see text p. 22) KVL is a statement of conservation of energy (see text p. 25) KCL and KVL are used in conjunction with circuit element laws; e.g., Ohms Law (see text p. 28), etc. to perform electric circuit analysis
23
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< <
<
+
v(t) = 3 V.
+
v(t) = 3 V.
Case 13
Case 14
i(t) = 7 A.
i(t) = 7 A.
<
v(t) = 3 V.
v(t) = 3 V.
Case 15
Case 16
24
Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL)

A circuit node is an electrical location of interest (see numbered black dots below) KCL: The sum-total of all currents entering (or leaving) each node equals zero
1 A
1
Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL) cont.

KCL Sum: Each term in the sum is a current If summing into a node, each inbound current term has a positive sign and each outbound current term has a negative sign
1 A
1
X
iy
Y
ix
iz 2 A
Z
iy
Y
ix
iz 2 A
Z
3
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3A
4
25
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3A
4
26

KCL at Node 1: + i y - ix + (-1 A) = 0 A (I) KCL at Node 2: + i x + (-2 A) - i z = 0 A (II) KCL at Node 3: - i y - (-2 A) + 3 A = 0 A (III)
1 A
1
X

(I), (II) & (III) have solution ix = 4 A, iy = 5 A and iz = 2 A. Note that doing a KCL at node 4 is now redundant
1 A
1
iy
Y
ix
iz 2 A
Z
iy
Y
ix
iz 2 A
Z
3
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3A
4
27
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3A
4
28

KCL Sum: Each term in the sum is a current If summing out of a node, each outbound current term has a positive sign and each inbound current term has a negative sign
1 A
1
X

KCL at Node 1: - i y + i x - (-1 A) = 0 A (I) KCL at Node 2: - i x - (-2 A) + iz = 0 A (II) KCL at Node 3: + i y + (-2 A) - 3 A = 0 A (III)
1 A
1
X
iy
Y
ix
iz 2 A
Z
iy
Y
ix
iz 2 A
Z
3
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3A
4
29
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3A
4
30

Again, i x = 4 A, iy = 5 A, iz = 2 A and KCL at Node 4 is redundant N.B.: See text Problem 2.15 (p. 50)
1 A
1
X
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)

Relates a circuits voltages to one another First must consider voltage rise vs. voltage drop concept
+ vy
1 2
iy
Y
ix
+
1V
3
iz 2 A
Z
-2 V
+ vx
+
-3 V
3
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3A
4
31
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+ vz
32
Voltage Rise vs. Voltage Drop

Positive charge moving across a change of voltage from the positive polarity sign towards the negative polarity sign experiences a voltage drop (a decrease in its energy) Positive charge moving across a change of voltage from the negative polarity sign towards the positive sign experiences a voltage rise (an increase in its energy) i(t)
< If i(t) > 0, the downward moving charge experiences a voltage drop . However, if i(t) < 0 then the upward moving charge experiences a voltage rise.
8:43 PM

KVL: The sum-total of all voltage drops and voltages rises around any closed pathin any directionequals zero
+ vy
1 2
+
1V
3
-2 V
+ vx
+
-3 V
+
v(t) > 0
33
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+ vz
34

KVL for closed path 1231 (using the land on polarity sign rule to determine the sign of each term in the sum): - v y + (-2 V) + 1 V = 0 V (I)
+ vy
1 2

KVL for closed path 2342 (using land on polarity sign rule to determine the sign of each term in the sum): + (-2 V) - v z + vx = 0 V (II)
+ vy
1 2
+
1V
3
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-2 V
+ vx
+
-3 V
+
1V
3
-2 V
+ vx
+
-3 V
+ vz
4
35
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+ vz
4
36

KVL for closed path 1421 (using land on polarity sign rule to determine the sign of each term in the sum): - (-3 V) + v x + vy = 0 V (III)
+ vy
1 2
(I), (II) and (III) can be solved for v x, vy and vz N.B.: There are other (now redundant) closed paths (also see Text Problem 2.23, p. 52)
+ vy
1 2
+
1V
3
-2 V
+ vx
+
-3 V
+
1V
3
-2 V
+ vx
+
-3 V
+ vz
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4
37
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+ vz
4
38
2.6 The Resistor

The (ideal) resistor is defined by Ohms Law: v(t) = Ri(t) where R is a positive constant and v(t) and i(t) are also related by the passive sign convention (this second requirement is implicitly built into the Ohms Law equation)
i(t) + v(t) = Ri(t)
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2.6 The Resistor cont.

If i(t) > 0 so too is v(t) = Ri(t) and vice versa; i.e., if i(t) < 0 so is v(t). So the resistors absorbed power (voltagecurrent product) is always Pabsorbed = v(t)i(t) 0
i(t)
+ v(t) = Ri(t)
39
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40
2.6 The Resistor cont.

G = R-1 is called conductance (in S) PR(t) = vi = (Ri)i = i2 R PR(t) = vi = v(v/R) = v2/R
i(t) + v(t) = Ri(t)
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2.6 The Resistor cont. (more about R)

R = (L/A) where The resistivity () is material dependent (in m) The length (L) is in m. The cross-sectional area (A) is in m2 . See Text Example 2.4 (p. 30) for an application
A
L
41
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42
2.7 Voltage and Current Sources

In circuit analysis, the ideal source concept is fundamental The ideal voltage sources terminal voltage is independent of the sources current The ideal current sources current is independent of the voltage across it General: v s(t) or is(t) b +
i(t) v s(t)
2.7 Source modeled via ideal source & resistor

An actual source can be modeled using ideal circuit elements (e.g., ideal source & resistor see below)
KVL: 12 v. Rsi v = 0 v. or v = 12 v. Rsi (linear equation)

v + Rsi + v i
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+ v ba(t) = v s (t)
a b
t DC:
v s(t) = V or is(t) = I
t
12 v.
v(i) vs. i
Slope = Rs
+
v(t)
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i s(t) p(t) delivered = vs(t)i(t) p(t) delivered = v(t)is(t)
i(t) = i s(t)
Rs + vs(t) = 12 v.
RL
(voltage source) (current source)

43
12 v./Rs
a Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology
i
44
v = 12 v. Rsi can be solved for i = (12 v./Rs) v/Rs (linear equation)

The preceding source transformation analysis should be committed to memory, according to the text!
+ Rsi + v i
12 v./Rs
The above current equation corresponds to KCL at node n in the circuit shown below v
12 v. n
v(i) vs. i
Slope = Rs
v/R s
12 v./Rs
Rs
+ v i
Rs + vs(t) = 12 v.
RL
n
RL
v/R s 12 v./Rs Rs
+ v i
RL
46
i
45
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2.8 Signal waveforms

DC: x(t) = X (constant) t
Saw tooth
2.8 Signal waveforms cont.

Sinusoid:
Amplitude +
x(t) = Asin( t + ) (periodic) T

Period
x(t) = x(t nT) (periodic) t T

t
n = 1, 2, 3, (integer) T = Period (in sec.) f = 1/T Frequency (in Hz.)

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47
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Radian frequency
Phase angle
48

Waveforms can be numerically compared (as opposed to visually compared) by way of numerical attributes which measure some meaningful waveform property Average value is intuitively appealing (it measures a waveforms DC content) xAVE = 1 x()d T

The RMS (Root-Mean-Square) value measures a periodic waveforms average power RMS values of sinusoidal voltages and currents are the vernacular of the electric power industry
t (Where T is x(t)s period)

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t+T
xRMS =
t (Where T is x(t)s period)

49
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1 T
t+T
x2 ()d
50

A current signals RMS value is a measure of t+T its average power 1 PAVE = T p()d
+ v i R

A voltage signals RMS value is a measure of t+T its average power 1 PAVE = T p()d
+ v i R
PAVE = 1 T PAVE = R
Ri ()d
t t+T
2
= I2RMS
PAVE = 1 T
v ()/Rd = V
t t+T
2
RMS
1 T
i ()d
2
t+T
PAVE = 1 1 R T
v ()d
2
t+T
PAVE = RI 2RMS
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(QED)
51
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PAVE = V2RMS / R (QED)

52

Moral: A periodic signals RMS value measures how powerful the signal is See text p. 38 for a sample RMS value calculation Another important RMS result (see text p. 39) is that the RMS value of the general sinusoidal waveform x(t) = Asin(t + ) is A/2 0.707A Ergo, it is easy to program meters (e.g., VOMs, DVMs, etc.) to display the RMS values of the AC (sinusoidal) waveforms encountered in the electric power industry
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Example 2-2
The resistance space heater (of constant resistance RH ) when supplied by a 170 sin(120t) V. (t in seconds) sinusoidal (AC) voltage source takes 5 minutes to raise a rooms temperature 3 F. If the same heater is supplied by a 48 Volt (DC) voltage source, how long will it take (in minutes) to do the same job?
+ Voltage source (AC or DC)

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RH
Space heater
53
54

Example 2-2 cont.
+ Voltage source (AC or DC) RH Space heater

Exponential waveform: x(t) = Ae -t/ (t is in seconds)
Time constant (parameter) is (also in seconds) Captures transient behavior of many physical phenomena (e.g., radioactive decay, mechanical motion, electrical transients, etc.)
Ae-t/
A
E AC = Energy for AC case = P ave. T AC = [(VRMS )2/RH] 5 Min. E A C = [(170 V./2)2/RH ] 5 Min. E DC = Energy for DC case = P DC T DC = [(V DC E D C = [(48 V.)2/RH] T D C )2/R
H]
A(1-e-t/ )
A 0.86A 0.63A
T DC
0.37A 0.14A 8:43 PM 2 t
Then: EA C = [(170 V./ 2)2/RH ] 5 Min. = [(48 V.)2/RH] T DC = E DC which yields T DC 31 Min. 8:43 PM Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology 55
56

Example 2-3
An ideal exponential voltage source of 120et V. supplies power to a 5 resistor. Calculate the following quantities for the time period 0 t < : the total energy (in Joules) absorbed by the resistor, the total charge (in Coulombs) that flows through the resistor, the average voltage (in Volts) across the resistor and the time it takes an AC, 120 V. (RMS), 60 W., incandescent lamp to consume the same energy as the resistor.

Example 2-3 cont.
+ v(t) = 120et V. 5
i(t) = v(t)/5 = 24e t A. Power: p(t) = v(t)i(t) = 5 i2 (t) = v2 (t)/5 = 2880e 2t W.
+ v(t) = 120et V.
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Energy: WR = p()d = 2880e 2 d = 1.44 kJ.

0 0 0 0
Charge:
57
8:43 PM
Q = i()d = 24e
24 C.
58

Example 2-3 cont.
+ v(t) = 120et V. 5
2.9 Analysis of Simple Circuits

Single-loop circuit analysis involves several applications of Ohms Law (1 x ix , 2 x ix and 3 x ix (note use of passive sign convention on schematic)) and ... One KVL: 2 x ix + 1 x ix + 3 x ix +10 V. = 0 V. which has solution ix = 5/3 A. 3 x i x +
+
The average voltage is: V ave.= W/Q = 1.44 kJ./24C. = 60 J/C Vave.= 60 V. (in what sense is this the voltages average?) Equating the lamps energy to the resistors energy yields: Plamp Tlamp = 1.44 kJ. = W 5 (where Plamp= 60 W. = 60 J./Sec.) Ergo, Tlamp = 24 Seconds
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1 x ix
+
3 1 2
ix
+ 10 V.
N.B.: See text Problem 2.31, p. 54.
vx = 2 x ix
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59
60
2.9 Analysis of Simple Circuits cont.

Single-node-pair circuit analysis involves several applications of Ohms Law (vx / 2 and vx / 3) note use of passive sign convention on schematic and ... One KCL (at node n or m): 3 A. + vx / 2 + v x / 3 = 0 A. which has solution vx = 3.6 V. +
3 A.
n

Source transformations (described earlier and repeated below) can be used to convert some circuits to either a single-loop circuit or single-node-pair circuit which
can then be analyzed as described earlier

R
b b a
vx
vx / 2
2
vx / 3
3
+ V = IR
I = V/R
R
a
N.B.: See text Problem 2.30, p. 53. 8:43 PM
61
8:43 PM
62

Example 2-4 Find i x and vx
+
n 2
Example 2-4 cont.

Step 1: Create single-node-pair circuit using source conversion
+
n
5 V.
3 m
+
6 A.
vx
ix
2
5 V.
3 m
N.B.: See text Problem 2.39, p. 56.
+
6 A.
vx
2.5 A.
n
+
6 A.
3 m
vx
64
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63
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Example 2-4 cont.

Step 2: Solve the single-node-pair circuit for vx KCL at node n: 2.5 A. + vx / 2 + v x / 3 + 6 . = 0 . Which has solution vx = 10.2 V.
n
Example 2-4 cont.

Step 3: With vx now known, solve the original circuit for ix KCL at node n: ix (3.4) A. 6 A. = 0 A. Which has solution ix = 2.6 A.
+
n (3.4) A.* 3 m
..:
vx / 2 2.5 A.
vx / 3
3 m
ix
2
5 V.
6 A.
vx
6 A.
vx = 10.2 V.
(10.2 V. / 3) = 3.4 A. 66
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65
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Example 2-5: Find Ix and Vx
b 5 6 A. + 8 V. 2 c a 10 A. 3 R 1 Ix d 6 A.
Example 2-5 cont.

b 5 a + iac 8 V. 2 c 10 A. 3 R 1 Ix d
+
Vx
+
Vx
Ohms Law: iac = 8 V. / 2 = 4 A.

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67
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68
Example 2-5 cont.

b 5 6 A. ib a a + 4 A. 8 V. 2 c 10 A. 3 R 1 Ix d 6 A.
Example 2-5 cont.

b 5 iba= 14 A. a + 8 V. 2 c 10 A. 3 R 1 Ix d
+
Vx
+
Vx
KCL at node a: ib a 4 A. 10 A. = 0 A. iba = 14 A.

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KCL at node b: 6 A. 14 A. IX = 0 A. I X = 8 A.
69
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70
Example 2-5 cont.

b 5 6 A. + 8 V. 2 c a 1
Example 2-5 cont.

+
6 A. b 5 1
vdb = 8 V. +
10 A. 3
8 A . d
5 14.
8 V. +
10 A. 3 R d
a 14.
E +
+
R Vx
+
Vx
8 V. 2 c
Ohms Law: vdb = 1 [( 8 A.)] = 8 V.

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KVL (Top-right mesh): 5 14. + 8 V. E = 0 V. E = 78 V.

71
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72
Example 2-5 cont.

b 5 6 A. + 8 V. 2 c a 10 A. 3 R 1
Example 2-5 cont.

b 1 5 6 A. + a 10 A. d
8 A.
d
+
Vx
i dc
8 V. 2 V R Vx 3 + c 3 2 A.
KCL at node d: 10 . + (8 A.) idc = 0 A. idc = 2 A.

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Ohms Law: V3 = 3 2 . = 6 V.
73
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74
Example 2-5 cont.

b 5 6 A. + a 1
We welcome your questions with

d
78 V. +
R
Enthusiasm!!
+
Vx
10 A. 8 V. 2 6 V. + c 3
2 A.
KVL (Bottom-right mesh): 8 V. + 78 V. VX 6 V. = 0 V. VX = 80 V.

8:43 PM
75
Russ College of Engineering & Technology

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Microsoft PowerPoint Presentation Graphics for

EE 313: Basic Electrical Engineering I

Microsoft PowerPoint Presentation Graphics

Introduction to Electrical Engineering, 2/e

1992, McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology

Introduction to Electrical Engineering

Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology

Chapter 2: Introduction (pp. 9-10)

Chapter 2: Introduction cont.

Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology

Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology

2.1 Charge and Electric Forces (pp. 11-13)

Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology

Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology

2.2 Voltage cont.: Example 2-1

2.2 Voltage cont.: Example 2-1 cont.

Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology

Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology

2.2 Voltage cont.: Example 2-1 cont.

2.2 Voltage cont.: Example 2-1 cont.

X 5X Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology

Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology

2.2 Voltage cont.: Example 2-1 cont.

2.3 Current and Magnetic Forces

Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology

2.3 Current and Magnetic Forces cont.

2.4 Lumped-Circuit Elements

Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology

Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology

Voltage-Current Power Relationship

Passive Sign Convention

i(t) = Current through element

Lumped Circuit Element

< Lumped Circuit Element

Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology

Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology

Voltage Polarity Meaning

Power Supplied vs. Power Absorbed

More energy here

Less energy here

< Pabsorbed = ? PSupplied = ?

The voltage is the amount of energy lost per unit charge

Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology

Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology

Power Supplied vs. Power Absorbed

Power Supplied vs. Power Absorbed

Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology

Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology

Power Supplied vs. Power Absorbed

2.5 Kirchhoffs Voltage and Current Laws

Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology

Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology

Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL)

Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL) cont.

Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology

Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology

Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL) cont.

Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL) cont.

Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology

Ohio Universitys Russ College of Engineering & Technology

Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL) cont.

Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL) cont.