Topic 1 An introduction to materials welding and joining

Objectives
At the completion of this topic, you should be able to:

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

appreciate the importance of joining in industry; have some perception of the history of joining; appreciate the influence of joining on structural viability; know the basic principles of alternative joining processes; understand the feature of common joining processes; and understand how processes are classified

Scope
This subject provides the background and introductory information on common welding processes. More detailed treatments of the processes are provided in other subjects within the course.

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 1

Recommended Reading

Houldcroft, P. and John, R. 1988, Welding and Cutting, Woodhead and Faulkner, ISBN 085941-396-9. Cary, H. B. 1979, Modern Welding Technology, Prentice Hall, 1979, ISBN 013-599290-7. Norrish, J. 1992, Advanced Welding Processes, Adam Hilger, ISBN 0852743262-X. Lancaster, J. F., Metallurgy of Welding, Allen & Unwin, ISBN 0-04-669011-5. Welding Handbook, Welding Processes, vol. 2, 8th edn, American Welding Society, ISBN 0-87171-281-4.

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 2

Sources of further information

There are many useful sources from which more specific information can be acquired on welding processes and applications. Books which have been found to be particularly useful in the preparation of these notes are listed above, but there are some hundreds of publications dealing with particular aspects of welding technology. When a technology is changing as rapidly as welding, the professional journals assume greater importance than they might in other fields. The American Welding Journal published by the American Welding Society is an extremely valuable source of material. In addition, The Welding Institute (TWI) in the UK, WTIA in Australia and Edison Welding Institute (EWI) in America maintain specialist library services and all have WWW sites on the internet. Some of the more important web sites are: The Welding Institute - UK http://www.twi.co.uk/home.html Edison Welding Institute USA http://www.ewi.org/home.html Nederlands Institute of Welding - Holland http://www.igr.nl/-henkbodt/nil/index-e.htm WTIA-Australia http://www.wtia.com.au

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 3

Notes

Introduction
Welding and joining are essential for the manufacture of a range of engineering components which may vary from very large structures such as ships and bridges, to very complex structures such as aircraft engines, or miniature components for microelectronic applications.

The importance of joining

Joining of materials has been identified as a 'key enabling technology' which has a direct impact on the wealth of nations1. It is also the common view of many engineers that joining is: costly; hazardous; and difficult to control.

The high cost of joining operations is a consequence of the fact that many traditional joining processes are labour intensive. Typically in steel construction the labour cost may represent 70% to 80% of the fabrication cost. The hazards commonly associated with joining processes arise from the use of high temperatures and pressures in many processes, the need to use high pressure storage of gases which may be explosive, flammable or asphyxiant, the use of high voltage electrical supplies, and the generation of potentially hazardous fume, radiation and noise in some joining operations. The difficulty of controlling joining processes is a result of the need to optimise a large number of interrelated control variables. These issues will be further explored throughout this course and in particular the effective control of weld quality will be discussed after examining some of the history of fabrication.

History
Joining processes were developed by the earliest civilisations. These were often mechanical joints or bindings, for example to attach stone heads to the wooden shafts of work implements and weapons. More than 5000 years ago, brazing techniques were used to fabricate decorative metalware and weapons and Homer's Illiad2 mentions a range of decorative shields and swords which are fabricated by Haphaestos, the blacksmith of the
Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 4

Greek gods. For many years, however, the range of joining processes was restricted to mechanical techniques, brazing, and forge welding. With the industrial revolution in the West, there was a need for more sophisticated joining processes, but the first steel ships and steam boilers were originally joined by riveting. The development of higher temperature localised heat sources such as the oxy-acetylene flame (around 1906) made fusion welding possible whilst resistance welding (1886) offered a viable alternative to riveting for thin sections. The arc welding processes stemmed from the discovery by Sir Humphrey Davy of the electric arc in 1801 and the subsequent use of arc for joining with the carbon arc process being invented in 1881 by Bernardos. Bernardos patented the carbon arc welding process and formed a company 'Electro Hephaestos' to market the new invention in 1886. The manual metal arc process which was the principal technique used for steel fabrication for many years was however only developed and patented in 1907. In the last 100 years, there has been a rapid development in joining technology, an enormous number of new joining techniques have been developed and what was once considered a 'black-art' is now a sophisticated manufacturing technology.

Fabricated structures - failures

Problems which may be directly attributed to welding and joining regularly arise in production and service. Production failures may be rectified before the fabrication leaves the manufacturer or alternatively the defective product may be scrapped. Both of these options are costly and inefficient but may go unnoticed. Service failures are often more dramatic and may be catastrophic in terms of human life and cost. Examples of welding related failures are: the Liberty ships; the Kings Bridge; and the Alexander Kielland.

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 5

The liberty ships

Figure 1.1

Ship failure

Courtesy of The Welding Institute, UK

These vessels were fabricated in the USA in the 1940s to rapidly build up the American fleet. Some 2700 vessels were built and welding was used to replace the previous practice of riveting. The use of welding was beneficial since it made high production rates and lower hull weight possible. Of the 2700 ships, 400 developed cracking in the structure, 90 suffered serious fracture, 20 suffered complete failure but, according to various reports less than 12 of the vessels actually broke in two! Analysis of the failures indicated that the plate used was of poor quality with ductile to brittle transition occurring at temperatures above ambient, cracking normally started in the region of sharp changes of section around hatch covers and often initiated at welds. The failures may therefore be attributed to a poor appreciation of the effect of welding on materials and the need to consider the weldability when choosing a material for a fabricated structure.

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 6

The Kings Bridge

The Kings Bridge which spans the Yarra River Melbourne was built between 1957 and 1961 and opened to traffic in April 1961. On the 10 July 1962 whilst a low loader weighing 45 tons was driving over the bridge a section of the structure collapsed causing a sag of around 300 mm. Subsequent examination revealed fractures of all four supporting girders in the span. The fractures all started from the toes of welds which secured cover plates to the tension flanges of the beams. The reasons for this cracking were reported 3 as high and variable carbon contents in the steel; low notch ductility in the material; inadequate preheat; poor weld sequence control; and poor electrode care.

The initial cracks originated in the heat affected zone after welding and before painting. The cracks propagated from the flange and web of the beams during service. The inexperience of the contractor with the material used, inadequate training and the failure of post weld inspection were all highlighted in the enquiry.

The Alexander Kielland

The Alexander Kielland was a semi submersible offshore platform which was used as an accommodation unit in the North Sea. The rig capsized in March 1980 and 123 of the 212 people on board were lost. The capsize was extremely rapid - taking only ten minutes from initial failure to complete collapse. The failure analysis revealed that the cause of failure was cracking propagating rapidly in a main sub sea brace. The cracks had however initiated from a non load carrying sonar bracket attachment. The material of the flange which was welded to the niobium treated steel brace was found to be of poor quality. There was evidence of both lammellar tearing and hydrogen induced cold cracking and most of the cracks started in the region of the 6 mm fillet weld, from root and toe regions. The failure may have resulted from several different mechanisms but may again be attributed to poor control of welding and lack of due consideration in the joining of what was obviously not considered to be an important component

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 7

Common factors
What all these examples share is the fact that catastrophic failure can be attributed directly to the welding operation. In all cases the problems would have been avoided if an appreciation of the underlying technology had been available and the correct procedures had been adopted. Less dramatic failures occur all too often during fabrication of welded structures. These failures may even be more costly as a whole since they involve difficult and time consuming repair procedures. These quality issues and structural failures may result from the complexity of welding process control and the fact that it is very difficult to determine whether the properties of a weld meet the expected requirements. Whilst the profile and size of a weld may be measured and internal integrity may be checked using non-destructive testing it is often difficult to assess potential defects and mechanical properties such as yield strength and toughness without destructive testing. This problem is recognised in international quality standards (ISO 9000 and ISO 3834) by nominating welding as a Special Process. This classification calls for the application of process procedure control and monitoring. In brief this entails proving the properties of a joint using a pre-production test plate which is welded under the proposed production conditions and destructively tested. The parameters used for a successful test plate are recorded and used in production. Process monitoring of essential variables (e.g. of preheat, current, voltage etc.) provides some assurance that production welds will achieve the same properties as the test plate. This Welding Procedure Control is a major responsibility of the Welding Engineer or Welding Coordinator and is discussed in detail in later topics of this course.

Fabricated structures - successes

Fortunately, the number of successful joining applications far outweigh the number of failures. They range from electrical terminators on microchips to highly stressed nickel superalloy components in aircraft engines (see Figure 1.2), a riveted structure such as the Sydney Harbour Bridge (see Figure 1.3), oil rigs (see Figure 1.4) and large earthmoving equipment such as walking draglines (see Figure 1.5).

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 8

Figure 1.2 Rolls Royce Pegasus engine for the Harrier Jump Jet containing welded nickel superalloy components

Courtesy of Rolls Royce

Figure 1.3 Sydney Harbour Bridge, a riveted structure which has been in service since 1932 with one of the latest welded aluminium ferries in the foreground

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 9

Reproduced from the internet (72dpi) - no source quoted

Figure 1.4 North Sea production platform operating successfully in extremes of low temperature and fatigue loading

Courtesy of Marathon Oil

Figure 1.5 Walking dragline weighing around 5000 tonnes. An example of a large, highly stressed steel structure

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 10

Photography by J Norrish

Joining plays a key role in the economic fabrication of aircraft and motor vehicles as well as common everyday objects such as cooking utensils and furniture. A wide range of materials are also involved and joining of plastics and ceramics as well as most metals and their alloys is widely practised.

Summary
Welding and joining processes are essential in any industrial economy. The incorrect application of the technology may lead to unacceptable health and safety hazards as well as costly and sometimes catastrophic failure of structures. The effective use of joining technology relies on a good background knowledge of the underlying principles as well as the adoption of the correct control measures. With adequate knowledge and preparation even the most complex fabrications may be produced successfully.

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 11

Joining processes
The basic joining processes may be subdivided into: - welding mechanical joining adhesive bonding brazing and soldering.

A large number of joining techniques are now available and in recent years significant developments have taken place, particularly in the adhesive bonding and welding areas. Existing welding processes have been improved and new methods of joining have been introduced. The proliferation of techniques which has resulted makes process selection difficult and this may limit their effective exploitation. The following section introduces some of the basic concepts which need to be considered and highlight some of the features of traditional welding methods.

Classification of welding processes

Several alternative definitions are used to describe a weld, for example: A union between two pieces of metal rendered plastic or liquid by heat or pressure or both. A filler metal with a melting temperature of the same order of that of the parent metal may or may not be used. or alternatively: A localised coalescence of metals or non-metals produced either by heating the materials to the welding temperature, with or without the application of pressure, or by the application of pressure alone, with or without the use of a filler metals. The important principle to note is that a metallic bond is formed across the interfaces between the parent metal and the weld. In other words the material has a continuous atomic structure across the weld with atoms arranged in a crystal lattice the same as that found in the bulk material. Based on these definitions welding processes may be classified into those which rely on the application of pressure and those which use elevated temperatures to achieve the bond.

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 12

Various charts illustrating the derivation of welding processes on this basis have been published. Many of the 40 or so processes referred to in these classifications are of little industrial importance but a small number of them are used extensively. Some of the most important processes are shown in Figure 1.6. A brief description of the most common processes, their applications and limitations is given below.

Figure 1.6

Simplified classification of important welding processes

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 13

Fusion welding
Fusion welding processes require a source of heat, of sufficiently high temperature to locally melt the components which are to be joined. If the two components are closely adjacent, it may be sufficient to simply form a molten pool from locally melted material. If the source of heat is removed, this pool will solidify, joining the two components without the addition of further material. This technique is known as autogenous welding. On thicker materials, or where gaps between the components cannot be avoided, additional material is added in the form of metallurgically compatible filler metal, the form of which depends on the process being used. The thermal energy required for welding may be derived from: chemical heat sources resistance heating arc heating power beams.

Oxy-acetylene welding (chemical heat source)

Oxy-acetylene, or gas welding derives its heat from the combustion of acetylene gas (C2 H2) in oxygen, the two gases being mixed in a specially designed torch.Figure 1.7 Combustion occurs in two stages: C2H2 + O2 2CO + H2 + 19MJ/m3 H2 + 2CO + 1.5O2 2CO2 + H2O + 55 MJ/m3 Equation 1.1 Equation 1.2

The proportions of the gases present in the flame can be varied for special applications, but normally a stochiometric mixture is used, resulting in complete combustion of the acetylene. In this case, the temperature of the flame reaches a sufficiently high level to melt steel. When used manually, the torch is held in one hand, filler material in rod form being added as required using the other hand.

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 14

Figure 1.7

Oxy-acetylene welding

The low temperature of the flame (about 3000C), compared with an arc, means that a relatively large amount of heat is transferred to the workpiece, and this may result in high levels of distortion and thermal damage. Torch nozzles of varying size are used to optimise the size of the flame for specific applications. The oxy-acetylene heat source is very versatile, being capable of heating, soldering, brazing and cutting in addition to welding, and its independence from electricity makes it a convenient process for field situations. However, it is relatively slow, and the low flame temperature makes it unsuitable for the welding of large or thick components. The safety aspects of the process also merit consideration. The gases used are stored in steel bottles, which are bulky and heavy to move. The oxygen is stored at a maximum pressure of 200bar, so the dangers of damage to a bottle or pressure reducing regulator are serious. Acetylene becomes unstable if compressed to high pressures, so it is stored dissolved in acetone at the lower pressure of about 18bar. Because the gas is stored in dissolved form, these cylinders should never be used except in an upright position. The principal features of the oxy-acetylene process are: extreme versatility; independence from electrical supply;

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 15

low flame temperature, hence high heat input; and potential explosive and flammability hazards.

Gas

Fuel gas / Oxygen ratio 2.5 5.0

Heat content MJ/m3 55 104 37 12

Flame temperature C 3087 2526 2538 2660

Acetylene Propane

Natural Gas 2.0 Hydrogen 0.5

Thermit welding (chemical heat source)

Thermit welding utilises the heat generated by an exothermic reaction between a metal material. Iron and copper oxides are the most common compounds that may be reduced in this way and the following reactions are possible: 3Fe304 + 8AI => 4AI203 + 9Fe + 3350 kJ (Temperature > 3000C) 3CuO + 2AI => 3Cu +Al203+ 1210 kJ Equation 1.3

In practice the oxide/aluminium powder mixture is placed in a crucible above the parts to be joined, the mixture is ignited and the molten metal formed is allowed to flow into the joint gap. A mould retains the molten metal until it has solidified.

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 16

Figure 1.8

Thermit welding of rail

The process has the following features: it is a `single shot' process;

it is simple;

it is easily/best performed outside; and it can be used to join complex sections.

The limitations are: the need for a suitable exothermic reaction; and the need for a purpose designed mould.

The main application of the process are for joining steel rails, reinforcing bars and heavy copper conductors.

Electroslag welding (electrical resistance heating)

Electroslag welding utilises the heat generated by the electrical resistance heating of a molten slag bath to melt both the parent material and the continuously fed filler wire. The process is normally carried out with the joint axis vertical and water cooled copper shoes are used to retain the molten slag and the weld pool prior to solidification

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 17

Figure 1.9

Electroslag welding

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 18

The process features are: high heat input high productivity; and heavy sections may be welded vertically.

Limitations of the process include: thermal damage in the heat affected zone; the need to weld in the vertical position; and minimum thickness around 25 mm.

The main applications of the process have been for ship, pressure vessel and building construction.

Gas tungsten arc welding (arc heating)

The Gas tungsten Arc Welding process (GTAW) process is also known as Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) in most of Europe, Wulfram Inert Gas (WIG) in Germany and is still referred to by the original trade names Argonarc or Heliarc welding in some countries. In the GTAW process the heat generated by an arc which is maintained between the workpiece and a non-consumable Tungsten electrode is used to fuse the joint area. The arc is sustained in an inert gas which serves to protect the weld pool and the electrode from atmospheric contamination.

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 19

Figure 1.10

Gas tungsten arc welding

The process has the following features:

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved. INT1.1 20

it is conducted in a chemically inert atmosphere; the arc energy density is relatively high; the process is very controllable; joint quality is usually high; and deposition rates and joint completion rates are low.

The process may be applied to the joining of a wide range of engineering materials including stainless steel, aluminium alloys and reactive metals such as titanium. These features of the process lead to its widespread application in the aerospace, nuclear reprocessing and power generation industries as well as in the fabrication of chemical process plant, food processing and brewing equipment.

Plasma welding (arc heating)

Plasma welding uses the heat generated by a constricted arc to fuse the joint area, the arc is formed between the tip of a non consumable electrode and either the workpiece or the constricting nozzle. Figure 1.11 Plasma arc welding

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 21

A wide range of shielding and cutting gases are used depending on the mode of operation and the application. In the normal Transferred Arc Mode the arc is maintained between the electrode and the workpiece. The electrode is usually the cathode and the workpiece is connected to the positive side of the power supply. In this mode a high energy density is achieved and the process may be used effectively for welding and cutting. The higher energy density can permit higher welding speeds, or operation in the `keyholing' mode, in which a relatively narrow full penetration weld is produced. The penetration characteristics of the process can be markedly altered by variations in the arc current, and also the flow rate and composition of the plasma gas. The non transferred arc system, as its name implies, operates with an arc between the electrode and the constricting orifice. The flow of plasma gas through the orifice carries the heat to the workpiece, and this may be supplemented with a low current arc to the workpiece, operating in the ionised atmosphere created by the non transferred arc. This technique is often used for the welding of thin film material, and components for the electronics industry such as capacitor cans or transistor cases. The features of the process depend on the operating mode and the current , but in summary the plasma process has the following characteristics:

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 22

good low current arc stability; improved directionality compared with TIG; improved melting efficiency compared with TIG; and possibility of keyhole welding.

These features of the process make it suitable for a range of applications from the joining of very thin materials, for the encapsulation of electronic components and sensors, to high speed longitudinal welds on strip and pipe.

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) (arc heating)

The Shielded metal arc welding process (SMAW) is known as MMA, Manual Metal Arc Welding in the countries of Europe and is still referred to as Stick welding in the fabrication industry. SMAW has for many years been one of the most common techniques applied to the fabrication of steels.

The process uses an arc as the heat source but shielding is provided by gases generated by the decomposition of the electrode coating material and by the slag produced by the melting of mineral constituents of the coating. In addition to heating and melting the parent material the arc also melts the core of the electrode and thereby provides filler material for the joint.

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 23

Figure 1.12

Shielded metal arc welding

The electrode coating may also be used as a source of alloying elements and additional filler material. The flux and electrode chemistry may be formulated to deposit wear and corrosion resistant layers for surface protection. SMAW is normally operated as a manual process, although automated variants do exist, such as firecracker and gravity welding. In skilled hands, the process is capable of producing high integrity welds in all positions on materials of all thicknesses, although preheat may be required on thicker materials. The productivity of the process is relatively low, due to the time required to remove slag from the weld, and the necessity to change electrodes frequently. This can be offset by the simplicity and cheapness of the equipment, which can allow more welders to be utilised. For these reasons the process has been traditionally used in structural steel fabrication, shipbuilding and heavy engineering as well as for small batch production and maintenance.

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 24

The composition of electrode core and flux materials is classified by various authorities, including International Standards (ISO), the American Welding Society (AWS), the ASTM and the BSI. Relevant standards are BS639 and AWS A5.1. Manufacturer's data sheets can also be useful in selecting appropriate consumables for a specific application. Significant features of the process are: the equipment is simple; a large range of consumables are available; the process is extremely portable; the operating efficiency is low; and it is labour intensive.

Submerged arc welding (SAW) (arc heating)

Submerged arc welding is a consumable electrode arc welding process in which the arc is shielded by a molten slag and the arc atmosphere is generated by decomposition of certain slag constituents. Figure 1.13 Submerged arc welding

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 25

The filler material is a continuously fed wire and very high melting and deposition rates are achieved by using high currents (for example, 1000 amps) with relatively small diameter wires (for example, 4 mm). The flux is normally in powder or granular form, and automatic systems are available to deposit a layer of flux ahead of the welding arc, and to recover unfused flux after the weld has been made. Because the high operating currents generate a large molten pool, the process is normally operated in the downhand position, and automated welding equipment is invariably used. The main applications of submerged arc welding are on thick section plain carbon and low alloy steels and it has been used on power generation plant, nuclear containment, heavy structural steelwork, offshore structures and shipbuilding. The process is also used for the high speed welding of simple geometric seams in thinner sections -for example in the fabrication of pressure containers for liquified petroleum gas. As with manual metal arc welding, with suitable wire/flux combinations the process may also be used for surfacing, depositing nickel and cobalt based alloys as well as high strength steels. The significant features of the process are: high deposition rates; automatic operation; no visible arc radiation; flexible range of flux/wire combinations; difficult to use positionally; and best for thicknesses above 6 mm.

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) (arc heating)

Gas metal arc welding is known as Metal Inert Gas (MIG) or Metal Active Gas (MAG) welding in Europe. The terms Semi-Automatic or CO2 Welding are sometimes used but are less acceptable. GMAW uses the heat generated by an electric arc to fuse the joint area. The arc is formed between the tip of a consumable, continuously fed filler wire and the workpiece and the entire arc area is shielded by an inert gas.

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 26

Figure 1.14

Gas metal arc welding

The consumable is normally between 0.6 and 2 mm diameter, and the inert gas may be based on argon or helium, with additions of oxygen, CO2, or other gases according to the materials being welded. For some steel welding applications, pure CO2 is used, this process variant being known as MAG (metal active gas welding). Some of the more important features of the GMAW process are summarised below: low heat input; continuous operation; high deposition rate; no heavy slag; reduced post weld cleaning; low hydrogen; and reduced risk of cold cracking.

Depending on the operating mode of the process it may be used at low currents for:

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 27

thin sheet; or positional welding.

The process is used for joining plain carbon steel sheet from 0.5 to 2.0 mm thick in the following applications; Automobile bodies, exhaust systems, storage tanks, tubular steel furniture, heating and ventilating ducts. The process is also applied to positional welding of thicker plain carbon and low alloy steels in the following areas: oil pipelines; marine structures; and earth moving equipment

At higher current high deposition rates may be obtained and the process is used for downhand and horizontal vertical welds in a wide range of materials. Applications include: earth moving equipment, structural steelwork (for example, I' beam pre-fabrication), weld surfacing with nickel or chromium alloys, aluminium alloy cryogenic vessels and military vehicles. Depending on the operating mode of the process it may be used at low currents for thin materials or positional welding, for example on car bodies or metal furniture. With steel consumables and at currents sufficiently high to achieve acceptable fusion on thicker materials, the problem of achieving efficient transfer of metal from the electrode to the molten pool in positions other than downhand gave rise to significant process problems. These gave GMAW the reputation of being a low quality process, prone to lack of fusion and bead shape defects. In recent years, the introduction of improved performance power supplies and a better understanding of the underlying physics of the process have helped to alleviate these problems, although these innovations have yet to be fully accepted.

Flux cored arc welding (FCAW)

A significant variant on the GMAW process is flux cored arc welding (FCAW). This uses the same equipment as GMAW, but instead of a solid metallic electrode, a tubular consumable is used, in which a metallic sheath is wrapped around a core containing powdered material. This material may include alloying elements, arc stabilisers, slag forming agents and the like. Tubular consumables used for the welding of steel can be more easily produced with varying amounts of alloying elements such as nickel for specific purposes, while other ingredients may be compounded to improve deposition rate, bead shape or fusion characteristics. Some alloys, such as the cobalt based hard facing
Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 28

materials, are too brittle to be drawn and coiled as solid wires, but these can be produced as tubular components, the final alloying process taking place in the molten pool. The consumption of FCAW consumables is increasing steadily at present, with this process being perceived as a replacement for SMAW in many cases, with its capability for higher productivity and its greater suitability for automated operation. It seems likely that this will continue to be a growth area for some time to come.

Electron beam welding (power beam)

A beam of electrons may be accelerated by a high voltage to provide a high energy heat source for welding. The power density of electron beams is high (1010 to 1012 Watts/m2) and autogenous keyhole welding is the normal operating mode. The problem of power dissipation when the electrons collide with atmospheric gas molecules is usually overcome by carrying out the welding operation in a vacuum.

Figure

1.15

Electron beam welding

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 29

Safety considerations and the need for a vacuum dictate that all EB welding operations are automated. Accelerating voltages are normally in the range 50 to 150 kV, and it should be noted that when voltages in excess of 60 kV are used, the system must be considered radiologically dangerous and film dosimeters should be worn by operating staff. With the complexities of high voltage supplies, vacuum systems, workpiece manipulation and the like, electron beam welding systems are expensive, many costing hundreds of thousands of dollars. For this reason, the range of application of the process is largely governed by its economics. It is mainly employed in applications where its repeatability and controllability override economic factors (aerospace, defence), or where its high welding speed can be utilised to amortise high operating costs over a large throughput of components (electronics, automotive). Because electron beam welds are very narrow compared with their depth, distortion levels are very low. This enables components to be finish machined and then welded together, a capability which enabled innovative design compromises to be made on products such as the Rolls Royce RB211 aero engine and the Borg Warner T5 automotive transmission. Although principally used for welding, EB techniques have also been used for cutting, drilling and surface heat treatment. Features of the process include; very high energy density; confined heat source; high depth to width ratio of welds; normally requires a vacuum; and high equipment cost.

Applications of electron beam welding have traditionally included welding of aerospace engine components and instrumentation but it may be used on a wide range of materials when high precision and very deep penetration welds are required.

Laser welding (power beam)

The term LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. The laser beam is an intense monochromatic photon source which may be focussed to give very high energy densities. The beam is produced by stimulating a gas mixture in a CO2 laser or activating a solid lasing material such as yttrium aluminium garnet in the YAG laser.

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 30

The laser may be used as an alternative heat source for fusion welding The focused power density of the laser can reach 1010 or 1012 watts/m2 and welding is often carried out using the keyhole' technique. Laser welding can operate in the atmosphere, and it is also easier to direct the output of a laser to multiple welding stations, improving utilisation. The most significant recent area of innovation in laser technology is the development of solid state lasers capable of operating at in excess of 4kW average output power. In a similar manner to EB, lasers are also used for cutting, drilling, heat treatment and surface cladding. Again, process economics will dictate the principle areas of application. Significant features of laser welding are: very confined heat source at low power; deep penetration at high power; reduced distortion and thermal damage; out of vacuum technique; and high equipment cost.

These features have led to the application of lasers for microjoining of electronic components but the process is also being applied to the fabrication of automotive components and precision machine tool parts in heavy section steel.

Welding with pressure

In contrast to the fusion processes described above, pressure welding techniques, as their name implies, rely on forging the components to be joined together, normally at an elevated temperature. In general, little or no melting takes place in the joint region. Although some of these processes have been in use for many years, they have returned to prominence with the introduction of new types of engineering materials, the properties of which are achieved by careful control of the thermal cycle during manufacture. Such materials cannot normally be welded by conventional methods, and pressure techniques are thus the only appropriate welding processes.

Cold pressure welding

If sufficient pressure is applied to the cleaned mating surfaces to cause substantial plastic deformation the surface layers of the material are disrupted, metallic bonds form across the interface and a cold pressure weld is formed6. The main characteristics of cold pressure welding are:
Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 31

the simplicity and low cost of the equipment; the avoidance of thermal damage to the material; and most suitable for low strength (soft) materials.

The pressure and deformation may be applied by rolling, indentation, butt welding, drawing or shear welding techniques. In general the more ductile materials are more easily welded. The process has been used for electrical connections between small diameter copper and aluminium conductors using butt and indentation techniques. Roll bonding is used to produce bimetallic sheet such as Cu/AI for cooking utensils, AI/Zn for printing plates and precious metal contact springs for electrical applications.

Resistance welding
The resistance welding processes are commonly classified as pressure welding processes although they involve fusion at the interface of the material being joined. Resistance spot, seam and projection welding rely on a similar mechanism. The material to be joined is clamped between two electrodes and a high current is applied. Resistance heating at the contact surfaces causes local melting and fusion. High currents (typically 10,000 amps) are applied for short durations and pressure is applied to the electrodes prior to the application of current and for a short time after the current has ceased to flow. Figure 1.16 Resistance welding

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 32

Accurate control of current amplitude, pressure and weld cycle time are required to ensure consistent weld quality is achieved but some variation may occur due to changes in the contact resistance of the material, electrode wear, magnetic losses or shunting of the current through previously formed spots. These `unpredictable' variations in process performance have led to the practice of increasing the number of welds from the design requirement to give some measure of protection against poor individual weld quality. Significant developments have however recently been made in resistance monitoring and control, these allow more efficient use of the process. Most industrial spot welding is carried out using automated or robotic systems, those employed as part of automobile bodyshell construction lines are probably the most well known. Features of the basic resistance welding process include: the process requires relatively simple equipment; it is easily and normally automated; and once the welding parameters are established it should be possible to produce repeatable welds for relatively long production runs.

The major applications of the process have been in the joining of sheet steel in the automotive and white goods manufacturing industries. Friction welding In friction welding a high temperature is developed at the joint by the relative motion of the contact surfaces. When the surfaces are softened a forging pressure is applied and the relative motion is stopped. Material is extruded from the joint to form an upset, and a solid phase bond is formed.

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 33

Figure 1.17

The power required during the heating phase is high, and to improve system efficiency a flywheel is sometimes used to store energy in the interval between welds which is dissipated during this phase of joint production. The process may be divided into several operating modes in terms of the means of supplying the energy. Continuous drive. In which the relative motion is generated by direct coupling to the energy source. The drive maintains a constant speed during the heating phase. Stored energy. In which the relative motion is supplied by a flywheel which is disconnected from the drive during the heating phase. Rotational motion is the most commonly used mainly for round components where angular alignment of the two parts is not critical. If it is required to achieve a fixed relationship
Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 34

between the mating parts angular oscillation may be used and for non circular components the linear and orbital techniques may be employed. Features of the process include: one shot process for butt welding sections; suitable for dissimilar metals; short cycle time; most suited to circular sections; and robust and costly equipment may be required.

The process is commonly applied to circular sections particularly in steel but it may also be applied to dissimilar metal joints such as aluminium to steel or even ceramic materials to metals. Early applications of the process included the welding of automotive stub axles but the process has also been applied to the fabrication of high quality aero engine parts7 duplex stainless steel pipe for offshore applications8 and nuclear components9. Recent developments of the process include the joining of metal to ceramics10, the use of the process for stud welding in normal ambient conditions and underwater, and the use of the process for surfacing11. The linear technique has recently been successfully demonstrated on titanium alloy welds having a weld area of 250 mm2 using an oscillation frequency of 25 KHZ, 110N/mm2 axial force and an oscillation amplitude of 2 mm12. A major development in this area has been the introduction of Friction Stir Welding, a process developed by The Welding Institute in the UK.

Diffusion bonding
In diffusion bonding the mating surfaces are cleaned and heated in an inert atmosphere. Pressure is applied to the joint and local plastic deformation is followed by diffusion during which the surface voids are gradually removed13. The components to be joined need to be enclosed in a controlled atmosphere and the process of diffusion is time and temperature dependant. In some cases an intermediate material is placed between the abutting surfaces to form an interlayer. Significant features of the process are: suitable for joining a wide range of materials; one shot process;
INT1.1 35

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

complex sections may be joined; vacuum or controlled atmosphere required; and prolonged cycle time.

The process can however be used for the joining of complex structures which require many simultaneous welds to be made.

Explosive welding
In explosive welding the force required to deform the interface is generated by an explosive charge. In the most common application of the process a two flat plates are joined to form a bimetallic structure. An explosive charge is used to force the upper or `flier' plate onto the baseplate in such a way that a wave of plastic material at the interface is extruded forward as the plates join. Figure 1.18 Explosive welding

For large workpieces considerable force is involved and care is required to ensure the safe operation of the process. Features of the process include:

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 36

one shot process short welding time; suitable for joining large surface areas; suitable for dissimilar thickness and metals joining; and careful preparation required for large workpieces.

The process may also be applied for welding heat exchanger tubes to tube plates or for plugging redundant or damaged tubes.

Magnetically impelled arc butt welding (MIAB)

In MIAB welding a magnetic field generated by an electromagnet is used to move an arc across the joint surfaces prior to the application of pressure14.

Figure 1.19

MIAB welding

Although the process produces a similar weld to friction welding it is possible to achieve shorter cycle times and relative motion of the parts to be joined is avoided. Features of the process are: one shot process;

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 37

suitable for butt welding complex sections; and shorter cycle time than friction welding.

The process has been applied fairly widely in the automotive industry for the fabrication of axle cases and shock absorber housings in tube diameters from 10 to 300 mm and thicknesses from 0.7 to 13 mm15.

Flash butt welding

In flash butt welding a high current arc is passed between and across the abutting edges, resistive preheating occurs followed by a period of arcing or `flashing' between the ends of the component. On application of the upset force the two heated ends are forged together and molten metal and oxides are extruded out from the joint edges. The features of the process are: only suitable for butt welds; rapid; little preparation required; expensive equipment; and excessive sparking/spatter.

The main applications of the process have been for rail welding, wheel rims and chain links.

Other joining processes

Mechanical joining
Mechanical joining techniques include: bolting riveting crimping.

Many of these techniques enable temporary connections to be made and this is useful for structures which need to be assembled and disassembled, for example friction grip bolts are often used for site connections of large structural fabrications. Most of the methods

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 38

use a lap type seam and this requires excess material in the joint area and may involve an increase in weight and potential corrosion and stress intensification. Mechanical joining is however useful if there is a risk of metallurgical damage to a material from the thermal cycle experienced in many welding operations. This is one of the reasons for the extensive use of mechanical fasteners in aircraft structures.

Stud welding
Stud welding encompasses a range of welding methods which are used to attach secondary fixing devices or brackets. The welding processes used include; arc, friction, cold pressure and resistance welding techniques. The arc stud welding processes utilises an arc which is initiated between the stud and the metal surface to which it is to be attached. Arc initiation is normally achieved by short circuiting and then withdrawing the stud. The arc melts an area on each electrode and after a short heating cycle the stud is pressed onto the surface, extinguishing the arc and forming a weld. The power supply may take the form of either a DC source similar to those used for other arc processes or a stored energy (capacitor discharge) device. It is common to use a ceramic sleeve around the end of the stud to protect the weld area and reduce arc radiation. Secondary inert gas shielding may also be used for some materials. In the case of resistance stud welding a projection welding technique is often employed. Stud welding is used extensively in sheet metal fabrication but is also applied in heavy structures for example in the fixing of cladding attachments or hangers for corrosion protection systems.

Brazing and soldering

Brazing and soldering use a filler material which has a lower melting point than the parent material to form a joint. For structural applications both methods require a lap or capillary type joint design. Filler materials with melting points below 500C are normally used for soldering whilst materials which melt at temperatures between 500C and the melting point of the parent material are used for brazing. Soldering alloys are commonly based on the lead/tin system whilst brazing materials are often copper based. The temperature resistance of such joints is limited by the melting point of the filler and the mechanical strength is a function of interface area. Common heat sources include air/fuel gas, oxy-fuel gas, electric furnace or electrical induction heating. Soldering is commonly used for electrical and electronic assemblies as well as joining copper water systems. Brazing may be applied to a wide range of materials including joints between ceramics and metals and other dissimilar materials.

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 39

Adhesive bonding
Adhesive bonding is similar to brazing and soldering in terms of its use of a non matching joining material and lap joint configuration, however in this case an organic bonding medium is used. Bonding is provided by polar and Van de Waals forces across the adhesive/metal oxide/metal interface. The use of adhesives avoids thermal damage and allows dissimilar materials (including non metals) to be joined. The maximum operating temperature of most adhesives is however quite low and again mechanical properties depend on the bonded area. A very wide range of adhesives is available and careful selection is essential if the desired service performance is to be achieved. Surface pre-treatment also has a major influence on the strength of the bond.

Future developments
Some probable future developments have been mentioned in the main body of the text. Although relatively few new processes were expected to emerge, there have been some significant process developments recently. Friction stir welding offers great potential for low distortion welding of aluminium and the high power diode laser and microwave plasma jets are potential alternative heat sources for fusion welding. It seems likely that the next few years will however see the continuing introduction of automated and robotic welding systems, for reasons of productivity and consistency, and also to distance human staff from hazardous environments. These systems will become much more flexible, and will begin to incorporate control systems utilising artificial intelligence techniques to make them more capable of responding to changes in the welding situation. As the use of quality assurance systems becomes more widespread, the monitoring and analysis of welding operations will become more sophisticated. On line analysis of welding parameters will be used to provide data both for process control and also for the quality assurance system. Until recently, the vast majority of welding engineers had initially trained as metallurgists, and most welding problems were discussed from a metallurgical or materials science orientation. With the introduction of a wide range of electronically controlled power supplies, the growing use of computer based control systems for automated and robotic welding facilities, and the increasing implementation of data logging and analysis systems for quality assurance and production control, it seems likely that a change of emphasis is required. The fabrication industry in general will require many more of its staff to be computer literate, and to be capable of making the increasingly complex decisions which result from the wide range of engineering materials, fabrication techniques and quality assurance systems which are currently being introduced into industry. If industry is to remain competitive internationally, the rate of change in manufacturing and management
Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 40

methods will have to be faster over the next few years than at any time since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution.

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 41

Questions/tasks
(a) How is the heat required for fusion welding developed in oxy-fuel welding? List the relative merits and limitations of three alternative fuel gases. (b) What are the basic principles and main applications of resistance spot welding?

(c) What are the two main groups into which welding processes are classified? Give three examples from each group. (d) What is a weld? How does it differ from a brazed or adhesively bonded joint?

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 42

References
1. John, R. and Jones, S. The Economic Relevance of Materials Joining Technology, The Welding Institute. Homer, The Illiad. Report of the Royal Commission into the failure of Kings Bridge, 1963, Victoria, A. C. Brooks, Melbourne. American Welding Society, Welding Handbook, vol. 1, Welding Technology, 8th edn, ISBN 0-87171-281-4. British Standard BS 499, 1983, Part 1, Welding Terms and Symbols, Glossary of welding, brazing and thermal cutting. Bay, N. June, August, October 1986, Cold Welding, Parts 1-3, Metal Construction, 18 (6, 8, & 10). Benn, B. August, September 1988, Friction Welding of Butt Joints for High Duty Applications, Welding and Fabrication. Nicholas, E. D., Teale, R. A. 2-5 May 1988, Friction Welding of Duplex Stainless Steel, Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Texas. Nicholas, E. D. January 1982, A friction welding application in the nuclear power industry, The Welding Institute Research Bulletin, 23 (1). Essa, A. A. & Bahrani, A. S. 19-22 March 1989, The Friction Joining of Ceramics to Metals, Procedures International Conference on The Joining of Materials, JOM-4, Helsingor, Denmark. Thomas, W. M. et al. 1984, Feasibility studies into surfacing by friction welding, TWI Research Report 236, The Welding Institute Cambridge. Nicholas, D., Watts, E. April 1990, Friction Welding-a sparkling success, Number 8, The Welding Institute, Connect. Bartle, P. M. March 1983, Diffusion Bonding-Principles andApplications, The Welding Institute Research Bulletin, 24 (3). Johnson, K. I. et al. November 1979, MIAB welding, Principles of the process, Metal Construction, 11 (11).

2. 3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 43

15.

Edson, D. A. 13-15 September 1983, Application of MIAB Welding, Proceedings on Conference Developments and Innovations for Improved Welding Production, The Welding Institute, Birmingham, England

Module INT1 Introduction to Welding and Joining Processes Topic 1 An Introduction to Materials Welding and Joining University of Wollongong 2001, Cranfield University 2002. All rights reserved.

INT1.1 44