CHAP 8: Civil engineering structures & construction activities in rock mass: Construction problems in rock mass is shown in Fig.

8.1. It involves factors of: Rock mass properties (intact rock + discontinuities). In-situ & induced stresses (due to geological conditions e.g. fold & construction activities). Groundwater conditions. The above factors, together with the design procedures & construction methods must be carefully considered so that disturbance induced into the rock mass is as minimal as possible.

Engineering structures & construction activities: Disturbance induced into the rock mass (e.g. construction induced stresses) must be kept to a minimal level !! WHY??? This is to maintain the integrity & the inherent strength of the rock mass hence, ensuring long-term stability for the structure. This reduces cost on stabilisation & maintenance after construction.

Figure 8.1: Construction problems in rock masses consists of intact rock & discontinuities together with the effect of stress (in situ & induced) & groundwater.

Rock material (intact) and rock mass (discontinuous)

Engineering structures & construction activities Construction in rock mass disruption/disturbance to the rock at the vicinity of the construction area must be minimised so any induced negative impacts occur in a controlled manner and covers a smaller area/volume (see the following figure).

YIELD ZONE (ZON ALAH)

CIRCULAR TUNNEL

SURROUNDING ROCK MASS

As soon as a tunnel is excavated, surrounding rock mass will be disturbed formation of yield zone. Design & method of construction must be carefully considered so that disturbance to surrounding rock is reduced (thinner yield zone, less affected volume).

YIELD ZONE (ZON ALAH)

CUT SLOPE

SURROUNDING ROCK MASS

As soon as a slope is excavated, surrounding rock mass will be disturbed formation of yield zone. Design & method of construction must be carefully considered so that disturbance to surrounding rock is reduced (thinner yield zone, less affected volume).

Stress distribution around circular-shaped tunnel

Stress distribution around oblong-shaped tunnel

Stress distribution around rectangular-shaped tunnel

Stress distribution around a cut slope

Stress distribution in a rock sample at different level of stress

Loading at 10 kN Loading at 100 kN Loading at 200 kN

Engineering structures & construction activities Category of rock engineering structure include: Structure foundations: A rock body is used to bear load of a structure (e.g. a building founded on bedrock). This can be a deep-seated rock mass. Rock is usually an excellent foundation materials, but near surface rock can be fractured & weathered. It is necessary to establish the competence of the rock to bear the designed load. Important rock properties triaxial compressive strength; strain at failure & modulus of elasticity.

Engineering structures & construction activities Rock slopes: The basic modes of failure of rock (plane, wedge, toppling, flexural etc.). Shear strength, types & orientation of weakness planes are among the important parameters in slope design. The potential for failure in any of these modes can be identified (Part 5). The need and scope for a more detailed analysis can then be evaluated.

Engineering structures & construction activities Shafts & tunnels: Stability of these structures depends on discontinuities & geological structures in rock, in situ stress, groundwater flow, shape of tunnel & construction technique. Rock properties like triaxial compressive strength, shear strength, types & orientation of weakness planes are important design parameters. Method of stabilisation & F.O.S depends on the purpose of the tunnel. F.O.S. used in designing a tunnel for civil engineering purposes (highways & railway lines) is usually > 2.0.

Rock as foundation

Slope cut in rock

Tunnel excavated in rock

Underground cavern: Similar to tunnel but larger in size. Methods of excavation & stabilisation are important e.g. Power house cavern, sport complex etc. Mining: Structure is not permanent. Objective is to extract minerals/precious stones at maximum rate & safety but, at minimal hazardous & pollution effect. Thermal energy: To extract thermal energy from earths crust. Deep excavation, rock permeability & rheological characteristics are important. Radioactive waste disposal: Excavation is deep in the earths crust (safety). Rocks must be massive & impermeble. Method of excavation is important. Permanent structures.

Effect of size of rock mass discontinuities on size of engineering structure: Size of structure being constructed in rock mass is greatly influenced by the size of structural discontinuities (weakness planes) in the rock mass. In Fig 8.2: smaller tunnel size means less number of weakness planes intersecting the tunnel, i.e. more stable. Deeper depth means less weakness planes hence, tunnel located deep below the surface is more stable.

Size of rock mass discontinuities and size of engineering structure: Properties of rock mass (sifat massa / jasad batuan keseluruhan) is important in designing & construction of a structure in the field (actual conditions). The actual rock mass properties cannot be evaluated using small size rock samples as in the case laboratory tests. Laboratory size samples contain only small-scale weaknesses (e.g. lamination, micro fractures & voids).

Fig 8.2: Effect of number of discontinuities in rock mass on size of structure

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Fig 8.3: Effect of number of discontinuities in rock mass on size of samples

Fig 8.4: Effect of depth of structure on conditions of rock mass; at depth means less number of discontinuities & rock is under confined condition (p = gh).

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Structural discontinuities (struktur ketakselarasan) in rock mass: Based on size, structural discontinuities/weakness in rock are categorized into 2 groups: Large-scale discontinuities sizes ranging between few m and km. Affect the properties & behaviours of rock mass. Stability of slope & tunnel is affected by these large-scale discontinuities. Large size samples in in situ /field tests can accommodate the effect of these structures however, not for small samples used in laboratory tests. Types of large-scale discontinuities (discussed in Chapter 5) include fault, joint & bedding plane/fold.

Inclined bedding planes (folds) in clastic sedimentary rocks

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Joints & joint sets that present in all rock types

Inclined bedding planes in sedimentary rocks (shale, Labuan)

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Inclined bedding planes in sedimentary rocks (sandstone, Labuan)

Thinly bedded & folded sedimentary rocks (shale, Labuan)

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Intersecting of more than 3 joint sets is common in rock mass (granite, Lahad)

Joint can occur in various orientation in rock (granite, Kuantan)

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Structural discontinuities in rock mass: Small-scale discontinuities measuring from few mm to cm. Direct effect on rock material properties & but may have minimal effect on rock mass (at a larger scale). Data obtained from laboratory test on small size samples can be affected by these properties. (Bah. 3 kesan syistositi ke atas batuan jelmaan syis). Common types - foliation, lamination, cleavage, microfractures & voids. Note: Effect of these discontinuities on rock material properties will impose indirect impact on stability of structures like foundation, slope & tunnel.

Effect of minerals arrangement (foliation & schistosity) on schistosity) strength & failure strain of small rock sample

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Minerals arrangements due to sedimentation (lamination) and due to lamination) metamorphism (foliation) (foliation) are is small scale discontinuities rock (e.g. shale, sandstone slate & schist)

Being small scale discontinuities, they occur in laboratory rock sample. Fracture/failure can be easily induced along the lamination/foliation, but not perpendicular to it. Thus rock sample sample displaying lamination/foliation may display different strength when loaded at different direction

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The influence of weakness planes on strength joint orientation with respect to loading axis

Stress versus strain

250

200

Stress (MPa)

150

100

50

0 0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35

Strain (%)

Effect of loading orientation on UCS of sample displaying lamination (metamorhic rock e.g. schist)

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EXISTING FRACTURE AFECT FAILURE LOAD

Loading axis Compressive Load

Existing fracture plane Existing weaknessplane

[a]

[b]

[c]

[d]

Effect of orientation of existing fracture on test data is more significant for Brazilian & Point-load test Point-

SLATY - minerals rearrangement due to metamorphism; changing of shale to slate

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Slaty in slate

SCHISTOSITY (flaky)- minerals rearrangement due to (flaky)metamorphism; changing of shale to schist

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Minerals arrangement in metamorphic rocks schistosity & slaty

Minerals arrangement in metamorphic rocks schistosity & slaty

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Failure of rock slopes in metamorphic rock slate & schist

Failure of rock slopes in metamorphic rock slate & schist

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Discontinuities in rock mass: Large-scale discontinuities affect the whole rock body/rock mass i.e. rock conditions on site. Effect on engineering structures is that these discontinuities weaken to whole rock mass directly. Small-scale discontinuities affect rock material properties e.g. properties of small sample in lab test. Strength of rock obtained from lab test is usually higher than the actual strength of rock mass in the field (in situ strength). Value of FOS (e.g. > 2.0) used in design is to cater for the weakening effects of structural discontinuities in rock on engineering structures, as their effects are difficult to be assessed and rated numerically.

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