Vedas

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Vedas Rigveda Yajurveda Samaveda Atharvaveda Divisions Samhita Brahmana Aranyaka Upanishad Upanishad Aitareya Brihadaranyaka Isha Taittiriya Chandogya Kena Maitri Mundaka Mandukya Katha Kaushitaki Prashna Shvetashvatara Vedanga Shiksha Chandas Vyakarana Nirukta Jyotisha Kalpa Itihasa Mahabharata Ramayana Other scriptures

Smriti ruti Bhagavad Gita Purana Manu Smriti Agama Pancharatra Tantra Akilathirattu Stra Stotra Dharmashastra Divya Prabandha Tevaram Ramacharitamanas Yoga Vasistha
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The Vedas (Sanskrit vda, "knowledge") are a large body of texts originating in Ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism.[1] The class of "Vedic texts" is aggregated around the four canonical Sa hits or Vedas proper (turya), of which three (traya) are related to the performance of yajna (sacrifice) in historical (Iron Age) Vedic religion: 1. the Rigveda, containing hymns to be recited by the hot or chief priest; 2. the Yajurveda, containing formulas to be recited by the adhvaryu or officiating priest; 3. the Samaveda, containing formulas to be chanted by the udgt. The fourth is the Atharvaveda, a collection of spells and incantations, stories, predictions, apotropaic charms and some speculative hymns.[2] According to Hindu tradition, the Vedas are apaurueya "not of human agency"[3], are supposed to have been directly revealed, and thus are called ruti ("what is heard").[4][5]. The four Sahits are metrical (with the exception of prose commentary interspersed in the Black Yajurveda). The term sahit literally means "composition, complation". The individual verses contained in these compilations are known as mantras. Some selected Vedic mantras are still recited at prayers, religious functions and other auspicious occasions in contemporary Hinduism. The various Indian philosophies and sects have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their scriptural authority are classified as "orthodox" (stika). Other traditions, notably Buddhism and Jainism, which did not regard the Vedas as authorities are referred to by traditional Hindu texts as "heterodox" or "non-orthodox" (nstika) schools.[6][7] In addition to Buddhism and Jainism, Sikhism [8] [9] and Brahmoism [10] do not accept the authority of the Vedas.

Contents

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1 Etymology and usage 2 Chronology 3 Categories of Vedic texts o 3.1 Vedic Sanskrit corpus o 3.2 Shruti literature 4 Vedic schools or recensions 5 The Four Vedas o 5.1 Rigveda o 5.2 Yajurveda o 5.3 Samaveda o 5.4 Atharvaveda 6 Brahmanas 7 Vedanta 8 In post-Vedic literature o 8.1 Vedanga o 8.2 Parisista o 8.3 Puranas o 8.4 Upaveda o 8.5 "Fifth Veda" 9 Notes 10 References 11 Literature 12 See also 13 External links

[edit] Etymology and usage

Look up Veda in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Look up Vedic in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. The Sanskrit word vda "knowledge, wisdom" is derived from the root vid- "to know". This is reconstructed as being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *uid-, meaning e "see" or "know".[11] As a noun, the word appears only in a single instance in the Rigveda, in RV 8.19.5, translated by Griffith as "ritual lore":

y samdh y hut / y vdena dada mrto agnye / y nmas svadhvar "The mortal who hath ministered to Agni with oblation, fuel, ritual lore, and reverence, skilled in sacrifice." Geldner's translation of the same passage has Wissen "knowledge". [12] The noun is from Proto-Indo-European *uidos, cognate to Greek ( ) "aspect", e "form". Not to be confused is the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tense vda, cognate to Greek () (w)oida "I know". Root cognates are Greek , English wit, etc., Latin video "I see", etc.[13] In English, the term Veda is mostly used to refer to the Samhitas (collection of mantras, or chants) of the four canonical Vedas (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda). The Sanskrit term veda as a common noun means "knowledge", but can also be used to refer to fields of study unrelated to liturgy or ritual, e.g. in agada-veda "medical science", sasya-veda "science of agriculture" or sarpa-veda "science of snakes" (already found in the early Upanishads); durveda means "with evil knowledge, ignorant".[14]

[edit] Chronology
Main article: Vedic period The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts. The Samhitas date to roughly 15001000 BCE, and the "circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000-500 BCE, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE, spanning the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age. Gavin Flood[15] sums up mainstream estimates, according to which the Rigveda was compiled from as early as 1500 BCE over a period of several centuries. The Vedic period reaches its peak only after the composition of the mantra texts, with the establishment of the various shakhas all over Northern India which annotated the mantra samhitas with Brahmana discussions of their meaning, and reaches its end in the age of Buddha and Panini and the rise of the Mahajanapadas (archaeologically, Northern Black Polished Ware). Michael Witzel gives a time span of c. 1500 BCE to c. 500-400 BCE. Witzel makes special reference to the Near Eastern Mitanni material of the 14th c. BCE the only epigraphic record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the Rigvedic period. He gives 150 BCE (Patajali) as a terminus ante quem for all Vedic Sanskrit literature, and 1200 BCE (the early Iron Age) as terminus post quem for the Atharvaveda.[16]The general accepted historical chronology of the Vedas ranks the Rig Veda as the first, followed by the Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and finally the Atharva Veda. Transmission of texts in the Vedic period was by oral tradition alone, preserved with precision with the help of elaborate mnemonic techniques. A literary tradition set in only in post-Vedic times, after the rise of Buddhism in the Maurya period, perhaps earliest in the Kanva recension of the Yajurveda about the 1st century BCE; however oral tradition predominated until c. 1000 CE.[17] Due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript material (birch bark or palm leaves), surviving manuscripts rarely surpass an age of a few hundred

years.[18] The Benares Sanskrit University has a Rigveda manuscript of the mid-14th century; however, there are a number of older Veda manuscripts in Nepal belonging to the Vajasaneyi tradition that are dated from the 11th century onwards.

[edit] Categories of Vedic texts

The term "Vedic texts" is used in two distinct meanings: 1. texts composed in Vedic Sanskrit during the Vedic period (Iron Age India) 2. any text considered as "connected to the Vedas" or a "corollary of the Vedas"[19]

[edit] Vedic Sanskrit corpus

The corpus of Vedic Sanskrit texts includes:

The Samhita (Sanskrit sahit, "collection"), are collections of metric texts ("mantras"). There are four "Vedic" Samhitas: the Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, YajurVeda, and Atharva-Veda, most of which are available in several recensions (kh). In some contexts, the term Veda is used to refer to these Samhitas. This is the oldest layer of Vedic texts, apart from the Rigvedic hymns, which were probably essentially complete by 1200 BC, dating to ca. the 12th to 10th centuries BC. The complete corpus of Vedic mantras as collected in Bloomfield's Vedic Concordance (1907) consists of some 89,000 padas (metric feet), of which 72,000 occur in the four Samhitas.[20] The Brahmanas are prose texts that discuss, in technical fashion, the solemn sacrificial rituals as well as comment on their meaning and many connected themes. Each of the Brahmanas is associated with one of the Samhitas or its recensions. The Brahmanas may either form separate texts or can be partly integrated into the text of the Samhitas. They may also include the Aranyakas and Upanishads. The Aranyakas , "wilderness texts" or "forest treaties", were composed by people who meditated in the woods as recluses and are the third part of the Vedas. The texts contain discussions and interpretations of dangerous rituals (to be studied outside the settlement) and various sorts of additional materials. It is frequently read in secondary literature. some of the older Mukhya Upanishads (Bhadrayaka, Chandogya, Kaha).[21][22] certain Stra literature, i.e. the Shrautasutras and the Grhyasutras.

The Shrauta Sutras, regarded as belonging to the smriti, are late Vedic in language and content, thus forming part of the Vedic Sanskrit corpus.[23][24] The composition of the Shrauta and Grhya Sutras (ca. 6th century BC) marks the end of the Vedic period , and at the same time the beginning of the flourishing of the "circum-Vedic" scholarship of Vedanga, introducing the early flowering of classical Sanskrit literature in the Mauryan and Gupta periods. While production of Brahmanas and Aranyakas ceases with the end of the Vedic period, there is a large number of Upanishads composed after the end of the Vedic period. While

most of the ten mukhya Upanishads can be considered to date to the Vedic or Mahajanapada period, most of the 108 Upanishads of the full Muktika canon date to the Common Era. The Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads often interpret the polytheistic and ritualistic Samhitas in philosophical and metaphorical ways to explore abstract concepts such as the Absolute (Brahman), and the soul or the self (Atman), introducing Vedanta philosophy, one of the major trends of later Hinduism. The Vedic Sanskrit corpus is the scope of A Vedic Word Concordance (VaidikaPadnukrama-Koa) prepared from 1930 under Vishva Bandhu, and published in five volumes in 1935-1965. Its scope extends to about 400 texts, including the entire Vedic Sanskrit corpus besides some "sub-Vedic" texts. Volume I: Samhitas Volume II: Brahmanas and Aranyakas Volume III: Upanishads Volume IV: Vedangas A revised edition, extending to about 1800 pages, was published in 1973-1976.

[edit] Shruti literature

Main article: Shruti The texts considered "Vedic" in the sense of "corollaries of the Vedas" is less clearly defined, and may include numerous post-Vedic texts such as Upanishads or Sutra literature. The latter group of texts is called shruti (Sanskrit: ruti; "the heard"). Since post-Vedic times it has been considered to be revealed wisdom, as distinct from other texts, collectively known as smriti (Sanskrit: smti; "the remembered"), that is texts that are considered to be of human origin. This indigenous system of categorization was adopted by Max Mller and, while it is subject to some debate, it is still widely used. As Axel Michaels explains: These classifications are often not tenable for linguistic and formal reasons: There is not only one collection at any one time, but rather several handed down in separate Vedic schools; Upaniads ... are sometimes not to be distinguished from rayakas...; Brhmaas contain older strata of language attributed to the Sahits; there are various dialects and locally prominent traditions of the Vedic schools. Nevertheless, it is advisable to stick to the division adopted by Max Mller because it follows the Indian tradition, conveys the historical sequence fairly accurately, and underlies the current editions, translations, and monographs on Vedic literature."[25] The Upanishads are largely philosophical works in dialog form. They discuss questions of nature philosophy and the fate of the soul, and contain some mystic and spiritual

interpretations of the Vedas. For long, they have been regarded as their putative end and essence, and are thus known as Vednta ("the end of the Vedas"). Taken together, they are the basis of the Vedanta school. Other texts such as the Bhagavad Gita or the Vedanta Sutras are considered shruti or "Vedic" by some Hindu denominations but not universally within Hinduism. The Bhakti movement, and Gaudiya Vaishnavism in particular extended the term to include the Sanskrit Epics and Vaishnavite devotional texts such as the Pancaratra.[26]

[edit] Vedic schools or recensions

Main article: Shakha Study of the extensive body of Vedic texts has been organized into a number of different schools or branches (Sanskrit kh, literally "branch" or "limb") each of which specialized in learning certain texts.[27] Multiple recensions are known for each of the Vedas, and each Vedic text may have a number of schools associated with it. Elaborate methods for preserving the text were based on memorizing by heart instead of writing. Specific techniques for parsing and reciting the texts were used to assist in the memorization process. (See also: Vedic chant) Prodigous energy was expended by ancient Indian culture in ensuring that these texts were transmitted from generation to generation with inordinate fidelity.[28] For example, memorization of the sacred Vedas included up to eleven forms of recitation of the same text. The texts were subsequently "proof-read" by comparing the different recited versions. Forms of recitation included the ja-pha (literally "mesh recitation") in which every two adjacent words in the text were first recited in their original order, then repeated in the reverse order, and finally repeated again in the original order.[29] That these methods have been effective, is testified to by the preservation of the most ancient Indian religious text, the gveda, as a redacted into single text during the Brahmana period, without any variant readings.[29]

[edit] The Four Vedas

Rigveda (padapatha) manuscript in Devanagari, early 19th century The canonical division of the Vedas is fourfold (turya) viz.,[30] 1. 2. 3. 4. Rigveda (RV) Yajurveda (YV, with the main division TS vs. VS) Sama-Veda (SV) Atharva-Veda (AV)

Of these, the first three were the principal original division, also called "tray vidy", that is, "the triple sacred science" of reciting hymns (RV), performing sacrifices (YV), and chanting (SV).[31][32] This triplicity is so introduced in the Brahmanas (ShB, ABr and others), but the Rigveda is the older work of the three from which the other two borrow, next to their own independent Yajus, sorcery and speculative mantras. Thus, the Mantras are properly of three forms: 1. Ric, which are verses of praise in metre, and intended for loud recitation; 2. Yajus, which are in prose, and intended for recitation in lower voice at sacrifices; 3. Sman, which are in metre, and intended for singing at the Soma ceremonies. The Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda are independent collections of mantras and hymns intended as manuals for the Adhvaryu, Udgatr and Brahman priests respectively. The Atharvaveda is the fourth Veda. Its status has occasionally been ambiguous, probably due to its use in sorcery and healing. However, it contains very old materials in early Vedic language. Manusmrti, which often speaks of the three Vedas, calling them trayam-brahmasantanam, "the triple eternal Veda". The Atharvaveda like the Rigveda, is a collection of original incantations, and other materials borrowing relatively little from the Rigveda. It has no direct relation to the solemn rauta sacrifices, except for the fact that the mostly silent Brahmn priest observes the procedures and uses Atharvaveda mantras to 'heal' it

when mistakes have been made. Its recitation also produces long life, cures diseases, or effects the ruin of enemies. Each of the four Vedas consists of the metrical Mantra or Samhita and the prose Brahmana part, giving discussions and directions for the detail of the ceremonies at which the Mantras were to be used and explanations of the legends connected with the Mantras and rituals. Both these portions are termed shruti (which tradition says to have been heard but not composed or written down by men). Each of the four Vedas seems to have passed to numerous Shakhas or schools, giving rise to various recensions of the text. They each have an Index or Anukramani, the principal work of this kind being the general Index or Sarvnukrama.

[edit] Rigveda
Main article: Rigveda The Rigveda Samhita is the oldest extant Indic text.[33] It is a collection of 1,028 Vedic Sanskrit hymns and 10,600 verses in all, organized into ten books (Sanskrit: mandalas).[34] The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic deities.[35] The books were composed by poets from different priestly groups over a period of several centuries, commonly dated to the period of roughly the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE (the early Vedic period) in the Punjab (Sapta Sindhu) region of the Indian subcontinent.[36] There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities between the Rigveda and the early Iranian Avesta, deriving from the Proto-Indo-Iranian times, often associated with the Andronovo culture; the earliest horse-drawn chariots were found at Andronovo sites in the Sintashta-Petrovka cultural area near the Ural Mountains and date to ca. 2000 BCE.[37]

[edit] Yajurveda
Main article: Yajurveda The Yajurveda Samhita consists of archaic prose mantras and also in part of verses borrowed and adapted from the Rigveda. Its purpose was practical, in that each mantra must accompany an action in sacrifice but, unlike the Samaveda, it was compiled to apply to all sacrificial rites, not merely the Somayajna. There are two major groups of recensions of this Veda, known as the "Black" (Krishna) and "White" (Shukla) Yajurveda (Krishna and Shukla Yajurveda respectively). While White Yajurveda separates the Samhita from its Brahmana (the Shatapatha Brahmana), the e Black Yajurveda intersperses the Samhita with Brahmana commentary. Of the Black Yajurveda four major recensions survive (Maitrayani, Katha, Kapisthala-Katha, Taittiriya).

[edit] Samaveda

Main article: Samaveda The Samaveda Samhita (from sman, the term for a melody applied to metrical hymn or song of praise[38]) consists of 1549 stanzas, taken almost entirely (except for 78 stanzas) from the Rigveda.[39] Like the Rigvedic stanzas in the Yajurveda, the Samans have been changed and adapted for use in singing. Some of the Rigvedic verses are repeated more than once. Including repetitions, there are a total of 1875 verses numbered in the Samaveda recension translated by Griffith.[40] Two major recensions remain today, the Kauthuma/Ranayaniya and the Jaiminiya. Its purpose was liturgical, as the repertoire of the udgt or "singer" priests who took part in the sacrifice.

[edit] Atharvaveda
Main article: Atharvaveda The Artharvaveda Samhita is the text 'belonging to the Atharvan and Angirasa poets. It has 760 hymns, and about 160 of the hymns are in common with the Rigveda.[41] Most of the verses are metrical, but some sections are in prose.[42] It was compiled around 900 BCE, although some of its material may go back to the time of the Rigveda,[43] and some parts of the Atharva-Veda are older than the Rig-Veda[44] though not in linguistic form. The Atharvanaveda is preserved in two recensions, the Paippalda and aunaka.[45] According to Apte it had nine schools (shakhas).[46] The Paippalada text, which exists in a Kashmir and an Orissa version, is longer than the Saunaka one; it is only partially printed in its two versions and remains largely untranslated. Unlike the other three Vedas, the Atharvanaveda has less connection with sacrifice.[47][48] Its first part consists chiefly of spells and incantations, concerned with protection against demons and disaster, spells for the healing of diseases, for long life and for various desires or aims in life.[49][50] The second part of the text contains speculative and philosophical hymns.[51] The Atharvaveda is a comparatively late extension of the "Three Vedas" connected to priestly sacrifice to a canon of "Four Vedas". This may be connected to an extension of the sacrificial rite from involving three types of priest to the inclusion of the Brahman overseeing the ritual.[52]

[edit] Brahmanas
Further information: Brahmanas The mystical notions surrounding the concept of the one "Veda" that would flower in Vedantic philosophy have their roots already in Brahmana literature, for example in the Shatapatha Brahmana. The Vedas are identified with Brahman, the universal principle (BM 10.1.1.8, 10.2.4.6). Vc "speech" is called the "mother of the Vedas" (BM 6.5.3.4,

10.5.5.1). The knowledge of the Vedas is endless, compared to them, human knowledge is like mere handfuls of dirt (TB 3.10.11.3-5). The universe itself was originally encapsulated in the three Vedas (BM 10.4.2.22 has Prajapati reflecting that "truly, all beings are in the triple Veda").

[edit] Vedanta
Further information: Vedanta, Upanishads, and Aranyakas While contemporary traditions continued to maintain Vedic ritualism (rauta, Mimamsa), Vedanta renounced all ritualism and radically re-interpreted the notion of "Veda" in purely philosophical terms. The association of the three Vedas with the bhr bhuva sva mantra is found in the Aitareya Aranyaka: "Bh is the Rigveda, bhuva is the Yajurveda, sva is the Samaveda" (1.3.2). The Upanishads reduce the "essence of the Vedas" further, to the syllable Aum (). Thus, the Katha Upanishad has: "The goal, which all Vedas declare, which all austerities aim at, and which humans desire when they live a life of continence, I will tell you briefly it is Aum" (1.2.15)

[edit] In post-Vedic literature

[edit] Vedanga
Main article: Vedanga Six technical subjects related to the Vedas are traditionally known as vedga "limbs of the Veda". V. S. Apte defines this group of works as: "N. of a certain class of works regarded as auxiliary to the Vedas and designed to aid in the correct pronunciation and interpretation of the text and the right employment of the Mantras in ceremonials."[53] These subjects are treated in Stra literature dating from the end of the Vedic period to Mauryan times, seeing the transition from late Vedic Sanskrit to Classical Sanskrit. The six subjects of Vedanga are:

Phonetics (ik) Ritual (Kalpa) Grammar (Vykaraa) Etymology (Nirukta) Meter (Chandas) Astrology (Jyotia)

[edit] Parisista

Main article: Parisista Pariia "supplement, appendix" is the term applied to various ancillary works of Vedic literature, dealing mainly with details of ritual and elaborations of the texts logically and chronologically prior to them: the Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Sutras. Naturally classified with the Veda to which each pertains, Parisista works exist for each of the four Vedas. However, only the literature associated with the Atharvaveda is extensive.

The valyana Ghya Pariia is a very late text associated with the Rigveda canon. The Gobhila Ghya Pariia is a short metrical text of two chapters, with 113 and 95 verses respectively. The Ktiya Pariias, ascribed to Ktyyana, consist of 18 works enumerated self-referentially in the fifth of the series (the Caraavyha) The Ka Yajurveda has 3 parisistas The pastamba Hautra Pariia, which is also found as the second prana of the Satyasha rauta Stra', the Vrha rauta Stra Parii a and the Ktyyana rauta Stra Parii a. For the Atharvaveda, there are 79 works, collected as 72 distinctly named parisistas.[54]

[edit] Puranas
A traditional view given in the Vishnu Purana (likely dating to the Gupta period[55]) attributes the current arrangement of four Vedas to the mythical sage Vedavyasa.[56]. Puranic tradition also postulates a single original Veda that, in varying accounts, was divided into three or four parts. According to the Vishnu Purana (3.2.18, 3.3.4 etc) the original Veda was divided into four parts, and further fragmented into numerous shakhas, by Lord Vishnu in the form of Vyasa, in the Dvapara Yuga; the Vayu Purana (section 60) recounts a similar division by Vyasa, at the urging of Brahma. The Bhagavata Purana (12.6.37) traces the origin of the primeval Veda to the syllable aum, and says that it was divided into four at the start of Dvapara Yuga, because men had declined in age, virtue and understanding. In a differing account Bhagavata Purana (9.14.43) attributes the division of the primeval veda (aum) into three parts to the monarch Pururavas at the beginning of Treta Yuga. The Mahabharata (santiparva 13,088) also mentions the division of the Veda into three in Treta Yuga.[57]

[edit] Upaveda
The term upaveda ("applied knowledge") is used in traditional literature to designate the subjects of certain technical works.[58][59] Lists of what subjects are included in this class differ among sources. The Charanavyuha mentions four Upavedas:

Medicine (yurveda), associated with the Rigveda Archery (Dhanurveda), associated with the Yajurveda Music and sacred dance (Gndharvaveda), associated with the Samaveda Military science (Shastrashastra), associated with the Atharvaveda

But Sushruta and Bhavaprakasha mention Ayurveda as an upaveda of the Atharvaveda. Sthapatyaveda (architecture), Shilpa Shastras (arts and crafts) are mentioned as fourth upaveda according to later sources.

[edit] "Fifth Veda"

Some post-Vedic texts, including the Mahabharata, the Natyasastra and certain Puranas, refer to themselves as the "fifth Veda".[60] The earliest reference to such a "fifth Veda" is found in the Chandogya Upanishad. "Dravida Veda" is a term for canonical Tamil Bhakti texts.[citation needed]

[edit] Notes
1. ^ see e.g. Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957, p. 3; Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniads", in: Flood 2003, p. 68; MacDonell 2004, p. 29-39; Sanskrit literature (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09 2. ^ Bloomfield, M. The Atharvaveda and the Gopatha-Brahmana, (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde II.1.b.) Strassburg 1899; Gonda, J. A history of Indian literature: I.1 Vedic literature (Samhitas and Brahmanas); I.2 The Ritual Sutras. Wiesbaden 1975, 1977 3. ^ Apte, pp. 109f. has "not of the authorship of man, of divine origin" 4. ^ Apte 1965, p. 887 5. ^ Muller 1891, p. 17-18 6. ^ Flood 1996, p. 82 7. ^ "The brahmin by caste alone, the teacher of the Veda, is (jokingly) etymologized as the 'non-meditator' (ajhyaka). Brahmins who have memorized the three Vedas (tevijja) really know nothing: it is the process of achieving Enlightenment - what the Buddha is said to have achieved in the three watches of that night - which constitutes the true 'three knowledges.'" R.F. Gombrich in Paul Williams, ed., "Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies." Taylor and Francis 2006, page 120. 8. ^ Chahal, Dr. Devindar Singh (Jan-June 2006). "Is Sikhism a Unique Religion or a Vedantic Religion?". Understanding Sikhism - the Research Journal 8 (1): 35. 9. ^ Aad Guru Granth Sahib. Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee, Amritsar. 1983. 10. ^ "Eclecticism and Modern Hindu Discourse, Brian Hatcher, OUP 1999" 11. ^ Monier-Williams 2006, p. 1015; Apte 1965, p. 856 12. ^ K.F. Geldner. Der Rig-Veda, Harvard Oriental Series 33-37, Cambridge 1951 13. ^ see e.g. Pokorny's 1959 Indogermanisches etymologisches Wrterbuch s.v. ue)id-; Rix' Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben, ui-. ( ed 14. ^ Monier-Williams (1899) 15. ^ Flood 1996, p. 37 16. ^ Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniads", in: Flood 2003, p. 68 17. ^ For the possibility of written texts during the first century BCE see: Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniads", in: Flood 2003, p. 69; For oral composition and

oral transmission for "many hundreds of years" before being written down, see: Avari 2007, p. 76. 18. ^ Brodd, Jefferey (2003). World Religions. Winona, MN: Saint Mary's Press. ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5. 19. ^ according to ISKCON, Hindu Sacred Texts, "Hindus themselves often use the term to describe anything connected to the Vedas and their corollaries (e.g. Vedic culture)". 20. ^ 37,575 are Rigvedic. Of the remaining, 34,857 appear in the other three Samhitas, and 16,405 are known only from Brahmanas, Upanishads or Sutras) 21. ^ Michaels 2004, p. 51. 22. ^ Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniads", in: Flood 2003, p. 69. 23. ^ Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniads", in: Flood 2003, p. 69. 24. ^ For a table of all Vedic texts see Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniads", in: Flood 2003, p. 100101. 25. ^ Michaels 2004, p. 51. 26. ^ Goswami, S.D. (1976), Readings in Vedic Literature: The Tradition Speaks for Itself, S.l.: Assoc Publishing Group, pp. 240 pages, ISBN 0912776889 27. ^ Flood 1996, p. 39. 28. ^ (Staal 1986) 29. ^ a b (Filliozat 2004, p. 139) 30. ^ Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957, p. 3; Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniads", in: Flood 2003, p. 68 31. ^ MacDonell 2004, p. 29-39 32. ^ Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Witzel 1997, p. 257-348 33. ^ see e.g. Avari 2007, p. 77. 34. ^ For 1,028 hymns and 10,600 verses and division into ten mandalas, see: Avari 2007, p. 77. 35. ^ For characterization of content and mentions of deities including Agni, Indra, Varuna, Soma, Surya, etc. see: Avari 2007, p. 77. 36. ^ see e.g. Avari 2007, p. 77. Max Mller gave 17001100 BCE, Michael Witzel gives 1450-1350 BCE as terminus ad quem. 37. ^ Drews, Robert (2004). Early Riders: The beginnings of mounted warfare in Asia and Europe. New York: Routledge. p. 50. 38. ^ Apte 1965, p. 981. 39. ^ Michaels 2004, p. 51. 40. ^ For 1875 total verses, see numbering given in Ralph T. H. Griffith. Griffith's introduction mentions the recension history for his text. Repetitions may be found by consulting the cross-index in Griffith pp. 491-99. 41. ^ Michaels 2004, p. 56. 42. ^ Michaels 2004, p. 56. 43. ^ Flood 1996, p. 37. 44. ^ Michaels 2004, p. 56. 45. ^ Michaels 2004, p. 56. 46. ^ Apte 1965, p. 37. 47. ^ Flood 1996, p. 36.

48. ^ Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniads", in: Flood 2003, p. 76. 49. ^ Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957, p. 3. 50. ^ Michaels 2004, p. 56. 51. ^ "The latest of the four Vedas, the Atharva-Veda, is, as we have seen, largely composed of magical texts and charms, but here and there we find cosmological hymns which anticipate the Upanishads, -- hymns to Skambha, the 'Support', who is seen as the first principle which is both the material and efficient cause of the universe, to Prna, the 'Breath of Life', to Vc, the 'Word', and so on." Zaehner 1966, p. vii. 52. ^ "There were originally only three priests associated with the first three Sahits, for the Brahman as overseer of the rites does not appear in the g Veda and is only incorporated later, thereby showing the acceptance of the Atharva Veda, which had been somewhat distinct from the other Sahits and identified with the lower social strata, as being of equal standing with the other texts."Flood 1996, p. 42. 53. ^ Apte 1965, p. 387. 54. ^ BR Modak, The Ancillary Literature of the Atharva-Veda, New Delhi, Rashtriya Veda Vidya Pratishthan, 1993, ISBN 81-215-0607-7 55. ^ Flood 1996, p. 111 dates it to the 4th century CE. 56. ^ Vishnu Purana, translation by Horace Hayman Wilson, 1840, Ch IV, http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp078.htm 57. ^ Muir 1861, pp. 20-31 58. ^ Monier-Williams 2006, p. 207. [1] Accessed 5 April 2007. 59. ^ Apte 1965, p. 293. 60. ^ Sullivan 1994, p. 385

[edit] References

Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965), The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary (4th revised & enlarged ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0567-4. Avari, Burjor (2007), India: The Ancient Past, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0415-35616-9 Flood, Gavin (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-43878-0 Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Malden, MA: Blackwell, ISBN 1-4051-3251-5 Holdrege, Barbara A. (1995), Veda and Torah, SUNY Press, ISBN 0791416399 MacDonell, Arthur Anthony (2004), A History of Sanskrit Literature, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 1417906197 Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism: Past and Present, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-08953-1 Monier-Williams, Monier, ed. (2006), Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary, Nataraj Books, ISBN 18-81338-58-4. Muir, John (1861), Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and Progress of the Religion and Institutions of India, Williams and Norgate, http://books.google.com/books/pdf/Original_Sanskrit_Texts_on_the_Origin_an.pdf ?id=_VCXTBk-PtoC

Muller, Max (1891), Chips from a German Workshop, New York: C. Scribner's sons, http://books.google.com/books?id=J8Zo_rtoWAEC. Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; Moore, Charles A., eds. (1957), A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy (12th Princeton Paperback ed.), Princeton University Press, ISBN 0691-01958-4. Smith, Brian K., Canonical Authority and Social Classification: Veda and "Vara" in Ancient Indian Texts-, History of Religions, The University of Chicago Press (1992), 103-125. Sullivan, B. M. (Summer 1994). "The Religious Authority of the Mahabharata: Vyasa and Brahma in the Hindu Scriptural Tradition". Journal of the American Academy of Religion 62 (1): 377401. doi:10.1093/jaarel/LXII.2.377. Witzel, Michael (ed.) (1997), Inside the Texts, Beyond the Texts. New Approaches to the Study of the Vedas, Harvard Oriental Series, Opera Minora vol. 2, Cambridge: Harvard University Press Zaehner, R. C. (1966), Hindu Scriptures, London: Everyman's Library

[edit] Literature
Overviews

J. Gonda, Vedic Literature: Sahits and Brhmaas, A History of Indian literature. Vol. 1, Veda and Upanishads (1975), ISBN 9783447016032. J. A. Santucci, An Outline of Vedic Literature (1976). S. Shrava, A Comprehensive History of Vedic Literature Brahmana and Aranyaka Works, Pranava Prakashan (1977).

Concordances

M. Bloomfield, A Vedic Concordance (1907) Vishva Bandhu, Bhim Dev, S. Bhaskaran Nair (eds.), Vaidika-PadnukramaKoa: A Vedic Word-Concordance, Vishveshvaranand Vedic Research Institute, Hoshiarpur, 1963-1965, revised edition 1973-1976.

Conference proceedings

Griffiths, Arlo and Houben, Jan E. M. (eds.), The Vedas : texts, language & ritual: proceedings of the Third International Vedic Workshop, Leiden 2002, Groningen Oriental Studies 20, Groningen : Forsten, (2004), ISBN 90-6980-149-3.

[edit] See also

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Literature in Sanskrit begins with the Vedas, and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age India; the golden age of Classical Sanskrit literature dates to late Antiquity (roughly the 3rd to 8th centuries AD). Literary production saw a late bloom in the 11th century before declining after 1100 AD. There are contemporary efforts towards revival, with events like the "All-India Sanskrit Festival" (since 2002) holding composition contests.

Given its extensive use in religious literature, primarily in Hinduism, and the fact that most modern Indian languages have been directly derived from or strongly influenced by Sanskrit, the language and its literature is of great importance in Indian culture akin that of Greek and Latin in European culture.

Contents
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1 The Vedas 2 Sutra literature 3 The Epics o 3.1 The Mahabharata o 3.2 The Ramayana 4 Classical Sanskrit Literature o 4.1 Drama o 4.2 Scholarly treatises o 4.3 Fairy tales and fables o 4.4 Classical Poetry o 4.5 Puranas 5 Later Sanskrit literature 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links

[edit] The Vedas

Main article: Vedas Composed between approximately 1500 BC and 600 BC (the Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age) in pre-classical Sanskrit , Vedic literature forms the basis for the further development of Hinduism. There are four Vedas - Rig, Yajur, Sma and Atharva, each with a main Samhita and a number of circum-vedic genres, including Brahmanas, Aranyakas,Vedang i.e. Grhyasutras and Shrautasutras and Dharmasutras. The main period of Vedic literary activity falls into ca. the 9th to 7th centuries when the various shakhas (schools) compiled and memorized their respective corpora. The older Upanishads (BAU, ChU, JUB, KathU, MaitrU) belong to the Vedic period, but the larger part of the Muktika canon is post-Vedic. The Aranyakas form part of both the Brahmana and Upanishad corpus.

[edit] Sutra literature

Main article: Sutra See also: Shulba Sutras, Shulba Sutras, Kalpa Sutras, Dharma Sutras, and Shastra Continuing the tradition of the late Vedic Shrautasutra literature, Late Iron Age scholarship (ca. 500 to 100 BCE) organized knowledge into Sutra treatises, including the Vedanga and the religious or philosophical Brahma Sutras, Yoga Sutras, Nyaya Sutras. In the Vedanga disciplines of grammar and phonetics, no author had greater influence than Pini with his Adhyy (ca. 5th century BC). In the tradition of Sutra literature exposing the full grammar of Sanskrit in extreme brevity, Panini's brilliance lies in the nature of his work of a prescriptive generative grammar, involving metarules, transformations and recursion. Being prescriptive for all later grammatical works, such as Patanjali's Mahbhya, Pini's grammar effectively fixed the grammar of Classical Sanskrit. The Backus-Naur Form or BNF grammars used to describe modern programming languages have significant similarities with Panini's grammar rules.

[edit] The Epics

Main article: Indian epic poetry The period between approximately the 6th to 1st centuries BC saw the composition and redaction of the two great epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, with subsequent redaction progressing down to the 4th century AD. They are known as itihasa, or "that which occurred".

[edit] The Mahabharata

The battle of Kurushestra, folio from the Mahabharata. Main article: Mahabharata The Mahabharata (Great Bharata) is one of the largest poetic works in the world. While it is clearly a poetic epic, it contains large tracts of Hindu mythology, philosophy and religious tracts.Traditionally, authorship of the Mahabharata is attributed to the sage Vyasa.According to the Adi-parva of the Mahabharata (81, 101-102), the text was originally 8,800 verses when it was composed by Vyasa and was known as the Jaya (Victory), which later became 24,000 verses in the Bharata recited by Vaisampayana.

The broad sweep of the story of the Mahabharata chronicles the story of the conflict between two families for control of Hastinapur, a city in Ancient India. The impact of the Mahabharata on India and Hinduism cannot be stressed enough. Having been molded by Indian culture, it has in turn molded the development of Indian culture. Thousands of later writers would draw freely from the story and sub-stories of the Mahabharata.

[edit] The Ramayana

Main article: Ramayana While not as big as the Mahabharata, the Ramayana is still twice as big as the Iliad and Odyssey put together. Traditionally, the authorship is attribued to the Hindu sage who is referred to as Adikavi, or "first poet." Valmiki in Ramayana introduced the Anushtubh meter for the first time. Akin to the Mahabharata, the Ramayana is also handed down orally and evolved through several centuries before being transferred into writing. It includes tales that form the basis for modern Hindu festivals and even contains a description of the same marriage practice still observed in contemporary times by people of Hindu persuasion. The story deals with Prince Rama (Indian vernaculars: Rm or Sri Ram), his exile and the abduction of his wife by the Rakshas king Ravana, and the Lankan war. Similar to the Mahabharata, the Ramayana also has several full-fledged stories appearing as sub-plots. The Ramayana has also played a similar and equally important role in the development of Indian culture as the Mahabharata. The Ramayana is also extant in Ramayana: Southeast Asian versions See also: Hikayat Seri Rama, Kakawin Rmyaa, Phra Lak Phra Lam, Ramakien, Reamker, and Yama Zatdaw

[edit] Classical Sanskrit Literature

The classical period of Sanskrit literature dates to the Gupta period and the successive preIslamic Middle kingdoms of India, spanning roughly the 3rd to 8th centuries CE.

[edit] Drama
Main article: Sanskrit drama

Shakuntala stops to look back at Dushyanta, Raja Ravi Varma (1848-1906), scene from Abhijnakuntalam. Drama as a distinct genre of Sanskrit literature emerges in the final centuries BC, influenced partly by Vedic mythology and partly by Hellenistic drama. It reaches its peak between the 4th and 7th centuries before declining together with Sanskrit literature as a whole. Famous Sanskrit dramatists include hudraka, Bhasa, Asvaghosa and Klidsa. Though numerous plays written by these playwrights are still available, little is known about the authors themselves. One of the earliest known Sanskrit plays is the Mrichakatika, thought to have been composed by hudraka in the 2nd century BC. The Natya Shastra (ca. 2nd century AD, literally "Scripture of Dance," though it sometimes translated as "Science of Theatre'") is a keystone work in Sanskrit literature on the subject of stagecraft. Bhasa and Klidsa are major early authors of the first centuries AD, Klidsa qualifying easily as the greatest poet and playwright in Sanskrit He deals primarily with famous Hindu legends and themes; three famous plays by Klidsa are Vikramrvayam (Vikrama and Urvashi), Mlavikgnimitram (Malavika and Agnimitra), and the play that he is most known for: Abhijnakuntalam (The Recognition of Shakuntala). Late (post 6th century) dramatists include Dandi and Sri Harsha. The only surviving ancient Sanskrit drama theatre is Koodiyattam. Which is being preserved in Kerala by the Chakyar community.

[edit] Scholarly treatises

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Main articles: Tantras, Shastra, Siddhanta, and Jataka Further information: Jyotihshastra The earliest surviving treatise on astrology is the Yavanajataka "sayings of the Greeks" (3rd century). Classical Hindu astrology is based on early medieval compilations, notably the Bhat Parara Horstra and Srval (7th to 8th century). The earliest surviving treatise on (non-divinatory) Indian astronomy predates the Yavanajataka: the Vedanga Jyotisha of Ladaga documents the state of in the Maurya period. The astronomy of the classical Gupta period, the centuries following Indo-Greek contact, is documented in treatises known as Siddhantas (which means "established conclusions" [1] ). Varahamihira in his Pancha-Siddhantika contrasts five of these: The Surya Siddhanta besides the Paitamaha Siddhantas (which is more similar to the "classical" Vedanga Jyotisha), the Paulisha and Romaka Siddhantas (directly based on Hellenistic astronomy) and the Vasishta Siddhanta. The earliest treatise in Indian mathematics is the ryabhaya (written ca. 500 CE), a work on astronomy and mathematics. The mathematical portion of the ryabhaya was composed of 33 stras (in verse form) consisting of mathematical statements or rules, but without any proofs.[2] However, according to (Hayashi 2003, p. 123), "this does not necessarily mean that their authors did not prove them. It was probably a matter of style of exposition." From the time of Bhaskara I (600 CE onwards), prose commentaries increasingly began to include some derivations (upapatti). "Tantra" is a general term for a scientific, magical or mystical treatise and mystical texts both Hindu and Buddhist said to concern themselves with five subjects, 1. the creation, 2. the destruction of the world, 3. the worship of the gods, 4. the attainment of all objects, 5. the four modes of union with the supreme spirit by meditation. These texts date to the entire lifespan of Classical Sanskrit literature.

[edit] Fairy tales and fables

Main articles: Panchatantra and Hitopadesha Sanskrit fairy tales and fables are chiefly characterised by ethical reflections and proverbial philosophy. A peculiar style, marked by the insertion of a number of different stories within the framework of a single narrative, made its way to Persian and Arabic literatures, exerting a major influence on works such as One Thousand and One Nights.

The two most important collections are Panchatantra and Hitopadesha; originally intended as manuals for the instruction of kings in domestic and foreign policy, they belong to the class of literature which the Hindus call nti-stra, or "Science of Political Ethics". Other notable prose works include a collection of pretty and ingenious fairy tales, with a highly Oriental colouring, the Vetla-panchaviati or "Twenty-five Tales of the Vetla" (a demon supposed to occupy corpses), the Sihsana-dvtriik or "Thirty-two Stories of the Lion-seat" (i.e. throne), which also goes by the name of Vikrama-charita, or "Adventures of Vikrama" and the uka-saptati, or "Seventy Stories of a Parrot". These three collections of fairy tales are all written in prose and are comparatively short. Somadeva's Kath-sarit-sgara or "Ocean of Rivers of Stories" is a work of special importance: composed in verse and is of very considerable length. It contains more than 22,000 shlokas, equal to nearly one-fourth of the Mahbhrata. Fable collections, originally serving as the handbooks of practical moral philosophy, provided an abundant reservoir of ethical maxims that become so popular that works consisting exclusively of poetical aphorisms started to appear. The most important are the two collections by the highly-gifted Bharthari, entitled respectively Nti-ataka, or "Century of Conduct," and Vairgya-ataka, or "Century of Renunciation." The keynote prevailing in this new ethical poetry style is the doctrine of the vanity of human life, which was developed before the rise of Buddhism in the sixth century B.C., and has dominated Indian thought ever since.

[edit] Classical Poetry

This refers to the poetry produced from the approximately the 3rd to 8th centuries. Klidsa is the foremost example of a classical poet. But a striking characteristic of Indian literary tradition is that sometimes poets show off their technical dexterity with highly Oulipian word-games, like stanzas that read the same backwards and forwards, words that can be split in different ways to produce different meanings, sophisticated metaphors, and so on. This style is referred to as Kvya. A classic example is the poet Bharavi and his magnum opus, the Kiratarjuniya (6th-7th century). Magh is noted for his epic poem (mahAkAvya) Shishupala Vadha, the 20 cantos of which are based on the Mahabharata episode where the defiant king Shishupala is beheaded by Krishna's chakra (disc) The greatest works of poetry in this period are the five Mahkvyas, or "great composition"s:

Kumrasambhava by Klidsa Raghuvamsha by Klidsa Kiratarjuniya by Bharavi Shishupala Vadha by Mgha Naishadha-Charita by Sriharsha

Some scholars include the Bhattikavya as a sixth Mahkvya[3]. Other major literary works from this period are Kadambari by Banabhatta, the first Sanskrit novelist (6th-7th centuries), the Kama Sutra by Vatsyayana, and the three shatakas of Bharthari.

[edit] Puranas
Main article: Puranas The corpus of the Hindu Puranas likewise falls into the classical period of Sanskrit literature, dating to between the 5th and 10th centuries, and marks the emergence of the Vaishna and Shaiva denominations of classical Hinduism. The Puranas are classified into a Mah- ("great") and a Upa- ("lower, additional") corpus. Traditionally[4] they are said to narrate five subjects, called pacalakaa ("five distinguishing marks"): Sargaca pratisargasca vamo manvantari ca I Vamnucaritam caiva Puram pacalakaam II They are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Sarga - The creation of the universe. Pratisarga - Secondary creations, mostly re-creations after dissolution. Vama - Genealogy of royals and sages. Manvatara - Various eras. Vamnucaritam - Dynastic histories.

A Purana usually gives prominence to a certain deity (Shiva, Vishnu or Krishna, Durga) and depicts the other gods as subservient.

[edit] Later Sanskrit literature

Some important works from the 11th century include the Katha-sarit-sagara and the Gita Govinda of Jayadeva. Nagananda, attributed to King Harsha, is an outstanding drama that outlines the story of King Jimutavahana, who sacrifices himself to save the tribe of serpents. It is also unique in that it invokes Lord Buddha in what is a predominantly Hindu drama. The Katha-sarita-sagara (An Ocean of Stories) by Somadeva was an 11th century poetic adaptation in Sanskrit of Brihat-katha, written in the 5th century BC in the Paishachi dialect. One of the famous series of stories in this work is the Vikrama and Vetla series, known to every child in India. On the other side of the spectrum, of the 'Bhana' style of drama, Ubhayabhisarika is a one-person drama of an endearing lecher who knows every courtesan and her family by name.

The Gita Govinda (The song of Govinda) by the Oriya composer Jayadeva is the story of Krishna's love for Radha, and is written in spectacularly lyrical and musical Sanskrit.

Basohli painting (circa 1730 AD) depicting a scene from Jayadeva's Gita Govinda. A central text for several Hindu sects in eastern India, the Gita Govinda is recited regularly at major Hindu pilgrimage sites such as Jagannath temple at Puri, Orissa. The Ashtapadis of the Gita Govinda also form a staple theme in Bharatanatyam and Odissi classical dance recitals. Beyond the 11th century, the use of Sanskrit for general literature declined, most importantly because of the emergence of literature in vernacular Indian languages (notably Hindi, Marathi, Telugu, and Kannada). Sanskrit continued to be used, largely for Hindu religious and philosophical literature. Sanskrit literature fueled literature in vernacular languages, and the Sanskrit language itself continued to have a profound influence over the development of Indian literature in general. Attempts at revival of Sanskrit have been undertaken in the Republic of India since its foundation in 1947.

[edit] See also

Sanskrit drama Hindu scripture Indian literature Early Medieval literature List of Sanskrit poets Yoga Vasistha
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Rigveda

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the collection of Vedic hymns. For the manga series, see RG Veda.
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Vedas Rigveda Yajurveda Samaveda Atharvaveda Divisions Samhita Brahmana Aranyaka Upanishad Upanishad Aitareya Brihadaranyaka Isha Taittiriya Chandogya Kena Maitri Mundaka Mandukya Katha Kaushitaki Prashna Shvetashvatara Vedanga Shiksha Chandas Vyakarana Nirukta Jyotisha Kalpa Itihasa Mahabharata Ramayana Other scriptures Smriti ruti Bhagavad Gita Purana Manu Smriti Agama

Pancharatra Tantra Akilathirattu Stra Stotra Dharmashastra Divya Prabandha Tevaram Ramacharitamanas Yoga Vasistha
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The Rigveda (Sanskrit: gved, a compound of c "praise, verse"[1] and veda "knowledge") is an ancient Indian sacred collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns. It is counted among the four canonical sacred texts (ruti) of Hinduism known as the Vedas.[2] Some of its verses are still recited as Hindu prayers, at religious functions and other occasions, putting these among the world's oldest religious texts in continued use. [3] It is one of the oldest extant texts of any Indo-European language. Philological and linguistic evidence indicate that the Rigveda was composed in the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent, roughly between 17001100 BC[4] (the early Vedic period). There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities with the early Iranian Avesta, deriving from the Proto-Indo-Iranian times, often associated with the early Andronovo (SintashtaPetrovka) culture of ca. 2200-1600 BC.

Contents
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1 Text 1.1 Organization 1.2 Recensions 1.3 Rishis 1.4 Manuscripts 2 Contents 3 Dating and historical context 4 Ancillary Texts o 4.1 Rigveda Brahmanas o 4.2 Rigveda Aranyakas 5 In contemporary Hinduism o 5.1 Hindu revivalism o 5.2 "Indigenous Aryans" debate 6 Translations 7 Notes 8 Bibliography 9 See also
o o o o

10 External links

Text
The surviving form of the Rigveda is based on an early Iron Age (c. 10th c. BC) collection that established the core 'family books' (mandalas 2-7, ordered by author, deity and meter [5] ) and a later redaction, co-eval with the redaction of the other Vedas, dating several centuries after the hymns were composed. This redaction also included some additions (contradicting the strict ordering scheme) and orthoepic changes to the Vedic Sanskrit such as the regularization of sandhi (termed orthoepische Diaskeuase by Oldenberg, 1888). As with the other Vedas, the redacted text has been handed down in several versions, most importantly the Padapatha that has each word isolated in pausa form and is used for just one way of memorization; and the Samhitapatha that combines words according to the rules of sandhi (the process being described in the Pratisakhya) and is the memorized text used for recitation. The Padapatha and the Pratisakhya anchor the text's fidelity and meaning[6] and the fixed text was preserved with unparalleled fidelity for more than a millennium by oral tradition alone. In order to achieve this the oral tradition prescribed very structured enunciation, involving breaking down the Sanskrit compounds into stems and inflections, as well as certain permutations. This interplay with sounds gave rise to a scholarly tradition of morphology and phonetics. The Rigveda was probably not written down until the Gupta period (4th to 6th century AD), by which time the Brahmi script had become widespread (the oldest surviving manuscripts date to the Late Middle Ages[7]). The oral tradition still continued into recent times. The original text (as authored by the Rishis) is close to but not identical to the extant Samhitapatha, but metrical and other observations allow to reconstruct (in part at least) the original text from the extant one, as printed in the Harvard Oriental Series, vol. 50 (1994) [8] .

Organization
The text is organized in 10 books, known as Mandalas, of varying age and length. The "family books": mandalas 2-7, are the oldest part of the Rigveda and the shortest books; they are arranged by length and account for 38% of the text. The eighth and ninth mandalas, comprising hymns of mixed age, account for 15% and 9%, respectively. The first and the tenth mandalas are the youngest; they are also the longest books, of 191 suktas each, accounting for 37% of the text. Each mandala consists of hymns called skta (su-ukta, literally, "well recited, eulogy") intended for various sacrificial rituals. The sktas in turn consist of individual stanzas called c ("praise", pl. cas), which are further analysed into units of verse called pada ("foot"). The meters most used in the cas are the jagati(a pada consists of 12 syllables), trishtubh(11), viraj(10), gayatri and anushtubh(8).

For pedagogical convenience, each mandala is synthetically divided into roughly equal sections of several sktas, called anuvka ("recitation"), which modern publishers often omit. Another scheme divides the entire text over the 10 mandalas into aaka ("eighth"), adhyya ("chapter") and varga ("class"). Some publishers give both classifications in a single edition. The most common numbering scheme is by book, hymn and stanza (and pada a, b, c ..., if required). E.g., the first pada is

1.1.1a agnm e purhita "Agni I invoke, the housepriest"

and the final pada is

10.191.4d yth va ssahsati

Recensions
The major Rigvedic shakha ("branch", i. e. recension) that has survived is kala. Another shakha reportedly surviving is Bkala, although this is uncertain[clarification needed]; if genuine, it is practically identical to the kala text. The kala recension has 1,017 regular hymns, and an appendix of 11 vlakhilya hymns[9] which are now customarily included in the 8th mandala (as 8.498.59), for a total of 1028 hymns.[10] The Bkala recension includes 8 of these vlakhilya hymns among its regular hymns, making a total of 1025 regular hymns for this kh.[11] In addition, the Bkala recension has its own appendix of 98 hymns, the Khilani.[12] In the 1877 edition of Aufrecht, the 1028 hymns of the Rigveda contain a total of 10,552 cs, or 39,831 padas. The Shatapatha Brahmana gives the number of syllables to be 432,000,[13] while the metrical text of van Nooten and Holland (1994) has a total of 395,563 syllables (or an average of 9.93 syllables per pada); counting the number of syllables is not straightforward because of issues with sandhi and the post-Rigvedic pronunciation of syllables like svar as svr.

Rishis
See also: Anukramani Tradition associates a rishi (the composer) with each c of the Rigveda.[14] Most sktas are attributed to single composers. The "family books" (2-7) are so-called because they have hymns by members of the same clan in each book; but other clans are also represented in the Rigveda. In all, 10 families of rishis account for more than 95% of the cs; for them the Rigveda includes a lineage-specific pr hymn (a special skta of rigidly formulaic structure, used for animal sacrifice in the soma ritual).

Family Angiras Kanva Vasishtha Vishvamitra Atri Bhrgu Kashyapa Grtsamada Agastya Bharata

pr I.142 I.13 VII.2 III.4 V.5 X.110 IX.5 II.3 I.188 X.70

cas[15] 3619 (especially Mandala 6) 1315 (especially Mandala 8) 1276 (Mandala 7) 983 (Mandala 3) 885 (Mandala 5) 473 415 (part of Mandala 9) 401 (Mandala 2) 316 170

Manuscripts
There are 30 manuscripts of Rigveda at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, collected in the 19th century by Georg Bhler, Franz Kielhorn and others, originating from different parts of India, including Kashmir, Gujarat, the then Rajaputana, Central Provinces etc. They were transferred to Deccan College, Pune, in the late 19th century. They are in the Sharada and Devanagari scripts, written on birch bark and paper. The oldest of them is dated to 1464. The 30 manuscripts were added to UNESCO's "Memory of the World" Register in 2007.[16] Of these 30 manuscripts, 9 contain the samhita text, 5 have the padapatha in addition. 13 contain Sayana's commentary. At least 5 manuscripts (MS. no. 1/A1879-80, 1/A1881-82, 331/1883-84 and 5/Vi I) have preserved the complete text of the Rigveda. MS no. 5/187576, written on birch bark in bold Sharada, was used by Max Mller for his edition of the Rigveda with Sayanas commentary. Max Mller used 24 manuscripts, while the Pune Edition used over five dozen manuscripts, but the editors of Pune Edition could not procure many manuscripts used by Max Mller and by Bombay Edition, as well as from some other sources ; hence the total number of extant manuscripts must surpass perhaps eighty at least[17]

Contents
See also: Rigvedic deities The Rigvedic hymns are dedicated to various deities, chief of whom are Indra, a heroic god praised for having slain his enemy Vrtra; Agni, the sacrificial fire; and Soma, the sacred potion or the plant it is made from. Equally prominent gods are the Adityas or Asura gods Mitra-Varuna and Ushas (the dawn). Also invoked are Savitr, Vishnu, Rudra, Pushan, Brihaspati or Brahmanaspati, as well as deified natural phenomena such as Dyaus Pita (the shining sky, Father Heaven ), Prithivi (the earth, Mother Earth), Surya (the sun god), Vayu or Vata (the wind), Apas (the waters), Parjanya (the thunder and rain), Vac (the word),

many rivers (notably the Sapta Sindhu, and the Sarasvati River). The Adityas, Vasus, Rudras, Sadhyas, Ashvins, Maruts, Rbhus, and the Vishvadevas ("all-gods") as well as the "thirty-three gods" are the groups of deities mentioned. The hymns mention various further minor gods, persons, concepts, phenomena and items, and contain fragmentary references to possible historical events, notably the struggle between the early Vedic people (known as Vedic Aryans, a subgroup of the Indo-Aryans) and their enemies, the Dasa or Dasyu and their mythical prototypes, the Pai (the Bactrian Parna).

Rigveda (padapatha) manuscript in Devanagari, early 19th century. After a scribal benediction ("rgayanama ;; Aum(3) ;;"), the first line has the opening words of RV.1.1.1 (agni ; ie ; pura-hita ; yajasya ; deva ; tvija). The Vedic accent is marked by underscores and vertical overscores in red.

Mandala 1 comprises 191 hymns. Hymn 1.1 is addressed to Agni, and his name is the first word of the Rigveda. The remaining hymns are mainly addressed to Agni and Indra, as well as Varuna, Mitra, the Ashvins, the Maruts, Usas, Surya, Rbhus, Rudra, Vayu, Brhaspati, Visnu, Heaven and Earth, and all the Gods. Mandala 2 comprises 43 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra. It is chiefly attributed to the Rishi gtsamada aunahotra. Mandala 3 comprises 62 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra and the Vishvedevas. The verse 3.62.10 has great importance in Hinduism as the Gayatri Mantra. Most hymns in this book are attributed to vivmitra gthina. Mandala 4 comprises 58 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra as well as the Rbhus, Ashvins, Brhaspati, Vayu, Usas, etc. Most hymns in this book are attributed to vmadeva gautama. Mandala 5 comprises 87 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra, the Visvedevas ("all the gods'), the Maruts, the twin-deity Mitra-Varuna and the Asvins. Two hymns each

are dedicated to Ushas (the dawn) and to Savitr. Most hymns in this book are attributed to the atri clan. Mandala 6 comprises 75 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra, all the gods, Pusan, Ashvin, Usas, etc. Most hymns in this book are attributed to the brhaspatya family of Angirasas. Mandala 7 comprises 104 hymns, to Agni, Indra, the Visvadevas, the Maruts, Mitra-Varuna, the Asvins, Ushas, Indra-Varuna, Varuna, Vayu (the wind), two each to Sarasvati (ancient river/goddess of learning) and Vishnu, and to others. Most hymns in this book are attributed to vasiha maitravarui. Mandala 8 comprises 103 hymns to various gods. Hymns 8.49 to 8.59 are the apocryphal vlakhilya. Hymns 1-48 and 60-66 are attributed to the kva clan, the rest to other (Angirasa) poets. Mandala 9 comprises 114 hymns, entirely devoted to Soma Pavamana, the cleansing of the sacred potion of the Vedic religion. Mandala 10 comprises additional 191 hymns, frequently in later language, addressed to Agni, Indra and various other deities. It contains the Nadistuti sukta which is in praise of rivers and is important for the reconstruction of the geography of the Vedic civilization and the Purusha sukta which has great significance in Hindu social tradition. It also contains the Nasadiya sukta (10.129), probably the most celebrated hymn in the west, which deals with creation. The marriage hymns (10.85) and the death hymns (10.10-18) still are of great importance in the performance of the corresponding Grhya rituals.

Dating and historical context

Geography of the Rigveda, with river names; the extent of the Swat and Cemetery H cultures are also indicated. The dating of Rigveda has been a center of controversies; there is a strong disagreement among scholars. The Rigveda is far more archaic than any other Indo-Aryan text. For this reason, it was in the center of attention of western scholarship from the times of Max Mller and Rudolf Roth onwards. The Rigveda records an early stage of Vedic religion. There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities with the early Iranian Avesta,[18]

deriving from the Proto-Indo-Iranian times,[19][20] often associated with the early Andronovo culture of ca. 2000 BC.[21] The Rigveda's core is accepted to date to the late Bronze Age, making it one of the few examples with an unbroken tradition. Its composition is usually dated to roughly between 17001100 BC.[22]. The EIEC (s.v. Indo-Iranian languages, p. 306) gives 15001000. It is certain that the hymns post-date Indo-Iranian separation of ca. 2000 BC and probably that of the Indo-Aryan Mitanni documents of c. 1400 BC.[23] Several other evidences also pointed out 1400 BC as the most reasonable date[24][25]. Philological estimates tend to date the bulk of the text to the second half of the second millennium. Compare Max Mller's statement "the hymns of the Rig-Veda are said to date from 1500 BC" ('Veda and Vedanta', 7th lecture in India: What Can It Teach Us: A Course of Lectures Delivered Before the University of Cambridge, World Treasures of the Library of Congress Beginnings by Irene U. Chambers, Michael S. Roth. some writers out of the mainstream claim to trace astronomical references in the Rigveda, dating it to as early as 4000 BC, a date corresponding to the Neolithic late Mehrgarh culture; summarized by Klaus Klostermaier in a 1998 presentation. The text in the following centuries underwent pronunciation revisions and standardization (samhitapatha, padapatha). This redaction would have been completed around the 6th century BC.[26] Exact dates are not established, but they fall within the pre-Buddhist period (500, or rather 400 BC). Writing appears in India around the 3rd century BC in the form of the Brahmi script, but texts of the length of the Rigveda were likely not written down until much later, the oldest surviving Rigvedic manuscript dating to the 14th century.[dubious discuss] While written manuscripts were used for teaching in medieval times, they were written on birch bark or palm leaves, which decompose fairly quickly in the tropical climate, until the advent of the printing press from the 16th[dubious discuss] century. Some Rigveda commentaries may date from the second half of the first millennium CE. The hymns were thus preserved by oral tradition for up to a millennium from the time of their composition until the redaction of the Rigveda, and the entire Rigveda was preserved in shakhas for another 2,500 years from the time of its redaction until the editio princeps by Rosen, Aufrecht and Max Mller. After their composition, the texts were preserved and codified by an extensive body of Vedic priesthood as the central philosophy of the Iron Age Vedic civilization. The Brahma Purana and the Vayu Purana name one Vidagdha as the author of the Padapatha.[27] The Rkpratishakhya names Sthavira Shakalya of the Aitareya Aranyaka as its author.[28] The Rigveda describes a mobile, semi-nomadic culture, with horse-drawn chariots, oxendrawn wagons, and metal (bronze) weapons. The geography described is consistent with that of the Greater Punjab: Rivers flow north to south, the mountains are relatively remote but still visible and reachable (Soma is a plant found in the high mountains, and it has to be purchased from tribal people). Nevertheless, the hymns were certainly composed over a long period, with the oldest (not preserved) elements possibly reaching back to times close to the split of Proto-Indo-Iranian (around 2000 BC)[29] Thus there was some debate over whether the boasts of the destruction of stone forts by the Vedic Aryans and particularly by Indra refer to cities of the Indus Valley civilization or whether they rather hark back to clashes between the early Indo-Aryans with the BMAC in what is now northern

Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan (separated from the upper Indus by the Hindu Kush mountain range, and some 400 km distant). While it is highly likely that the bulk of the Rigvedic hymns were composed in the Punjab, even if based on earlier poetic traditions, there is no mention of either tigers or rice[30] in the Rigveda (as opposed to the later Vedas), suggesting that Vedic culture only penetrated into the plains of India after its completion. Similarly, there is no mention of iron as the term ayas occurring in the Rig Veda refers to useful metal in general. [31] The "black metal" (ka ayas) is first mentioned in the post-Rigvedic texts (Atharvaveda etc.). The Iron Age in northern India begins in the 10th century in the Greater Panjab and at the 12th century BC with the Black and Red Ware (BRW) culture. There is a widely accepted timeframe for the beginning codification of the Rigveda by compiling the hymns very late in the Rigvedic or rather in the early postRigvedic period, including the arrangement of the individual hymns in ten books, coeval with and the composition of the younger Veda Samhitas. This time coincides with the early Kuru kingdom, shifting the center of Vedic culture east from the Punjab into what is now Uttar Pradesh. The fixing of the samhitapatha (by keeping Sandhi) intact and of the padapatha (by dissolving Sandhi out of the earlier metrical text), occurred during the later Brahmana period. Some of the names of gods and goddesses found in the Rigveda are found amongst other belief systems based on Proto-Indo-European religion, while words used share common roots with words from other Indo-European languages. An author, N. Kazanas[32] in an argument against the so-called "Aryan Invasion Theory" suggests a date as early as 3100 BC, based on an identification of the early Rigvedic Sarasvati River as the Ghaggar-Hakra and on glottochronological arguments. This is in diametrical opposition to views in western academic historical linguistics, and supports the Out of India theory, which assumes a date as late as 3000 BC for the age of late ProtoIndo-European itself. Some writers based on astronomical calculations even claim dates as early as 4000 BC,[33] a date well within the Indian Neolithic.[34]. The horse (ashva), cattle, sheep and goat play an important role in the Rigveda. There are also references to the elephant (Hastin, Varana), camel (Ustra, especially in Mandala 8), ass (khara, rasabha), buffalo (Mahisa), wolf, hyena, lion (Simha), mountain goat (sarabha) and to the gaur in the Rigveda.[35] The peafowl (mayura), the goose (hamsa) and the chakravaka (Anas casarca) are some birds mentioned in the Rigveda.

Ancillary Texts
Rigveda Brahmanas
See also: Brahmana Of the Brahmanas that were handed down in the schools of the Bahvcas (i.e. "possessed of many verses"), as the followers of the Rigveda are called, two have come down to us, namely those of the Aitareyins and the Kaushitakins. The Aitareya-brahmana[36] and the Kaushitaki- (or Sankhayana-) brahmana evidently have for their groundwork the same

stock of traditional exegetic matter. They differ, however, considerably as regards both the arrangement of this matter and their stylistic handling of it, with the exception of the numerous legends common to both, in which the discrepancy is comparatively slight. There is also a certain amount of material peculiar to each of them. The Kaushitaka is, upon the whole, far more concise in its style and more systematic in its arrangement features which would lead one to infer that it is probably the more modern work of the two. It consists of thirty chapters (adhyaya); while the Aitareya has forty, divided into eight books (or pentads, pancaka), of five chapters each. The last ten adhyayas of the latter work are, however, clearly a later addition though they must have already formed part of it at the time of Panini (ca. 5th c. BC), if, as seems probable, one of his grammatical sutras, regulating the formation of the names of Brahmanas, consisting of thirty and forty adhyayas, refers to these two works. In this last portion occurs the well-known legend (also found in the Shankhayana-sutra, but not in the Kaushitaki-brahmana) of Shunahshepa, whom his father Ajigarta sells and offers to slay, the recital of which formed part of the inauguration of kings. While the Aitareya deals almost exclusively with the Soma sacrifice, the Kaushitaka, in its first six chapters, treats of the several kinds of haviryajna, or offerings of rice, milk, ghee, &c., whereupon follows the Soma sacrifice in this way, that chapters 7-10 contain the practical ceremonial and 11-30 the recitations (shastra) of the hotar. Sayana, in the introduction to his commentary on the work, ascribes the Aitareya to the sage Mahidasa Aitareya (i.e. son of Itara), also mentioned elsewhere as a philosopher; and it seems likely enough that this person arranged the Brahmana and founded the school of the Aitareyins. Regarding the authorship of the sister work we have no information, except that the opinion of the sage Kaushitaki is frequently referred to in it as authoritative, and generally in opposition to the Paingya the Brahmana, it would seem, of a rival school, the Paingins. Probably, therefore, it is just what one of the manuscripts calls it the Brahmana of Sankhayana (composed) in accordance with the views of Kaushitaki.

Rigveda Aranyakas
See also: Aranyaka Each of these two Brahmanas is supplemented by a "forest book", or Aranyaka. The Aitareyaranyaka is not a uniform production. It consists of five books (aranyaka), three of which, the first and the last two, are of a liturgical nature, treating of the ceremony called mahavrata, or great vow. The last of these books, composed in sutra form, is, however, doubtless of later origin, and is, indeed, ascribed by Hindu authorities either to Shaunaka or to Ashvalayana. The second and third books, on the other hand, are purely speculative, and are also styled the Bahvrca-brahmana-upanishad. Again, the last four chapters of the second book are usually singled out as the Aitareyopanishad, ascribed, like its Brahmana (and the first book), to Mahidasa Aitareya; and the third book is also referred to as the Samhita-upanishad. As regards the Kaushitaki-aranyaka, this work consists of 15 adhyayas, the first two (treating of the mahavrata ceremony) and the 7th and 8th of which correspond to the 1st, 5th, and 3rd books of the Aitareyaranyaka, respectively, whilst the four adhyayas usually inserted between them constitute the highly interesting Kaushitaki (brahmana-) upanishad, of which we possess two different recensions. The remaining

portions (9-15) of the Aranyaka treat of the vital airs, the internal Agnihotra, etc., ending with the vamsha, or succession of teachers.

In contemporary Hinduism
According to Hindu tradition, the Rigvedic hymns were collected by Paila under the guidance of Vysa, who formed the Rigveda Samhita as we know it. According to the atapatha Brhmana, the number of syllables in the Rigveda is 432,000, equalling the number of muhurtas (1 day = 30 muhurtas) in forty years. This statement stresses the underlying philosophy of the Vedic books that there is a connection (bandhu) between the astronomical, the physiological, and the spiritual. The authors of the Brhmana literature discussed and interpreted the Vedic ritual. Yaska was an early commentator of the Rigveda by discussing the meanings of difficult words. In the 14th century, Syana wrote an exhaustive commentary on it. Other Bhyas (commentaries) that have been preserved up to present times are those by Mdhava, Skandasvmin and Vekatamdhava.

Hindu revivalism
Since the 19th and 20th centuries, some reformers like Swami Dayananda, founder of the Arya Samaj and Sri Aurobindo have attempted to re-interpret the Vedas to conform to modern and established moral and spiritual norms. Dayananda considered the Vedas (which he defined to include only the samhitas) to be source of truth, totally free of error and containing the seeds of all valid knowledge. Contrary to common understanding, he was adamant that Vedas were monotheistic and that they did not sanction idol worship.[37] Starting 1877, he intended to publish commentary on the four vedas but completed work on only the Yajurveda, and a partial commentary on the Rigveda. Dayananda's work is not highly regarded by Vedic scholars and Indologist Louis Renou, among others, dismissed it as, "a vigorous (and from our point of view, extremely aberrant) interpretation in the social and political sense."[38][39] Dayananda and Aurobindo moved the Vedantic perception of the Rigveda from the original ritualistic content to a more symbolic or mystical interpretation. For example, instances of animal sacrifice were not seen by them as literal slaughtering, but as transcendental processes.

"Indigenous Aryans" debate

Further information: Indigenous Aryans The Sarasvati river, lauded in RV 7.95 as the greatest river flowing from the mountain to the sea is sometimes equated with the Ghaggar-Hakra river, which went dry perhaps before 2600 BC or certainly before 1900 BC. Others argue that the Sarasvati was originally the Helmand in Afghanistan. These questions are tied to the debate about the Indo-Aryan migration (termed "Aryan Invasion Theory") vs. the claim that Vedic culture together with

Vedic Sanskrit originated in the Indus Valley Civilisation (termed "Out of India theory"), a topic of great significance in Hindu nationalism, addressed for example by Amal Kiran and Shrikant G. Talageri. Subhash Kak has claimed that there is an astronomical code in the organization of the hymns. Bal Gangadhar Tilak, also based on astronomical alignments in the Rigveda, in his "The Orion" (1893) claimed presence of the Rigvedic culture in India in the 4th millennium BC, and in his "Arctic Home in the Vedas" (1903) even argued that the Aryans originated near the North Pole and came south during the Ice Age.

Translations
The first published translation of any portion of the Rigveda in any Western language was into Latin, by Friedrich August Rosen (Rigvedae specimen, London 1830). Predating Mller's editio princeps of the text, Rosen was working from manuscripts brought back from India by Colebrooke. H. H. Wilson was the first to make a complete translation of the Rig Veda into English, published in six volumes during the period 1850-88.[40] Wilson's version was based on the commentary of Syaa. In 1977, Wilson's edition was enlarged by Nag Sharan Singh (Nag Publishers, Delhi, 2nd ed. 1990). In 1889, Ralph T.H. Griffith published his translation as The Hymns of the Rig Veda, published in London (1889).[41] A German translation was published by Karl Friedrich Geldner, Der Rig-Veda: aus dem Sanskrit ins Deutsche bersetzt, Harvard Oriental Studies, vols. 3337 (Cambridge, Mass.: 1951-7).[42] Geldner's translation was the philologically best-informed to date, and a Russian translation based on Geldner's by Tatyana Elizarenkova was published by Nauka 1989-1999[43] A 2001 revised edition of Wilson's translation was published by Ravi Prakash Arya and K. L. Joshi.[44] The revised edition updates Wilson's translation by replacing obsolete English forms with more modern equivalents, giving the English translation along with the original Sanskrit text in Devanagari script, along with a critical apparatus. In 2004 the United States' National Endowment for the Humanities funded Joel Brereton and Stephanie W. Jamison as project directors for a new original translation to be issued by Oxford University Press.[45][46] Numerous partial translations exist into various languages. Notable examples include:

A. A. Macdonell. Hymns from the Rigveda (Calcutta, London, 1922); A Vedic Reader for Students (Oxford, 1917). French: A. Langlois, Rig-vda, ou livre des hymnes, Paris 1948-51 ISBN 2-72001029-4

Hungarian: Laszlo Forizs, Rigvda - Teremtshimnuszok (Creation Hymns of the Rig-Veda), Budapest, 1995 ISBN 963-85349-1-5 Hymns of the Rig-Veda Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty issued a modern selection with a translation of 108 hymns, along with critical apparatus. A bibliography of translations of the Rig Veda appears as an Appendix that work.[47] A new German translations of books 1 and 2 was presented in 2007 by Michael Witzel and Toshifumi Goto (ISBN 978-3-458-70001-2 / ISBN 978-3-458-700013). A partial Hindi translation by Govind Chandra Pande was published in 2008 (by Lokbharti Booksellers and Distributors, Allahabad, covering books 3-5).

Notes
1. ^ derived from the root c "to praise", cf. Dhtuptha 28.19. Monier-Williams translates "a Veda of Praise or Hymn-Veda" 2. ^ There is some confusion with the term "Veda", which is traditionally applied to the texts associated with the samhita proper, such as Brahmanas or Upanishads. In English usage, the term Rigveda is usually used to refer to the Rigveda samhita alone, and texts like the Aitareya-Brahmana are not considered "part of the Rigveda" but rather "associated with the Rigveda" in the tradition of a certain shakha.[citation needed] 3. ^ most popularly the Gayatri mantra of RV 3. Brodd, Jefferey (2003). World Religions. Winona, MN: Saint Mary's Press. ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5. 4. ^ Oberlies (1998:155) gives an estimate of 1100 BC for the youngest hymns in book 10. Estimates for a terminus post quem of the earliest hymns are far more uncertain. Oberlies (p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 17001100 5. ^ H. Oldenberg, Prolegomena,1888, Engl. transl. New Delhi: Motilal 2004 6. ^ K. Meenakshi (2002). "Making of Panini". in George Cardona, Madhav Deshpande , Peter Edwin Hook. Indian Linguistic Studies: Festschrift in Honor of George Cardona. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 235. ISBN 8120818857. 7. ^ The oldest manuscript in the Pune collection dates to the 15th century. The Benares Sanskrit University has a Rigveda manuscript of the 14th century. Earlier manuscripts are extremely rare; the oldest known manuscript preserving a Vedic text was written in the 11th century in Nepal (catalogued by the Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation Project, Hamburg. 8. ^ B. van Nooten and G. Holland, Rig Veda. A metrically restored text. Cambridge: Harvard Oriental Series 1994 9. ^ Mantras of "khila" hymns were called khailika and not cas (Khila meant distinct "part" of Rgveda separate from regular hymns; all regular hymns make up the akhila or "the whole" recognised in a kh, although khila hymns have sanctified roles in rituals from ancient times). 10. ^ Hermann Grassmann had numbered the hymns 1 through to 1028, putting the vlakhilya at the end. Griffith's translation has these 11 at the end of the 8th mandala, after 8.92 in the regular series.

11. ^ cf. Preface to Khila section by C.G.Kshikar in Volume-5 of Pune Edition of RV (in references). 12. ^ These Khilani hymns have also been found in a manuscript of the kala recension of the Kashmir Rigveda (and are included in the Poone edition). 13. ^ equalling 40 times 10,800, the number of bricks used for the uttaravedi: the number is motivated numerologically rather than based on an actual syllable count. 14. ^ In a few cases, more than one rishi is given, signifying lack of certainty. 15. ^ Talageri (2000), p.33 16. ^ http://hinduism.about.com/od/scripturesepics/a/rigveda.htm 17. ^ cf. Editorial notes in various volumes of Pune Edition, see references. 18. ^ Oldenberg 1894 (tr. Shrotri), p.14 "The Vedic diction has a great number of favourite expressions which are common with the Avestic, though not with later Indian diction. In addition, there is a close resemblance between them in metrical form, in fact, in their overall poetic character. If it is noticed that whole Avesta verses can be easily translated into the Vedic alone by virtue of comparative phonetics, then this may often give, not only correct Vedic words and phrases, but also the verses, out of which the soul of Vedic poetry appears to speak." 19. ^ Mallory 1989 p.36 "Probably the least-contested observation concerning the various Indo-European dialects is that those languages grouped together as Indic and Iranian show such remarkable similarities with one another that we can confidently posit a period of Indo-Iranian unity..." 20. ^ Bryant 2001:130-131 "The oldest part of the Avesta... is linguistically and culturally very close to the material preserved in the Rgveda... There seems to be economic and religious interaction and perhaps rivalry operating here, which justifies scholars in placing the Vedic and Avestan worlds in close chronological, geographical and cultural proximity to each other not far removed from a joint Indo-Iranian period." 21. ^ Mallory 1989 "The identification of the Andronovo culure as Indo-Iranian is commonly accepted by scholars." 22. ^ Oberlies (1998:155) gives an estimate of 1100 BC for the youngest hymns in book 10. Estimates for a terminus post quem of the earliest hymns are far more uncertain. Oberlies (p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 17001100 23. ^ "As a possible date ad quem for the RV one usually adduces the Hittite-Mitanni agreement of the middle of the 14th cent. B.C. which mentions four of the major Rgvedic gods: mitra, varuNa, indra and the nAsatya azvin)" M. Witzel, Early Sanskritization - Origin and development of the Kuru state. 24. ^ The Vedic People: Their History and Geography, Rajesh Kochar, 2000, Orient Longman, ISBN 8125013849 25. ^ Rigveda and River Saraswati: http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/306/contrasarav.htm 26. ^ Oldenberg (p. 379) places it near the end of the Brahmana period, seeing that the older Brahmanas still contain pre-normalized Rigvedic citations. The Brahmana period is later than the composition of the samhitas of the other Vedas, stretching for about the 10th to 6th centuries. This would mean that the redaction of the texts

as preserved was completed in roughly the 6th century BC. The EIEC (p. 306) gives a 7th century date. 27. ^[page needed]. The Shatapatha Brahmana refers to a Vidagdha Shakalya without discussing anything related to the Padapatha. 28. ^ Jha 1992[page needed] 29. ^ minority opinions name dates as early as the 4th millennium BC; "The Aryan Non-Invasionist Model" by Koenraad Elst 30. ^ There is however mention of ApUpa, Puro-das and Odana in the Rigveda, terms that, at least in later texts, refer to rice dishes, see Talageri (2000) 31. ^ The term "ayas" (=metal) occurs in the Rigveda, usually translated as "bronze", although Chakrabarti, D.K. The Early Use of Iron in India (1992) Oxford University Press argues that it may refer to any metal. If ayas refers to iron, the Rigveda must date to the late 2nd millennium at the earliest. 32. ^ N. Kazanas, A new date for the Rgveda Philosophy and Chronology, (2000) ed. G C Pande & D Krishna, special issue of Journal of Indian Council of Philosophical Research (June, 2001) 33. ^ summarized by Klaus Klostermaier in a 1998 presentation 34. ^ e.g. Michael Witzel, The Pleiades and the Bears viewed from inside the Vedic texts, EVJS Vol. 5 (1999), issue 2 (December) [1]; Elst, Koenraad (1999). Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate. Aditya Prakashan. ISBN 81-86471-77-4.; Bryant, Edwin and Laurie L. Patton (2005) The Indo-Aryan Controversy, Routledge/Curzon. 35. ^ among others, Macdonell and Keith, and Talageri 2000, Lal 2005 36. ^ Edited, with an English translation, by M. Haug (2 vols., Bombay, 1863). An edition in Roman transliteration, with extracts from the commentary, has been published by Th. Aufrecht (Bonn, 1879). 37. ^ Salmond, Noel A. (2004). "Dayananda Saraswati". Hindu iconoclasts: Rammohun Roy, Dayananda Sarasvati and nineteenth-century polemics against idolatry. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. pp. 6591. ISBN 0-88920-419-5. 38. ^ Llewellwyn, John (1994). "From interpretation to reform: Dayanand's reading of the Vedas". in Patton, Laurie L.. Authority, anxiety, and canon: essays in Vedic interpretation. Albany, N.Y: State University of New York Press. pp. 235252. ISBN 0-7914-1937-1. 39. ^ Renou, Louis (1965). The destiny of the Veda in India. Motilal Banarsidas. p. 4. 40. ^ Wilson, H. H. ig-Veda-Sanhit: A Collection of Ancient Hindu Hymns. 6 vols. (London, 1850-88); repring: Cosmo Publications (1977) 41. ^ reprinted Delhi 1973, reprinted by Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers: 1999. Complete revised and enlarged edition. 2-volume set. ISBN 8121500419 42. ^ reprint: Harvard Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies Harvard (University Press) (2003) ISBN 0-674-01226-7 43. ^ extended from a partial translation Rigveda: Izbrannye Gimny, published in 1972. 44. ^ Ravi Prakash Arya and K. L. Joshi. gveda Sahit: Sanskrit Text, English Translation, Notes & Index of Verses. (Parimal Publications: Delhi, 2001) ISBN 81-7110-138-7 (Set of four volumes). Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45; 2003 reprint: 81-7020-070-9

45. ^ http://www.neh.gov/news/awards/collaborative2004.html retrieved 22 March, 2007. 46. ^ Joel Brereton and Stephanie W. Jamison. The Rig Veda: Translation and Explanatory Notes. (Oxford University Press) ISBN 0195179188 47. ^ See Appendix 3, O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger. The Rig Veda. (Penguin Books: 1981) ISBN 0-140-44989-2

Bibliography
Editions

editio princeps: Friedrich Max Mller, The Hymns of the Rigveda, with Sayana's commentary, London, 1849-75, 6 vols., 2nd ed. 4 vols., Oxford, 1890-92. Theodor Aufrecht, 2nd ed., Bonn, 1877. Sontakke, N. S., ed. (1933-46,Reprint 1972-1983.), Rgveda-Samhit: rimatSyanchrya virachita-bhya-samet (First ed.), Pune: Vaidika Samodhana Maala. The Editorial Board for the First Edition included N. S. Sontakke (Managing Editor), V. K. Rjvade, M. M. Vsudevastri, and T. S. Varadarjaarm. B. van Nooten und G. Holland, Rig Veda, a metrically restored text, Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies, Harvard University, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England, 1994. Rgveda-Samhita, Text in Devanagari, English translation Notes and indices by H. H. Wilson, Ed. W.F. Webster, originally in 1888, Published Nag Publishers 1990, 11A/U.A. Jawaharnagar,Delhi-7.

Commentary

Sayana (14th century) o ed. Mller 1849-75 (German translation); o ed. Mller (original commentary of Syana in Sanskrit based on 24 manuscripts). o ed. Sontakke et al., published by Vaidika Samsodhana Mandala, Pune (2nd ed. 1972) in 5 volumes. Rgveda-Samhit Srimat-syanchrya virachita-bhya-samet, ed. by Sontakke et al., published by Vaidika Samodhana Mandala,Pune-9,1972 ,in 5 volumes (It is original commentary of Syana in Sanskrit based on over 60 manuscripts). Sri Aurobindo: Hymns of the Mystic Fire (Commentary on the Rig Veda), Lotus Press, Twin Lakes, Wisconsin ISBN 0-914955-22-5 [2]

Philology

Vashishtha Narayan Jha, A Linguistic Analysis of the Rgveda-Padapatha Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi (1992). Bjorn Merker, Rig Veda Riddles In Nomad Perspective, Mongolian Studies, Journal of the Mongolian Society XI, 1988.

Thomas Oberlies, Die Religion des Rgveda, Wien 1998. Oldenberg, Hermann: Hymnen des Rigveda. 1. Teil: Metrische und textgeschichtliche Prolegomena. Berlin 1888; Wiesbaden 1982. Die Religion des Veda. Berlin 1894; Stuttgart 1917; Stuttgart 1927; Darmstadt 1977 Vedic Hymns, The Sacred Books of the East vo, l. 46 ed. Friedrich Max Mller, Oxford 1897 Adolf Kaegi, The Rigveda: The Oldest Literature of the Indians (trans. R. Arrowsmith), Boston,, Ginn and Co. (1886), 2004 reprint: ISBN 9781417982059.

Historical

Bryant, Edwin (2001), The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195137779 Lal, B.B. 2005. The Homeland of the Aryans. Evidence of Rigvedic Flora and Fauna & Archaeology, New Delhi, Aryan Books International. Talageri, Shrikant: The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis, 2000. ISBN 81-7742-010-0

Archaeoastronomy

Tilak, Bal Gangadhar: The Orion, 1893.

See also

Vedas Upanishads

External links
Wikisource has original text related to this article: The Rig Veda Wikisource has original text related to this article: Original Sanskrit text in Devanagari Wikisource has original text related to this article: Original Sanskrit text in ASCII transliteration Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Rigveda

Rigveda - Nominations submitted by India in 2006-2007 for inclusion in the Memory of the World Register. (.doc format)

Text

in Devanagari and IAST (sacred-texts.com)

in ITRANS, Devanagari and transliteration (by Detlef Eichler) metrically restored (Linguistics Research Center, U. Texas) [Romanized, in Unicode] mp3 audio download (gatewayforindia.com)[North Indian style, i.e., without meter or same meter, yeha swara] Friedrich Max Mller, The Hymns of the Rigveda, with Sayana's commentary London, 1849-7, 2nd ed. 4 vols., Oxford, 1890-92. PDF format.

Translation

Ralph Griffith, The Rig Veda 1895, full text, (online at sacred-texts.com) English translation based on Sayana and Wilson, full text online pdf ascii, with diacritics - by Keith Briggs

Interpretation

Rig Veda (Sri Aurobindo Kapali Sastry Institute) [hide]

vde

The Rigveda
Mandalas 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Deities Rivers Rishis Devas (Agni Indra Soma Ushas Mitra Varuna) Asuras (Vrtra) Visvedevas Maruts Ashvins Sapta Sindhu Nadistuti Sarasvati Sindhu Sarayu Ras

Saptarishi (Gritsamada Vishvamitra Vamadeva Atri Angiras Bharadvaja Vasishta) Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda" Categories: Rig Veda | Vedas | Sanskrit texts | Hindu texts | Sanskrit words and phrases | Memory of the World Register Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from November 2008 | Wikipedia articles needing page number citations | Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages | Articles containing Sanskrit language text | All pages needing cleanup | Wikipedia articles needing clarification from November 2008 | All accuracy disputes | Articles with disputed statements from May 2009
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Yajurveda
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Hindu scriptures

Vedas Rigveda Yajurveda Samaveda Atharvaveda Divisions Samhita Brahmana Aranyaka Upanishad Upanishad Aitareya Brihadaranyaka Isha Taittiriya Chandogya Kena Maitri Mundaka Mandukya Katha Kaushitaki Prashna Shvetashvatara

Vedanga Shiksha Chandas Vyakarana Nirukta Jyotisha Kalpa Itihasa Mahabharata Ramayana Other scriptures Smriti ruti Bhagavad Gita Purana Manu Smriti Agama Pancharatra Tantra Akilathirattu Stra Stotra Dharmashastra Divya Prabandha Tevaram Ramacharitamanas Yoga Vasistha
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The Yajurveda (Sanskrit yajurveda, a tatpurusha compound of yajus "sacrificial formula', + veda "knowledge") is the third of the four canonical texts of Hinduism, the Vedas. By some, it is estimated to have been composed between 1,400 and 1000 BCE, the Yajurveda 'Samhita', or 'compilation', contains the liturgy (mantras) needed to perform the sacrifices of the religion of the Vedic period, and the added Brahmana and Shrautasutra add information on the interpretation and on the details of their performance.

Contents
[hide]

1 Recensions o 1.1 Shukla Yajurveda o 1.2 Krishna Yajurveda 2 Legend 3 References 4 Literature 5 See also 6 External links

[edit] Recensions

There are two primary versions or Samhitas of the Yajurveda: Shukla (white) and Krishna (black). Both contain the verses necessary for rituals, but the Krishna Yajurveda includes the Brahmana prose discussions within the Samhita, while the Shukla Yajurveda has separately a Brahmana text, the Shatapatha Brahmana.

[edit] Shukla Yajurveda

There are two (nearly identical) shakhas or recensions of the Shukla (White) Yajurveda, both known as Vajasaneyi-Samhita (VS):

Vajasaneyi Madhyandiniya (VSM), originally of Bihar Vajasaneyi Kanva of originally of Kosala (VSK)

The former is popular in North India, Gujarat, parts of Maharashtra (north of Nashik) and thus commands a numerous following. The Kanva Shakha is popular in parts of Maharashtra (south of Nasik), Orissa, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Sureshvaracharya, one of the four main disciples of Jagadguru Adi Shankara, is said to have followed the Kanva shakha. The Guru himself followed the Taittiriya Shakha with the Apastamba Kalpasutra. The Vedic rituals of the Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam, the second biggest temple in India, are performed according to the Kanva shakha. Raghu vamsam; Dasaratha and Sri Rama's clan follows the Shukla Yajurveda branch. The White Yajurveda has two Upanishads associated with it: the Isha Vasya and the Brihadaranyaka Upanishads. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is the most voluminous of all Upanishads. The VS has forty chapters or adhyayas (but 41 in Orissa), containing the formulas used with the following rituals: 1.-2.: New and Full Moon sacrifices 3.: Agnihotra 4.-8.: Somayajna 9.-10.: Vajapeya and Rajasuya, two modifications of the Soma sacrifice 11.-18.: construction of altars and hearths, especially the Agnicayana 19.-21.: Sautramani, a ritual originally counteracting the effects of excessive Somadrinking 22.-25.: Ashvamedha 26.-29.: supplementary formulas for various rituals 30.-31.: Purushamedha 32.-34.: Sarvamedha 35.: Pitriyajna 36.-39.: Pravargya 40.: the final adhyaya is the famous Isha Upanishad The VSM was edited and published by Weber (London and Berlin, 1852), and translated into English by Ralph T. H. Griffith (Benares, 1899).

[edit] Krishna Yajurveda

There are four recensions of the Krishna ("black") Yajurveda:

Taittirya sahita (TS) originally of Panchala Maitrayani sahita (MS) originally of the area south of Kurukshetra Caraka-Katha sahita (KS) originally of Madra and Kurukshetra Kapihala-Katha sahita (KapS) of the southern Panjab, Bahika

Each of the recensions has or had a Brahmana associated with it, and most of them also have associated Shrautasutras, Grhyasutras, Aranyakas, Upanishads and Pratishakhyas. The Taittiriya Shakha: The best known and best preserved of these recensions is the TS, named after Tittiri, a pupil of Yaska. It consists of 7 books or kandas, subdivided in chapters or prapathakas, further subdivided into individual sections (anuvakas). Some individual hymns in this Samhita have gained particular importance in Hinduism; e.g. TS 4.5 and TS 4.7 constitute the Rudram Chamakam, while 1.8.6.i is the Shaivaite Tryambakam mantra. The beejas bhr bhuva suva prefixed to the (rigvedic) Savitur Gayatri mantra are also from the Yajurveda. The Taittiriya recension of the Black Yajurveda is the shakha now most prevalent in southern India. Among the followers of this Shakha, the Apastamba Sutras are the common. The Taittiriya Shakha consists of Taittiriya Samhita (having seven kandas), Taittiriya Brahmana (having three kandas), Taittiriya Aranyaka (having seven prashnas) (See Aranyaka Literature), Taittiriya Upanishad (having three prashnas or vallis - Shiksha valli, Ananda valli and Bhrigu valli) and the Mahanarayana Upanishad. The Taittiriya Upanishad and Mahanarayana Upanishad are considered to be the seventh, eighth, ninth and tenth prashnas of the Aranyaka. The words prapathaka and kanda (meaning sections) are interchangeably used in Vedic literature. Prashna and valli refer to sections of the Aranyaka. There is another Short tract apart from the above and that is commonly known as Ekagni Kanda which mainly consists of mantra-s used in the marriage and other rituals. Three recensions have been edited and published: the Taittiriya by Albrecht Weber in "Indische Studien", XI, XII (Berlin, 1871-72), the Maitrayani by Leopold von Schroeder (Leipzig, 1881-86) and the Kathaka by von Schroeder (Leipzig, 1900-09). Translations of the Taittiriya Samhita into English were composed by A. B. Keith (Oxford 1913) and Devi Chand.

[edit] Legend
According to tradition, the vedic seer Yajnavalkya studied the Yajurveda collection under the tutelage of sage Vaishampayana maternal uncle of Yajnavalkya. Yajnavalkya's birth was with a purpose as purported by Gods. He was an Ekasandhigrhi, meaning he learnt anything with just once teaching. The two came to have serious differences in interpretation. On one occasion, Vaishampayana was so enraged that he demanded the return of all the knowledge he had imparted to Yajnavalkya. Yajnavalkya returned in indignation or (literally vomited) all the knowledge he had learnt. The other disciples of Vaishampayana, eager to receive this knowledge, assumed the form of tittiri birds and

absorbed while being recited during the return (or ate the knowledge). Thus, that knowledge came to be called the Taittiriya Samhita (a derivation of tittiri). After having regurgitated the knowledge acquired from his teacher, Yajnavalkya worshipped Surya (the Sun God) and acquired new knowledge directly from Narayana who taught the Shukla Yajurveda taking the shape of a stallion (vji-rpa).

[edit] References [edit] Literature

Ralph Thomas Hotchkin Griffith, The Texts of the White Yajurveda. Translated with a Popular Commentary (1899). Devi Chand, The Yajurveda. Sanskrit text with English translation. Third thoroughly revised and enlarged edition (1980). The Sanhit of the Black Yajur Veda with the Commentary of Mdhava Achrya, Calcutta (Bibl. Indica, 10 volumes, 1854-1899) Kumar, Pushpendra, Taittiriya Brahmanam (Krsnam Yajurveda), 3 vols., Delhi (1998).

[edit] See also

Samaveda
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Vedas Rigveda Yajurveda Samaveda Atharvaveda Divisions Samhita Brahmana Aranyaka

Upanishad Upanishad Aitareya Brihadaranyaka Isha Taittiriya Chandogya Kena Maitri Mundaka Mandukya Katha Kaushitaki Prashna Shvetashvatara Vedanga Shiksha Chandas Vyakarana Nirukta Jyotisha Kalpa Itihasa Mahabharata Ramayana Other scriptures Smriti ruti Bhagavad Gita Purana Manu Smriti Agama Pancharatra Tantra Akilathirattu Stra Stotra Dharmashastra Divya Prabandha Tevaram Ramacharitamanas Yoga Vasistha
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The Samaveda (Sanskrit: , smaveda, from sman "melody" + veda "knowledge" ), is second (in the usual order) of the four Vedas, the ancient core Hindu scriptures. Its earliest parts are believed to date from 1000 BC and it ranks next in sanctity and liturgical importance to the Rigveda. It consists of a collection (samhita) of hymns, portions of hymns, and detached verses, all but 75 taken from the Rigveda, to be sung, using specifically indicated melodies called Samagana, by Udgatar priests at sacrifices in which the juice of the Soma plant, clarified and mixed with milk and other ingredients, is offered in libation to various deities. The verses have been transposed and re-arranged, without reference to their original order, to suit the rituals in which they were to be employed. There are frequent variations from the text of the Rigveda that are in some cases glosses but in others offer an older

pronunciation than that of the Rigveda (such as [ai] for common [e]). When sung the verses are further altered by prolongation, repetition and insertion of stray syllables (stobha), as well as various modulations, rests and other modifications prescribed in the song-books (Ganas). Samaveda's Upaveda (technical manual) is Gndharvaveda that deals not only with the topics of music but also of dance and theatre.

Contents
[hide]

1 Recensions 2 Notes 3 See also 4 Books 5 External links

[edit] Recensions
R. T. H. Griffith says that there are three recensions of the text of the Samaveda Samhita:[1]

the Kauthuma recension is current in Gujarat, and since a few decades in Darbhanga, Bihar, the Jaiminiya in the Carnatic and Kerala, and the Ryanya in the Maharatta country.

While the Kauthuma recension has been published (Samhita, Brahmana, Shrautasutra and ancillary Sutras, mainly by the late B.R. Sharma), parts of the Jaiminiya tradition remain unpublished [2]. There is an edition of the first part of the Samhita by W. Caland [3] and of the Brahmana by Raghu Vira and Lokesh Chandra [4], as well as the neglected Upanishad [5] , but only parts of the Shrautasutra. The song books remain unpublished [6] and the tradition is rapidly fading. However, an edition is now being prepared by some well-known Samaveda specialists.

[edit] Notes
1. ^ Griffith, R. T. H. The Smaveda Sahit. p. vi. op. cit. 2. ^ A. Parpola. The literature and study of the Jaiminya Smaveda. In retrospect and prospect. Studia Orientalia XLIII:6. Helsinki 1973 3. ^ W. Caland, Die Jaiminya-Sahit mit einer Einleitung ber die Smavedaliteratur. Breslau 1907 4. ^ Raghu Vira and Lokesh Chandra. 1954. Jaiminya-Brhmaa of the Smaveda. (Sarasvati-Vihara Series 31.) Nagpur. 2nd revised ed., Delhi 1986

5. ^ H. Oertel. The Jaiminya or Talavakra Upaniad Brhmaa. Text, translation, and notes. JAOS 16,1895, 79-260 6. ^ A. Parpola. The decipherment of the Samavedic notation of the Jaiminyas. Finnish Oriental Society 1988

[edit] See also

Hinduism Vedas Historical Vedic religion

[edit] Books

The Samaveda has been edited and published by Theodor Benfey (Leipzig, 1848, with a German translation) and by Satyavrata Samashrami in Bibl. Ind. (Calcutta, 1873). An English translation is due to Griffith (Benares, 1893). A translation in Hindi by Mridul Kirti called "Samveda Ka Hindi Padyanuvad" has also been published recently. Griffith, Ralph T. H. The Smaveda Sahit. Text, Translation, Commentary & Notes in English. Translated by Ralph T. H. Griffith. First published 1893; Revised and enlarged edition, enlarged by Nag Sharan Singh and Surendra Pratap, 1991 (Nag Publishers: Delhi, 1991) ISBN 81-7081-244-5. This edition provides the text in Devanagari with full metrical marks needed for chanting.

Atharvaveda
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Vedas Rigveda Yajurveda Samaveda

Atharvaveda Divisions Samhita Brahmana Aranyaka Upanishad Upanishad Aitareya Brihadaranyaka Isha Taittiriya Chandogya Kena Maitri Mundaka Mandukya Katha Kaushitaki Prashna Shvetashvatara Vedanga Shiksha Chandas Vyakarana Nirukta Jyotisha Kalpa Itihasa Mahabharata Ramayana Other scriptures Smriti ruti Bhagavad Gita Purana Manu Smriti Agama Pancharatra Tantra Akilathirattu Stra Stotra Dharmashastra Divya Prabandha Tevaram Ramacharitamanas Yoga Vasistha
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The Atharvaveda (Sanskrit: , atharvaveda, a tatpurusha compound of atharvan, an ancient Rishi, and veda meaning "knowledge") is a sacred text of Hinduism, and one of the four Vedas, often called the "fourth Veda". According to tradition, the Atharvaveda was mainly composed by two groups of rishis known as the Atharvanas and the Angirasa, hence its oldest name is tharvgirasa. In the Late Vedic Gopatha Brahmana, it is attributed to the Bhrigu and Angirasa. Additionally, tradition ascribes parts to other rishis, such as Kauika, Vasiha and Kayapa. There are two surviving recensions (khs), known as aunakya (AVS) and Paippalda (AVP).

Contents
[hide]

1 Status 2 Recensions 3 Dating 4 Divisions and issues of note 5 Editions 6 Recitation Style of the Atharva Veda 7 Notes 8 References

[edit] Status
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The Atharvaveda, while undoubtedly belonging to the core Vedic corpus, in some ways represents an independent parallel tradition to that of the Rigveda and Yajurveda. It incorporates much of early traditions of healing and magic that are paralleled in other IndoEuropean literatures. There are striking parallels with Hittite and Germanic sorcery stanzas[citation needed]. The Atharva Veda is less predominant than other Vedas as it is little used in solemn (Shrauta) ritual. The largely silent Brahmn priest observes the procedures of the ritual and 'heals' it with two mantras and pouring of ghee when a mistake occurs. Though an early text, its status has been ambiguous, due to its magical character. Although it is stated that the Gayatri mantra used in Atharva Veda is different from other three Vedas. A special initiation of the Gayatri is required to learn the Atharva Veda[citation needed] .But so far many vedic schools are teaching the Atharva Veda without the Upanayanam.Few Vidwan's in Atharva Veda state that they never came across such initiations before learning atharva veda.More over we cant find any Gayatree Mantra in atharva veda(Shaunaka Shaka)but we find Mantra at the end of the 19 Canto which praises Goddess gayatri. The Atharvaveda Parishishtas Pariias (appendices) state that priests of the Mauda and Jalada schools of the Atharvaveda should be avoided, or strict discipline should be followed as per the rules and regulations set by the Atharva Veda. It is even stated that women associated with Atharvan may suffer from abortions if pregnant women remain while the chants for warfare are pronounced.[citation needed]. The Atharvaveda is considered by many[citation needed] to be as dark and secret knowledge, pertaining to the spirits and the afterlife. In the Mahabharata, when the Pandavas are exiled

to the forests for thirteen years, Bhima, being frustrated, suggests to Yudhisthira that they consult the Atharvaveda, and "shrink time, and hereby compress thirteen years to thirteen days..."

[edit] Recensions
The Caraavyuha (attributed to Shaunaka) lists nine shakhas, or schools, of the Atharvaveda:[1] 1. paippalda 2. stauda 3. mauda 4. aunakya 5. jjala 6. jalada 7. kuntap 8. brahmavada 9. devadara 10. craavaidy Of these, only the aunakya (AVS) and the Paippalda (AVP) recensions have survived. Both have some later additions, but the core Paippalda text is considered earlier than the aunakya. Often in corresponding hymns, the two recensions have different verse orders, or each has additional verses not in the other. Sahitvidhi, ntikalpa and Nakatrakalpa are some of the five kalpa texts adduced to the aunakya tradition and not separate schools of their own. Two main post-Samhita texts associated with the AV are the Vaitna Stra and the Kauika Stra. The Vaitanasutra deals with the participation of the Atharvaveda priest (brahmn) in the Shrauta ritual while the Kauikastra contains many applications of Atharvaveda mantras in healing and magic. This serves the same purpose as the vidhna of the Rigveda and is of great value in studying the application of the AV text in Vedic times. Several Upanishads also are associated with the AV, but appear to be relatively late additions to the tradition. The most important of these are the muaka and the prana Upanishads. The former contains an important reference to aunaka, the founder of the Shaunakiya shakha, while the latter is associated with the Paippalda shakha.

[edit] Dating
It is clear that the core text of the Atharvaveda is not particularly recent in the Vedic Sahit tradition, and falls within the classical Mantra period of Vedic Sanskrit at the end of 2nd millennium BC - roughly contemporary with the Yajurveda mantras, the Rigvedic Khilani, and the Smaveda.

The Atharvaveda is also the first Indic text to mention Iron (as yma ayas, literally "black metal"), so that scholarly consensus dates the bulk of the Atharvaveda hymns to the early Indian Iron Age, corresponding to the 12th to 10th centuries BC or the early Kuru kingdom. During its oral tradition, however, the text has been corrupted considerably more than some other Vedas, and it is only from comparative philology of the two surviving recensions that we may hope to arrive at an approximation of the original reading. Tradition suggests that Paippalda, one of the early collators, and Vaidharbh, one of the late contributors associated with the Atharvanic text, lived during the reign of prince Hiranyanabha of the Ikshvku dynasty.

[edit] Divisions and issues of note

The Shaunakiya text is clearly divided into four parts: Kas 1-7 deal with healing and general black and white magic that is to be applied in all situations of life, from the first tooth of a baby to regaining kingship. Kandas 8-12 constitute early speculation on the nature of the universe and of humans as well as on ritual, and are thus predecessors of the Upanishads. They continue the speculative tradition of some Rigvedic poets. Kandas 13-18 deal with issues of a householder's life, such as marriage, death and female rivalry, as well as with the ambiguous Vratyas on the fringes of society and with the Rohita sun as an embodiment of royal power. Kandas 19 is an addition and Kanda 20 is a very late addition containing Rgvedic hymns for the use of the Atharvanic Brahmanacchamsin priest as well as for the enigmatic Kuntapa ritual of the Kuru kingdom of Parikshit. The Paippalada text has a similar arrangement into four parts (Kandas 1-15, 16-17, 18, 19-20) with roughly the same contents. Jain and Buddhist texts are considerably more hostile to the Atharvaveda (they call it Aggvna or Ahavna Veda) than they are to the other Hindu texts.[citation needed] The AV is the first Indic text dealing with medicine. It identifies the causes of disease as living causative agents such as the yatudhna, the kimdin, the krimi or kmi and the durma. The Atharvans seek to kill them with a variety of incantations or plant based drugs in order to counter the disease (see XIX.34.9). This approach to disease is quite different compared to the trihumoral theory of Ayurveda. Remnants of the original atharvanic thought did persist, as can be seen in Suruta's medical treatise and in (Garua Pura, karma ka - chapter: 164). Here following the Atharvan theory, the Puric text suggests germs as a cause for leprosy. In the same chapter Suruta also expands on the role of helminths in disease. These two can be directly traced back to the Atharvaveda sahit. The hymn AV I.23-24 describes the disease leprosy and recommends the rajani auadhi for its treatment. From the description of the auadhi as black branching entity with dusky patches, it is very likely that is a lichen with antibiotic properties. Thus the AV may be one of the earliest texts to record uses of the antibiotic agents.

The Atharvaveda also informs about warfare. A variety of devices such as an arrow with a duct for poison (apskambha) and castor bean poison, poisoned net and hook traps, use of disease spreading insects and smoke screens[citation needed] find a place in the Atharvaveda sahita (eg. hymns IX .9, IX.10, the trisadi and nyrbudi hymns). These references to military practices and associated Katriya rites were what gave the Atharvaveda its reputation. In the Mahabharata there is a frequent comparison between weapons and the mantras of the heroes. Several regular and special rituals of the Aryans rya are a major concern of the Atharvaveda, just as in the three other Vedas. The major rituals covered by the AV are marriage in ka - XIV and the funeral in ka - XVIII. There are also hymns that are specific to rituals of the bhgu-agirasas, vrtyas and katriyas. One peculiar rite is the Visahi Vrata, performed with the mantras of the XVII ka in a spell against female rivals. The Vrtya rituals were performed by individuals who took on a seminomadic way of living and were generally roaming about in neighboring tribal territories to gain wealth in cattle by putting pressure on householders grihastha. Finally, there are some rituals aimed at the destruction of the enemies (Abhicrika hymns and rites), particularly found in chapters 1-7. While these support traditional negative views on the AV, in content they are mirrored by several other hymns from the Rig as well as the Yajues. Moreover, Abhicrika rites were an integral part of Vedic culture, as is amply attested in the brhmaa literature. Thus the Atharvaveda is fully within the classic Vedic fold, though it was more specific to certain Brahmn clans of priests. The development of the Abhichrika rites to their more "modern" form is clearly seen in the vidhna literature. The author of the gvidhna provides passing reference to the development of similar rites in the AV tradition (the references to the girasa Kritys). These rites reached their culmination in the Kauika Sutra and in some of the Pariias (appendices) of the atharvan literature. Philosophical excursions are found in books 8-12. One of the most spectacular expressions of philosophical thought is seen in the hymn XII.I, the Hymn to goddess Earth or the Pthiv Skta used in the grayana rite. The foundations of Vaieika Darana is expressed in the mantra XII.1.26 in which the 'atoms' (Psu) are described forming the stone, the stones agglutinating to form the rocks and the rocks held together to form the Earth. Early pantheistic thought is seen in the hymn X.7 that describes the common thread running through all manifest and nonmanifest existence as the skabha. This skabha is described as what poured out of the Hirayagarbha, that was the precursor of the complex world in a very simple form (X.7.28). (Hirayagarba = " The golden embryo, from which the Universe was formed.") This Skambha is Indra and Indra is the Skambha which describes all existence. The hymn also describes a pantheistic nature of the Vedic gods (X.7.38): skabha is the heat (tapa) that spreads through the universe (Bhuvana) as waves of water; the units of this spreading entity are the gods even as branches of one tree. This theme is repeatedly presented in various interpretations in later Hindu philosophies.

[edit] Editions
The Shaunakiya text was edited by Rudolf Roth and William Dwight Whitney (Berlin, 1856) and by Vishva Bandhu (Hoshiarpur, 196062). Translations into English were made by Ralph Griffith (2 vols, Benares 1897), D. Whitney (revised by Lanman, 2 vols, Cambridge, Mass. 1905), and M. Bloomfield (SBE Vol XLII); also see Bloomfield, "The Atharvaveda" in "Grundriss der Indoarischen Philologie", II (Strasburg, 1899). The bulk of the Paippalda text was edited by Leroy Carr Barret from 1905 to 1940 (book 6 by F. Edgerton, 1915) from a single Kashmirian rad manuscript (now in Tbingen). This edition is outdated, since various other manuscripts were subsequently discovered in Orissa. Some manuscripts are in the Orissa State Museum, but many manuscripts are in private possession, and are kept hidden by their owners. A few manuscripts were collected by Prof. Durgamohan Bhattacharya of Bengal by deceiving their owners, as told by his son Dipak Bhattacharya in 1968 (below), who describes the theft as valiant daredevilry: ... The knowledge of the villagers, in whose possession many important manuscripts remain, about their possession is often very hazy [...] Prof. Bhattacharya secured a manuscript from an illiterate Brahmin on promise of return ..."[2] Books 115 were edited by Durgamohan Bhattacharya (1997). There is a provisional (unpublished) edition of book 20 by Dipak Bhattacharya. Book 2 was edited and translated by Thomas Zehnder (1999) and book 5 by Alexander Lubotsky (2002), and books 6-7 by Arlo Griffiths (2004).

[edit] Recitation Style of the Atharva Veda

The current recitation style of this Veda mostly resembles the Rigvedic one. The Shaunaka Shaka of the Atharva Veda is recited in western Saurasthra, at Benares, Gokarna and, after a recent introduction from Benares, also in South India (Tirupati, Chidamabaram, etc). The Gokarna version follows the northern style, which resembles the way the Maharashtrians recite the Rigveda Samhita. In Varanasi, that derives its style from Gujarat, the way of recitation is little different. Similarly in South India, the Shaunaka Shaka is recited using the Rig Veda as a base, with minute variations in Kampa Svara. The Paippalada Atharvaveda is recited, though only in portions and without svara, in Orissa and some neighboring districts, while its Kashmir branch has been extinct for some centuries.

[edit] Notes
1. ^ Modak (1993) p.15 (footnote 8)

2. ^ Zehnder (1999), p.19. Bhattacarya (2007, p. lxxv) in a postscript assures that this account is misleading, asking "Why does Zehnder imagin deceipt of which there is no hint in my statemet? Is it a matter of common knowledge to Zehnder in connection with persons he is acquainted with? [...] We never thought in Zehnder's line. But later I discovered some documents testifying to the purchase of the manuscripts. Any Doubting Thomas may come and see them.

[edit] References

Dipak Bhattacharya, Paippalada-Samhita of the Atharvaveda Volume 2, The Asiatic Society (2007). Ralph Griffith, The Hymns of the Atharvaveda 1895-6, full text, (online at sacredtexts.com) Maurice Bloomfield, Hymns of the Atharva-veda, Sacred Books of the East, v. 42 (1897), selection, (online at sacred-texts.com) Alexander Lubotsky, Atharvaveda-Paippalada, Kanda Five Harvard College, (2002) Thomas Zehnder, Atharvaveda-Paippalada, Buch 2 Idstein, (1999) B.R. Modak, The Ancillary Literature of the Atharva-veda, Rashtriya Veda Vidya Pratishthan, New Delhi (1993) ISBN 81-215-0607-7

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Vedic period
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Map of northern India in the late Vedic period The Vedic Period (or Vedic Age) is the period during which the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of the Indo-Aryans, were being composed. Scholars place the Vedic period in the second and first millennia BCE continuing up to the 6th century BCE based on literary evidence. The associated culture, sometimes referred to as Vedic civilization, was centered in the northern and northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent. Its early phase saw the formation of various kingdoms of ancient India. In its late phase (from ca. 600 BCE), it saw the rise of the Mahajanapadas, and was succeeded by the Maurya Empire (from ca. 320 BCE), the golden age, classical age of Sanskrit literature, and the Middle kingdoms of India.

Contents
[hide]

1 Overview 2 Rigvedic period o 2.1 Political organization o 2.2 Society and economy 3 Vedic Religious Practices 4 The later Vedic period o 4.1 Kingdoms 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links

Overview
The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on text-internal details. Linguistically, the Vedic texts could be classified in five chronological strata: 1. Rigvedic: The Rigveda is by far the most archaic of the Vedic texts preserved, and it retains many common Indo-Iranian elements, both in language and in content, that are not present in any other Vedic texts. Its creation must have taken place over several centuries, and apart from that of the youngest books (first part of 1 and all of 10), would have been complete by 1000(?) BCE. Archaeologically, this period may correspond with the Gandhara Grave Culture, the Cemetery H culture of the Punjab and the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP) further east. There is no widely accepted archaeological or linguistic evidence of direct cultural continuity from the Indus Valley civilization.

2. Mantra language: This period includes both the mantra and prose language of the Atharvaveda (Paippalada and Shaunakiya), the Rigveda Khilani, the Samaveda Samhita (containing some 75 mantras not in the Rigveda), and the mantras of the Yajurveda. Many of these texts are largely derived from the Rigveda, but have undergone certain changes, both by linguistic change and by reinterpretation. Conspicuous changes include change of vishva "all" by sarva, and the spread of the kuru- verbal stem (for Rigvedic krno-). This is the time of the early Iron Age in north-western India, corresponding to the Black and Red Ware (BRW) culture, and the kingdom of the Kurus, dating from ca. the 10th century BCE. 3. Samhita prose: This period marks the beginning of the collection and codification of a Vedic canon. An important linguistic change is the complete loss of the injunctive. The Brahmana part ('commentary' on mantras and ritual) of the Black Yajurveda (MS, KS, TS) belongs to this period. Archaeologically, the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture from ca. 900 BCE corresponds, and the shift of the political center from the Kurus to the Pancalas on the Ganges. 4. Brahmana prose: The Brahmanas proper of the four Vedas belong to this period, as well as the Aranyakas, the oldest of the Upanishads (BAU, ChU, JUB) and the oldest Shrautasutras (BSS, VadhSS). 5. Sutra language: This is the last stratum of Vedic Sanskrit leading up to c. 500 BCE, comprising the bulk of the rauta and Grhya Sutras, and some Upanishads (e.g. KathU, MaitrU). All but the five prose Upanishads are post-Buddhist[1]). Videha (N. Bihar) as a third political center is established. 6. Epic and Paninian Sanskrit: The language of the Mahabharata and Ramayana epics, and the Classical Sanskrit described by Panini is considered post-Vedic, and belongs to the time after 500 BCE. Archaeologically, the rapid spread of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP) over all of northern India corresponds to this period. The earliest Vedanta, Gautama Buddha, and the Pali Prakrit dialect of Buddhist scripture belong to this period. Historical records set in only after the end of the Vedic period, and remain scarce throughout the Indian Middle Ages. The end of Vedic India is marked by linguistic, cultural and political changes. The grammar of Panini marks a final apex in the codification of Sutra texts, and at the same time the beginning of Classical Sanskrit. The invasion of Darius I of the Indus valley in the early 6th century BCE marks the beginning of outside influence, continued in the kingdoms of the Indo Greeks, new waves of immigration from 150 BCE (Abhira, Shaka), Kushan and ultimately the Islamic Sultans. The most important historical source of the geography of post-Vedic India is the 2nd century Greek historian Arrian whose report is based on the Mauryan time ambassador to Patna, Megasthenes.

Rigvedic period
See also Rigvedic tribes

The origin of the Vedic civilization and its relation to the Indus Valley civilization, IndoAryan migration and Gandhara Grave culture related cultures remains controversial and politically charged in Indian society, often leading to disputes on the history of Vedic culture. The Rigveda is primarily a collection of religious hymns, and allusions to, but not explanation of, various myths and stories, mainly in the younger books 1 and 10. The oldest hymns, probably in books 27, although some hold book 9, the Soma Mandala, to be even more ancient, contain many elements inherited from pre-Vedic, common Indo-Iranian society. Therefore, it is difficult to define the precise beginning of the "Rigvedic period", as it emerges seamlessly from the era preceding it. Also, due to the semi-nomadic nature of the society described, it cannot be easily localized, and in its earliest phase describes tribes that were essentially on the move. RigVedic Aryans have a lot in common with the Andronovo culture and the Mittanni kingdoms as well as with early Iranians. The Andronovo culture is believed to be the site of the first horse-drawn chariots.

Political organization
The grama (wagon train), vis and jana were political units of the early Vedic Aryans. A vish was a subdivision of a jana or "krishti", and a grama was a smaller unit than the other two. The leader of a grama was called gramani and that of a vish was called vishpati. The rashtra (polity) was governed by a rajan (chieftain, 'king'). The king is often referred to as gopa (protector) and occasionally as samrat (supreme ruler). He governed the people with their consent and approval. He was elected from a restricted class of 'royals' (rajanya). There were various types of meetings such as the vidhata or "Sabha". Gana was the nonmonarchial assembly that is a parallel one to the monarchial assemblies of that period headed by Jyestha the same was referred in Buddhist text named Jettaka. The Sabha, sitated outside of settlement, was restricted to the Vratyas, bands of roving Brahmins and Kshatriyas in search of cattle, with a common woman (pumscali) [2] while the vidatha was the potlatch-like ritual distribution of bounty [3]. The main duty of the king was to protect the tribe. He was aided by several functionaries, including the purohita (chaplain) and the senani (army chief; sena: army). The former not only gave advice to the ruler but also was his chariot driver and practiced spells and charms for success in war. Soldiers on foot (pattis) and on chariots (rathins), armed with bow and arrow, were common. The king employed spa (spies) and dutas (messengers). He collected taxes (originally ceremonial gifts, bali), from the people which he had to redistribute.

Society and economy

Ceramic goblet from Navdatoli, Malwa, 1300 BCE. The concept of varna (class) and the rules of marriage were rigid as is evident from Vedic verses (RV 10.90, W. Rau 1957). The status of the Brahmins and Kshatriyas was higher than that of the Vaishyas and Shudras. The Brahmins were specialized in creating poetry, preserving the sacred texts, and carrying out various types of rituals. Functioning as intellectual leadership, they also restricted social mobility between the varnas, as in the fields of science, war, literature, religion and the environment. The proper enunciation of verses in ritual was considered essential for prosperity and success in war and harvests. Kshatriyas amassed wealth (cattle), and many commissioned the performance of sacrifices. Kshatriyas helped in administering the polity, maintained the structure of society and the economy of a tribe, and helped in maintaining law and order. In the Early Vedic Period all the three upper classes Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas were considered as relatively equal Arya, but in the Later Vedic Age the Brahmins and Kshatriyas became upper class. The Vaishyas were pastoralists and farmers; the Shudras were the lower class; they included artisans and were meant to serve the upper three classes [4]. As the caste system became deep-rooted there were many restrictions and rules which were to be followed. Cattle were held in high esteem and frequently appear in Rigvedic hymns; goddesses were often compared to cows, and gods to bulls. Agriculture grew more prominent with time as the community gradually began to settle down in post-Rigvedic times. The economy was based on bartering with cattle and other valuables such as salt or metals. Families were patrilineal, and people prayed for the abundance of sons. The Society was strictly organized in a system of four varna (classes, to be distinguished from caste, jati)

Vedic Religious Practices

Main articles: Historical Vedic religion, Vedic astrology

The Vedic forms of belief are the precursor to modern Hinduism. Texts considered to date to the Vedic period are mainly the four Vedas, but the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and the older Upanishads as well as the oldest Shrautasutras are also considered to be Vedic. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the 16 or 17 Shrauta priests and the purohitas. The rishis, the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda, were considered inspired poets and seers (in post-Vedic times understood as "hearers" of an eternally existing Veda, rauta means "what is heard"). The mode of worship was performance of sacrifices which included the chanting of Rigvedic verses (see Vedic chant), singing of Samans and 'mumbling' of offering mantras (Yajus) . The priests executed rituals for the three upper classes (varna) of Vedic society, strictly excluding the Sudras. People offered for abundance of rain, cattle, sons, long life and gaining 'heaven'. The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were Indra, Agni (the sacrificial fire), and Soma and some deities of social order such as Mitra-Varuna, Aryaman, Bhaga and Amsa, further nature deities such as Surya (the Sun), Vayu (the wind), Prithivi (the earth). Goddesses included Ushas (the dawn), Prithvi and Aditi (the mother of the Aditya gods or sometimes the cow). Rivers, especially Saraswati, were also considered goddesses. Deities were not viewed as all-powerful. The relationship between humans and the deity was one of transaction, with Agni (the sacrificial fire) taking the role of messenger between the two. Strong traces of a common Indo-Iranian religion remain visible, especially in the Soma cult and the fire worship, both of which are preserved in Zoroastrianism. The Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) has parallels in the 2nd millennium BC Andronovo culture, in Rome and old Ireland, was continued in India until at least the 4th century AD and revived under Jay Singh in 1740 AD. Vedic religion evolved into the Hindu paths of Yoga and Vedanta, a religious path considering itself the 'essence' of the Vedas, interpreting the Vedic pantheon as a unitary view of the universe with 'God' (Brahman) seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of Ishvara and Brahman. These post-Vedic systems of thought, along with later texts like Upanishads, epics (namely Gita of Mahabharat), have been fully preserved and form the basis of modern Hinduism. The ritualistic traditions of Vedic religion are preserved in the conservative rauta tradition, in part with the exception of animal sacrifice, which was mostly abandoned by the higher castes by the end of the Vedic period, partly under the influence of the Buddhist and Jain religions, and their criticism of such practices[citation needed].

The later Vedic period

The transition from the early to the later Vedic period was marked by the emergence of agriculture as the dominant economic activity and a corresponding decline in the significance of cattle rearing. Several changes went hand in hand with this. For instance, several large kingdoms arose because of the increasing importance of land and long

distance trade. The late Vedic period, from ca. 500 BCE onward, more or less seamlessly blends into the period of the Middle kingdoms of India known from historical sources.

Kingdoms
The late Vedic period was marked by the rise of the sixteen Mahajanapadas referred to in some of the literature. The power of the king and the Kshatriyas greatly increased. Rulers gave themselves titles like ekarat (the one ruler), sarvabhauma (ruler of all the earth) and chakravartin ('who moves the wheel'). The kings performed sacrifices like rajasuya (royal consecration), vajapeya (including a chariot race) and, for supreme dominance over other kings, the ashvamedha (horse sacrifice). The coronation ceremony was a major social occasion. Several functionaries, in addition to the purohita and the senani, took part. The role of the people in political decision making and the status of the Vaishyas as such was greatly decreased.

See also

Vedic science Indus Valley Civilization History of India

Notes
1. ^ V.A. Gunasekara, http://www.budsas.org/ebud/ebdha255.htm 2. ^ H.Falk, Bruderschaft udn Wrfelspiel, Freiburg 1986 3. ^ F.B.J. Kuiper, Selected Writings on Indian Linguistics and Philology, pp. 406417 4. ^ W. Rau, Staat und Gesellschaft, 1957

References

Bokonyi, S. 1997b. "Horse Remains from the Prehistoric Site of Surkotada, Kutch, Late 3rd Millennium BC.", South Asian Studies 13: 297-307. Kocchar, Rajesh, The Vedic people: their history and geography, Hyderabad: Orient Longmans (1999). Lal, B.B. 2005. The Homeland of the Aryans. Evidence of Rigvedic Flora and Fauna & Archaeology, New Delhi, Aryan Books International. Michael Witzel, Tracing the Vedic dialects in Dialectes dans les litteratures IndoAryennes ed. Caillat, Paris, 1989, 97265. Michael Witzel, The Pleiades and the Bears viewed from inside the Vedic texts, EVJS Vol. 5 (1999), issue 2 (December) [1].

Further reading

Brahmana
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Hindu scriptures

Vedas Rigveda Yajurveda Samaveda Atharvaveda Divisions Samhita Brahmana Aranyaka Upanishad Upanishad Aitareya Brihadaranyaka Isha Taittiriya Chandogya Kena Maitri Mundaka Mandukya Katha Kaushitaki Prashna Shvetashvatara Vedanga Shiksha Chandas Vyakarana Nirukta Jyotisha Kalpa Itihasa Mahabharata Ramayana Other scriptures

Smriti ruti Bhagavad Gita Purana Manu Smriti Agama Pancharatra Tantra Akilathirattu Stra Stotra Dharmashastra Divya Prabandha Tevaram Ramacharitamanas Yoga Vasistha
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The Brhma as (Devanagari: ) are part of the Hindu ruti literature. They are commentaries on the four Vedas, detailing the proper performance of rituals. Each Vedic shakha (school) had its own Brahmana, and it is not known how many of these texts existed during the Mahajanapadas period. A total of 19 Brahmanas are extant at least in their entirety: two associated with the Rigveda, six with the Yajurveda, ten with the Samaveda and one with the Atharvaveda. Additionally, there are a handful of fragmentarily preserved texts. They vary greatly in length; the edition of the Shatapatha Brahmana fills five volumes of the Sacred Books of the East, while the Vamsa Brahmana can be printed on a single page. The Brahmanas were seminal in the development of later Indian thought and scholarship, including Hindu philosophy, predecessors of Vedanta, law, astronomy, geometry, linguistics (Panini), the concept of Karma, or the stages in life such as brahmacarya, grihastha and eventually, sannyasi. Some Brahmanas contain sections that are Aranyakas or Upanishads in their own right. The language of the Brahmanas is a separate stage of Vedic Sanskrit, younger than the text of the samhitas (the mantra text of the Vedas proper) but for the most part older than the text of the Sutras. It dates to the Iron Age, or about the 9th, 8th and 7th centuries BC, with some of the younger Brahmanas (such as the Shatapatha Brahmana) overlapping with the Sutra period, dating to about the 6th century BC.[1] Historically, this corresponds to the emergence of great kingdoms or Mahajanapadas out of the earlier tribal kingdoms during the later Vedic period.

Contents
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1 List of Brahmanas o 1.1 Rigveda o 1.2 Yajurveda o 1.3 Samaveda

o 1.4 Atharvaveda 2 References

3 External links

[edit] List of Brahmanas

Each Brahmana is associated with one of the four Vedas, and within the tradition of that Veda with a particular shakha or school:

[edit] Rigveda

Shakala shakha: Aitareya Brahmana, rarely also known as Ashvalayana Brahmana (AB)[2] Bashkala shakha: Kaushitaki Brahmana (also called khyana Brahmana) (KB, nkhB)[3]

[edit] Yajurveda

In the Black Yajurveda, the Brahmana text is integrated in the samhita. o Maitrayani Samhita (MS) and an Aranyaka (= accented Maitr. Up.) o (Caraka)Katha Samhita (KS); the Katha school has an additional fragmentary Brahmana (KathB) and Aranyaka (KathA) o Kapisthalakatha Samhita (KpS), and a few fragments of its Brahmana o Taittiriya Samhita (TS). The Taittiriya school has an additional Taittiriya Brahmana (TB) and Aranyaka (TA) as well as the late Vedic Vadhula Anvakhyana (Br.) White Yajurveda o Vajasaneyi Madhyandina: Shatapatha Brahmana, Madhyadina recension (SBM) o Kanva: Shatapatha Brahmana, Kanva recension (SBK)

[edit] Samaveda

Kauthuma: Tandyamaha or Pacavia Brahmana (PB), dvia Brahmana (advB) Samavidhana Brahmana Arseya Brahmana Devatadhyaya or Daivata Brahmana Shakdwipiya or Mag Brahman Mantra or Chandogya Brahmana (MB) Samhitopanisad Brahmana Vamsa Brahmana. The text consists of one short chapter, detailing successions of teachers and disciples.[4] Jaiminiya Brahmana (JB)

Jaiminiya Arseya Brahmana Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana (JUB)

[edit] Atharvaveda

Paippalada: Gopatha Brahmana

[edit] References
1. ^ Michael Witzel, Tracing the Vedic dialects in Dialectes dans les litteratures IndoAryennes ed. Caillat, Paris, 1989, 97265. 2. ^ Theodor Aufrecht, Das Aitareya Braahmana. Mit Auszgen aus dem Commentare von Sayanacarya und anderen Beilagen, Bonn 1879; TITUS etext 3. ^ ed. E. R. Sreekrishna Sarma, Wiesbaden 1968. 4. ^ "Vedic Samhitas and Brahmanas - A popular, brief introduction". http://www.dharmicscriptures.org/Vedic_SB_Intro.doc.

Arthur Anthony Macdonell (1900). "Brhmaas". A History of Sanskrit Literature. New York: D. Appleton and company. Arthur Berriedale Keith, Rigveda Brahmanas (1920); reprint: Motilal Banarsidass (1998) ISBN 978-8120813595. A. C. Banerjea, Studies in the Brhmaas, Motilal Banarsidass (1963) E. R. Sreekrishna Sarma, Kautaki-Brhmaa, Wiesbaden (1968, comm. 1976). Dumont,P.E. [translations of sections of TB 3 ]. PAPS 92 (1948), 95 (1951), 98 (1954), 101 (1957), 103 (1959), 104 (1960), 105 (1961), 106 (1962), 107 (1963), 108 (1964), 109 (1965), 113 (1969). Caland, W. ber das Vadhulasutra; Eine zweite / dritte / vierte Mitteilung ber das Vadhulasutra. [= Vadhula Sutra and Brahmana fragments (Anvakhyana)]. Acta Orientalia 1, 3-11; AO II, 142-167; AO IV, 1-41, 161-213; AO VI, 97-241.1922. 1924. 1926. 1928. [= Kleine Schriften, ed. M. WItzel. Stuttgart 1990, pp. 268-541] Caland. W. Pancavimsa-Brahmana. The Brahmana of twenty five chapters. (Bibliotheca Indica 255.) Calcutta 1931. Repr. Delhi 1982. Bolle, W. B. Sadvinsa-Brahmana. Introd., transl., extracts from the commentaries and notes. Utrecht 1956. Bodewitz, H. W. Jaiminiya Brahmana I, 1-65. Translation and commentary with a study of the Agnihotra and Pranagnihotra. Leiden 1973. Bodewitz, H. W. The Jyotistoma Ritual. Jaiminiya Brahmana I,66-364. Introduction, translation and commentary. Leiden 1990. Gaastra, D. Das Gopatha Brahmana, Leiden 1919 Bloomfield, M. The Atharvaveda and the Gopatha-Brahmana (Grundriss der IndoArischen Philologie und Altertumskunde II.1.b) Strassburg 1899

[edit] External links

GRETIL etexts

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DisclaAranyaka
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Jump to: navigation, search This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please improve this article if you can. (February 2008)
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Hindu scriptures

Vedas Rigveda Yajurveda Samaveda Atharvaveda Divisions Samhita Brahmana Aranyaka Upanishad Upanishad Aitareya Brihadaranyaka Isha Taittiriya Chandogya Kena Maitri Mundaka Mandukya Katha Kaushitaki Prashna Shvetashvatara Vedanga Shiksha Chandas Vyakarana Nirukta Jyotisha Kalpa Itihasa Mahabharata Ramayana Other scriptures Smriti ruti Bhagavad Gita Purana Manu Smriti Agama Pancharatra Tantra Akilathirattu Stra Stotra Dharmashastra Divya Prabandha Tevaram Ramacharitamanas Yoga Vasistha
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The Aranyakas (Sanskrit rayaka) are part of the Hindu ruti, the four Vedas; these religious texts were composed in Late Vedic Sanskrit typical of the Brahmanas and early Upanishads; indeed, they frequently form part of either the Brahmanas or the Upanishads. "Aranyaka" (rayaka) means "belonging to the wilderness" (araya), that is, as Taitt.Ar.2 says, "from where one cannot see the roofs of the settlement". They contain Brahmana-style discussion of especially dangerous rituals such as the Mahavrata and Pravargya, and therefore had to be learned in the wilderness. They have also served as receptacles of later additions to the Vedic corpus. However, they have nothing to do, as later tradition has it, with Sannyasins or Vanaprasthas and they are not of "mystical" nature but very close to the Brahmanas proper.

Contents
[hide]

1 The Wilderness Books o 1.1 Aitareya Aranyaka o 1.2 Taittiriya-Aranyaka o 1.3 Shankhayana Aranyaka o 1.4 Brihad Aranyaka 2 Rahasya Brahmanas 3 References 4 References 5 See also

[edit] The Wilderness Books

The Aranyakas discuss dangerous sacrifices, in the style of the Brahmanas and thus are primarily concerned with the proper performance of ritual. The Aranyakas are 'secret' in the sense that they are restricted to a particular class of rituals that nevertheless were frequently included in the Vedic curriculum that was primarily conveyed individually from teacher to student. The Aranyakas are associated with and named after individual Vedic shakhas.

Aitareya Aranyaka belongs to the Shakala Shakha of Rigveda Kaushitaki Aranyaka belongs to the Kaushitaki and Shankhayana Shakhas of Rigveda Taittiriya Aranyaka belongs to the Taittiriya Shakha of Krishna-Yajurveda Maitrayaniya Aranyaka belongs to the Maitrayaniya Shakha of Krishna-Yajurveda Katha Aranyaka belongs to the (Caraka)Katha Shakha of the Krishna-Yajurveda[1] Brihad-Aranyaka in the Madhyandina and the Kanva versions. The M version has 8 sections, of which the last 6 are the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.

Talavakara Aranyaka or Jaiminiya Upanisadbrahmana belongs to the Talavakara or Jaiminiya Shakha of Samaveda Aranyaka Samhita The Purvarchika of the Samaveda Samhitas have a section called the 'Aranyaka Samhita' on which the Aranyagana Samans are sung. The Atharvaveda has no surviving Aranyaka, though one may regard the Gopatha Brahmana as its Aranyaka, a remnant of a larger Atharva (Paippalada) Brahmana.

[edit] Aitareya Aranyaka

There are five chapters each of which is even considered as a full Aranyaka. The first one deals with the regimen known as Mahaa-vrata. The explanations are both ritualistic as well as absolutistic. The second one has six chapters of which the first three are about Praana-vidyaa meaning, Prana, the Vital Air that constitutes the life-breath of a living body is also the life-breath of all mantras, all vedas and all vedic declarations (cf. 2.2.2 of aitareya Aranyaka). It is in this portion of the Aranyaka that one finds specific statements about how one who follows the vedic injunctions and performs the sacrifices goes to become the God of Fire, or the Sun or Air and how one who transgresses the vedic prescriptions is born into lower levels of being, namely, as birds and reptiles. In Aitareya Aranyaka, Praana is worshipped in the form of the Rishis: Praana is Vishva mitra, 'Vishwa' indicates all the universe is the object of experience. Praana is Vama deva, 'Vaama' indicates the respectfull attitude towards those to be worshipped and served. Praana is Atri Maharishi, Traayate indicates the protection from sin. Praana is Bharad vaja, Bhara denotes supporting and the Vaaja indicates the mortal body, made mobile by the resident praana. Praana is Vash ishta, Vas indicates the dwelling in this body of the senses made possible by praana. The 4th, 5th and 6th chapters of this second Aranyaka constitute what is known as Aitareya Upanishad. The third Aranyaka in this chain of Aranyakas is also known as Samhitopanishad. This elaborates on the various ways like pada-paatha, krama-paatha, etc. -- of reciting the Vedas and the nuances of the svaras. The fourth and the fifth Aranyaka are technical and dwell respectively on the mantras known as MahaanaamnI and the yajna known as Madhyandina.

[edit] Taittiriya-Aranyaka

There are ten chapters, of which, one to six form the Aranyaka proper. Chapter 1, is the famous Surya namaskara chapter. Chapter 2, describes the five maha-yajnas that every brahmin has to do daily. The sacred thread, the yajnopavita, of the brahmin is extolled and elaborated here. The sandhya worship, the worship of the manes, worship of the brahman through the brahma-yajna, the cleansing homa-sacrifice or 'kushmanda-homa' are all treated in detail. In this chapter the word shramana is used (2-7-1) in the meaning of a doer of penance (tapasvii); this word came to mean in later times, a recluse of the Buddhist and Jain religions. Chapter 3, treats technicalities of several other homas and yajnas. Chapter 4, treats technicalities of homas and yajnas and has sections on mantras that may be used for averting (or causing !) havoc. Chapter 5, treats the yajnas in an academic analysis. Chapter 6, records the pitr-medha mantras, recited on the occasion of, the rituals for the disposal of the dead body. Chapter 7, is the first part of the well-known Taittiriya Upanishad. Chapter 8, is the second part of the well-known Taittiriya Upanishad. Chapter 9, is the third part of the well-known Taittiriya Upanishad. Chapter 10, is the Maha Naryana Upanishad, with several important mantras culled from the three vedas.

[edit] Shankhayana Aranyaka

There are fifteen chapters: Chapters 1-2 deal with the Mahavrata. Chapters 3-6 constitute the Kaushitaki Upanishad. Chapters 7-8 are known as a Samhitopanishad. Chapter 9 presents the greatness of Prana. Chapter 10 deals with the esoteric implications of the agnihotra ritual. All divine personalities are inherent in the Purusha, just as Agni in speech, Vayu in Prana, the Sun in the eyes, the Moon in the mind, the directions in the ears and water in the potency. The one who knows this, says the Aranyaka, and in the strength of that conviction goes about

eating, walking, taking and giving, satisfies all the gods and what he offers in the fire reaches those gods in heaven. (cf.10-1). Chapter 11 prescribes several antidotes in the form of rituals for warding off death and sickness. It also details the effects of dreams. Chapter 12 elaborates the fruits of prayer. Chapter 13 treats more philosophical matters and says one must first attitudinally discard ones bodily attachment and then carry on the shravana, manana and nidhidhyasana and practise all the disciplines of penance, faith, self-control etc. Chapter 14 gives just two mantras. One extols the I am Brahman mantra and says it is the apex of all Vedic mantras. The second mantra declares that one who does not get the meaning of mantras but only recites vedic chants is like an animal which does not know the value of the weight it carries. Chapter 15 gives a long genealogy of spiritual teachers from Brahma down to GunaSankhayana.

[edit] Brihad Aranyaka

This is the famous Upanishad of that name. The Self is the subject of discussion here from all aspects. For a complete discussion see Brihad-Aranyaka Upanishad.

[edit] Rahasya Brahmanas

There is also a certain continuity of the Aranyakas from the Brahmanas in the sense that the Aranyakas go into the meanings of the 'secret' rituals not detailed in the Brahmanas. Later tradition sees this as a leap into subtlety that provides the reason for Durgacharya in his commentary on the Nirukta to say that the Aranyakas are Rahasya Brahmana , that is, the Brahmana of secrets.

[edit] References

Vaidik Sahitya aur Samskriti ka swarup (in Hindi) by Om Prakash Pande. Vishwa Prakashan (A unit of Wylie Eastern) 1994, New Delhi .ISBN 81-7328-037-1 Aitareya Aranyaka English Translation by A. B. Keith, London 1909 o Arthur Berriedale Keith, The Aitareya Aranyaka: Edited from the manuscripts in the India Office and the Library of the Royal Asiatic Society with introduction, translation, notes, ... unpublished of the Sankhayana Aranyaka, Eastern Book Linkers (1995) ISBN 81-86339-14-0 Aitareya Aranyaka A Study . Dr. Suman Sharma. Eastern Book Linkers. New Delhi 1981 Taittiriya Aranyaka, with Sayana Bhashya . Anandashram, Pune 1926.

B.D. Dhawan. Mysticism and Symbolism in Aitareya and Taittiriya Aranyakas, South Asia Books (1989), ISBN 81-212-0094-6 Michael Witzel, Katha Aranyaka : Critical Edition with a Translation into German and an Introduction, Harvard Oriental Series, Harvard Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies (2005) ISBN 0-674-01806-0

Mukhya Upanishads
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search The Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads is headed by 10 Mukhya Upanishads. These are the ten oldest Upanishads, known to and commented upon by the 9th century scholar Shankara. Sanskrit mukhya means "principal", "chief", or "eminent". Also known as Dashopanishads, these ten Mukhya Upanishads probably all predate the Common Era, and they are accepted as ruti by all Hindus. They are listed with their associated Veda (V, SV, YV, KYV, AV): 1. a, (YV) "The Inner Ruler" 2. Kena (SV) "Who moves the world?" 3. Kaha (KYV) "Death as Teacher" 4. Prana, (AV) "The Breath of Life" 5. Muaka (AV) "Two modes of Knowing" 6. Mkya (AV) "Consciousness and its phases" 7. Taittirya (KYV) "From Food to Joy" 8. Aitareya, (V) "The Microcosm of Man" 9. Chndogya (SV) "Song and Sacrifice" 10. Bhadrayaka (YV) Linguistically, the oldest of these (Bhadrayaka, Chndogya) belong to the "Brahmana" period of Vedic Sanskrit, predating Panini. A middle layer (Kaha) belongs to the "Sutra" period of late Vedic Sanskrit, roughly contemporary with Panini, and the youngest are in early Classical Sanskrit, approximately contemporary with the Bhagavad Gita (roughly dating to the period from the 4th century BC to the beginning of the Common Era, or the Mauryan period).

[edit] See also

Samanya Vedanta Upanishads

Kalpa (Vedanga)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Vedas Rigveda Yajurveda Samaveda Atharvaveda Divisions Samhita Brahmana Aranyaka Upanishad Upanishad Aitareya Brihadaranyaka Isha Taittiriya Chandogya Kena Maitri Mundaka Mandukya Katha Kaushitaki Prashna Shvetashvatara Vedanga Shiksha Chandas Vyakarana Nirukta Jyotisha Kalpa Itihasa Mahabharata Ramayana Other scriptures Smriti ruti Bhagavad Gita Purana Manu Smriti Agama

Pancharatra Tantra Akilathirattu Stra Stotra Dharmashastra Divya Prabandha Tevaram Ramacharitamanas Yoga Vasistha
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Kalpa is one of the six disciplines of Vedanga, treating ritual. Tradition does not single out any special work in this branch of the Vedanga; but sacrificial practice gave rise to a large number of systematic sutras for the several classes of priests. A number of these works have come down to us, and they occupy by far the most prominent place among the literary productions of the sutra-period. The Kalpa-sutras, or rules of ceremonial, are of two kinds: (1) the Shrautasutras, which are based on the shruti, and teach the performance of the great sacrifices, requiring three or five sacrificial fires; and (2) the Smartasutras, or rules based on the smrti or tradition. The latter class again includes two kinds of treatises: (1) the Grhyasutras, or domestic rules, treating the rites of passage, such as marriage, birth, namegiving, etc., connected with simple offerings into the domestic fire; and (2) the Dharmasutras, which treat customs and social duties, and have formed the chief sources of the later law-books. Further, the Shrauta-sutras of the Yajurveda have usually include a set of so-called Shulva-sutras, i.e. rules of the cord, which treat of the measurement by means of cords, and the construction, of different kinds of altars required for sacrifices. These treatises are of special interest as supplying important information regarding the earliest geometrical operations in India. Along with the Sutras may be classed a large number of supplementary treatises, usually called Parishishta (), on various subjects connected with the sacred texts and Vedic religion generally.

Contents
[hide]

1 Shrauta Sutras 2 Grhya Sutras 3 Dharma Sutras 4 Shulba Sutras 5 Notes 6 References 7 See also

[edit] Shrauta Sutras

The Shrautasutras (rautastra) form a part of the corpus of Sanskrit Sutra literature. Their topic are the instructions relating to the use of the shruti corpus in ritual ('kalpa') and the correct performance of rituals as such. Some early Shrautasutras were composed in the late Brahmana period (such as the Baudhyanana and Vadhula Sutras), but the bulk of the Shrautasutras are roughly contemporary to the Grhya corpus of domestic Sutras, their language being late Vedic Sanskrit, dating to the middle of the first millennium BCE, generally predating Panini). Veda Rveda g Smaveda rautastra[1] valyana rautastra Skhyana rautastra Ltyyana rautastra Drhyyana rautastra Jaiminiya rautastra Baudhyana rautastra Vdhla rautastra Mnava rautastra Bharadvja rautastra pastamba rautastra Hirayakei rautastra Vrha rautastra Vaikhnasa rautastra Ktyyana rautastra Vaitna rautastra

Krna Yajurveda s

ukla Yajurveda Atharvaveda

[edit] Grhya Sutras

The Grhya Sutras "domestic sutras" are a category of Sanskrit texts prescribing Vedic ritual, mainly relating to rites of passage. Their language is late Vedic Sanskrit, and they date to around roughly 500 BCE, contemporary with the Shrautasutras. They are named after Vedic shakhas. Veda Rveda g Gr yastra[1] h valyana-Grhyastra Kaustaki-Grhyastra khyana-Gryastra [1] h Gobhila-Grhyastra Khdira-Grhyastra (Drhyyana-Grhyastra) Jaiminiya-Grhyastra Kauthuma-Grhyastra Baudhyana-Grhyastra Hirayakei-Grhyastra (Satysdha-Grhyastra) [2] Mnava-Grhyastra

Smaveda Krna Yajurveda s

ukla Yajurveda Atharvaveda

Bhradvja-Grhyastra pastamba-Grhyastra gniveya-Grhyastra Vaikhnasa-Grhyastra Kthaka-Grhyastra (Laugksi-Grhyastra) Vrha-Grhyastra Vdhla-Grhyastra Kapisthala-Katha Grhyastra (unpublished) Ktyyana Grhyastra (different from Praskara-Grhyastra) Praskara-Grhyastra Kauika Grhyastra

[edit] Dharma Sutras

The Dharmasutras are Sanskrit texts dealing with custom, rituals and law. They include the four surviving written works of the ancient Indian tradition on the subject of dharma, or the rules of behavior recognized by a community. Unlike the later Dharmashastra, the dharmasutras are composed in prose. The oldest Dharmasutra is generally believed to have been that of Apastamba, followed by the dharmasutras of Gautama, Baudhayana, and an early version of Vasishtha. It is difficult to determine exact dates for these texts, but the dates between 500-300 BCE have been suggested for the oldest Dharmasutras. Later Dharmasutras include those of Kasyapa, Brhaspati, and Ushanas. Veda Rveda g Smaveda Krna Yajurveda s Dharmastra[1] Vasishtha Dharmastra Gautama Dharmastra Baudhyana Dharmastra pastamba Dharmastra

[edit] Shulba Sutras

The ulbastra that deal with laying out the offering ground and altar geometry are part of the Shrauta Sutras. Veda Krna Yajurveda s ukla Yajurveda ulbastra[1] Baudhyana ulbastra Mnava ulbastra pastamba ulbastra Ktyyana ulbastra

[edit] Notes
1. ^ a b c d Kochar, Rajesh Vedic People:Their History and Geography, Orient Longman, New Delhi, 2000, ISBN 81 250 1080 7, p.18

[edit] References

Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend (ISBN 0-500-51088-1) by Anna Dhallapiccola

This article incorporates text from the Encyclopdia Britannica, Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.

[edit] See also

Kalpasutra (Jain) - the Jain Scriptures Mimamsa orthopraxy [hide]

vde

Hinduism
Sruti Smriti Denominations Deities Gurus and saints Schools Karma / Dharma Moksha Yoga Mantras Jyotish / Ayurveda Portal Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalpa_(Vedanga)" Categories: Vedangas | Ritual | Hindu texts | Sanskrit w