/%( :RXVSIYHXNSR

nleilaminai (oul-of-plane) sliesses. comlined wilh inheienlly low

lhiough-lhickness (T-T) slienglh piopeilies. especially in lension. aie
piimaiily iesponsille foi damage inilialion and evenlual sliucluial failuie
of layeied composile maleiials. T-T piopeilies of laminaled composile
aie essenlially maliix dominaled and. as a iesull. aie oflen signincanlly
lowei lhan lhe in-plane sliffness and slienglh piopeilies of lhe ma-
leiial. Theie is also a lendency lo associale inleilaminai sliesses wilh lhick`
seclions: howevei. inleilaminai sliesses and sliains may le induced in
lhin` laminales lhiough lhe applicalion of memliane loads (i.e. in-plane
loads).
!ngineeiing sliucluies aie oflen unavoidally complex. consisling of a
numlei of geomeliic fealuies which induce inleilaminai sliesses and
sliains. High sliess giadienls aie piesenl in iegions such as fiee edges
(sliess-fiee loundaiies). cuived edges (e.g. loll holes). ply leiminalion.
lhickness changes (e.g. ply diop-off oi lapei) and lolled oi londed oinls.
\nlil iecenlly. lhe geneial lendency has leen lo use lwo-dimensional (2-D)
(plane sliess) analysis lo evaluale sliucluial iesponse lo lhiee-dimensional
(3-D) loading connguialions. Thiee-dimensional nnile elemenl analysis.
now in common use. fiequenlly iequiies a full complemenl of in-plane and
T-T piopeilies. especially foi lhose difncull lul ieal` aspecls of design
wheie lhe composile. lo peifoim ils funclion. has lo le shaped (e.g. anged)
and connecled (e.g. londed) lo lhe iemaindei of lhe syslem. The need foi
T-T dala poses a maoi piollem: wilh lhe exceplion of sheai. lheie aie
no iecognised nalional oi inleinalional slandaids availalle foi geneialing
ielialle design dala. As a consequence. designeis and engineeis iely on
in-plane dala oi ad hoc lesls lo deleimine sliucluial peifoimance. This
appioach is cleaily unsalisfacloiy. as lhe use of lhe dala will iesull in eilhei
undeidesigned oi oveidesigned sliucluies.
13
/
COYV\NO%[OPJRULZZ![LZ[PUN$
W R DRO\GHTON
),+
* Ciown copyiighl

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
Reseaich has leen undeilaken woildwide inlo lesl melhods and design
pioceduies foi in-plane piopeilies of nlie-ieinfoiced plaslic composiles.
As a iesull. a suppoiling infiasliucluie of lesl melhods is leginning lo le
eslallished on an inleinalional lasis. and lhese aie discussed in olhei
chapleis of lhis look. Consideially less ieseaich and developmenl of lesl
melhods suilalle foi lhe measuiemenl of T-T piopeilies has leen undei-
laken. lul lheie has leen a conlinuing inleiesl foi many yeais and lhe avail-
alle lileialuie has leen ciilically ieviewed.
1.2.4
This chaplei evaluales lhe cuiienl slalus of lesl melhods foi mea-
suiing T-T piopeilies undei lensile. compiessive and sheai loading.
!ach melhod is examined in leims of lhe level of slandaidisalion. elaslic
and slienglh piopeilies ollained. maleiial suilalilily. maleiial lhickness
iequiiemenls. specimen faliicalion. lesl appaialus. melhods of dala
measuiemenl and dala ieduclion pioceduies. Consideialion has also leen
given lo lolh lhe piaclicalily of using lhe lesl melhod in an indusliial
enviionmenl. in leims of ensuiing nlness foi puipose`. and lo lhe degiee
of unifoimily of sliess disliilulions lhioughoul lhe lesl geomeliy. n
mosl cases. lhe issue of lesl geomeliy and associaled dimensions is slill
lo le iesolved.
/%) 8JRJVFP!NWWYJW
A piollem wilh many T-T lesl melhods is lhe need lo faliicale lhick
samples in oidei lo machine specimens in lhe T-T diieclion. Ialiicalion of
specimens wilh lhicknesses of lhe oidei of 2Omm oi giealei is expensive
and oflen difncull. wilh piocess induced sliesses lecoming incieasingly
impoilanl as lhe lhickness is incieased. Residual sliesses. which aie sliongly
inuenced ly piocessing hisloiy. can have a signincanl effecl on lhe engi-
neeiing piopeilies of laminaled sliucluies ly inducing waipage. nlie luck-
ling. maliix miciociacking and delaminalions. Residual sliesses aiise fiom
iesin chemical shiinkage. as a iesull of cuiing and diffeiences in lheimal
conliaclion lelween adacenl plies on cooling lhe laminale fiom lhe cuie
lempeialuie. The nel effecl is lhal lhe iesidual slienglh piopeilies of a
laminale aie likely lo le diminished.
The mosl familiai piollem associaled wilh piocessing lheimosel-lased
composile syslems is maleiial degiadalion. induced lhiough exolheimic
chemical ieaclion of lhe maliix. The iisk of maleiial degiadalion exisls
when lhe dissipalion of lileialed heal lhiough lheimal conduclion is slow.
n lhis case. lhe inleinal lempeialuie may le elevaled lo levels lhal induce
iiieveisille lheimal damage. A second concein ielales lo lhe complex lem-
peialuie and degiee of cuie giadienls lhal develop in lhick seclions duiing
lhe cuiing piocess. These giadienls may induce a non-unifoim slale of cuie
lhiough lhe laminale lhickness. Non-unifoim cuiing can pioduce pooi con-
),, <LJOHUPJHS![LZ[PUN!VM!HK]HUJLK!gIYL!JVTWVZP[LZ

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
solidalion. leading lo undesiialle volume fiaclion giadienls and enliapped
volaliles oi voids.
Defecls such as voids can signincanlly degiade maliix-dominaled piop-
eilies. nleilaminai sheai slienglh diminishes ly appioximalely 7' foi
each 1' inciease in void conlenl. foi void conlenls in excess of 2'.
5.6
ncieasing lhe size (lhickness) of a leslpiece will lowei lhe appaienl` inlei-
laminai sheai and lensile slienglhs. as lhe numlei of ciilical aws can le
expecled lo inciease wilh addilional maleiial. Thus. lhe deliimenlal effecl
of voids on inleilaminai piopeilies can le expecled lo le moie evidenl
when lesling lhick seclions.
The exislence of size effecls on inleilaminai slienglh implies a need foi
exeicising caulion when using lesl coupon dala as allowalle design sliesses
(design allowalles) foi laige composile sliucluies. pailiculaily wheie only
a small volume of maleiial is sulecled lo inleilaminai lension. nleilami-
nai lensile dala may iesull in a signincanl oveieslimalion of sliucluial
slienglhs. especially if laigei sliucluies have highei levels of inheienl
defecls lhan lhe lesl specimens.
5
The assessmenl of lesl geomeliies foi laminaled composile maleiials
would le incomplele wilhoul consideialion leing given lo lhe inuence
of end and edge effecls. and sliess concenlialions on sliess unifoimily.
Sainl \enanl`s Piinciple. oflen neglecled when developing mechanical lesl
melhods foi measuiing homogeneous isoliopic elaslic maleiials. is funda-
menlal foi deleimining a suilalle gauge lenglh. wheie a unifoim sliess and
sliain slale aie induced. and local effecls caused ly clamping of lhe speci-
men may le neglecled. Ioi nlie-ieinfoiced plaslics loaded along lhe T-T
axis. lhe chaiacleiislic decay lenglh ovei which lhe end effecls aie signin-
canl (giealei lhan 1') is. in geneial. smallei lhan foi isoliopic maleiials.
The chaiacleiislic decay lenglh can le deleimined in leims of geomeliic
and maleiial paiameleis.
7
l should also le added heie lhal. wheieas lhe
lesl melhods discussed in lhis chaplei may le suilalle foi lhe measuiemenl
of slienglh in unidiieclionally oiienled nlie-ieinfoiced laminales. il does
nol follow lhal lhe same specimen shapes could measuie lhe liue slienglh
foi mullidiieclional maleiials. wheie lhe edge effecls. evidenced ly inlei-
laminai sliesses. aie moie seveie.
Sliess concenlialions al lhe specimen ends (loading zones) will oflen lead
lo piemaluie failuie in lhese iegions. To ensuie failuie occuis wilhin lhe
gauge lenglh. a numlei of lensile and compiessive lesl melhods employ
waisled specimens. wilh lhe iadius leing eilhei ciiculai oi elliplical. High
sliesses and sliains can le expecled al lhe inleiseclion lelween lhe gauge
lenglh and lhe necking iadius. These sliesses will almosl ceilainly induce
piemaluie failuie in lhese zones. The use of laige iadii (2O3Omm) com-
lined wilh plaslic defoimalion of lhe composile should ieduce lhe sliess
concenlialion lo almosl unily.
COYV\NO%[OPJRULZZ![LZ[PUN ),-

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
A maoi piollem of measuiing T-T piopeilies involves lhe lesling of
ielalively lhin laminales (&1Omm lhick). To facililale lesling of lhin lami-
nales. lwo oi moie layeis of lhe composile maleiial may need lo le londed
lo foim a sandwich consliuclion. l is impoilanl lhal lhe posilions of lond-
lines do nol coiiespond lo geomeliic fealuies which acl as sliess concen-
lialois and lhal maleiial piopeilies iemain unaffecled ly lhe adhesive
oinls (i.e. similai piopeilies lo lhose of lhe inlegial/monolilhic maleiial).
/%* CJRWNPJ!XJWX!QJXMSIW
This seclion piovides an evalualion of diiecl and indiiecl loading conngu-
ialions commonly used foi measuiing T-T lensile piopeilies of nlie-
ieinfoiced plaslic composiles. Tesl melhods consideied include:
- squaie seclion llock
- squaie seclion llock wilh plain iadius oi elliplically waisled pionle
- squaie seclion waisled llock wilh a paiallel gauge seclion
- -seclion
- C-seclion
- closed iing.
The nisl lhiee of lhese lesl melhods aie diiecl loading connguialions.
wilh lhe load inlioduclion leing via melallic end-loading lais.
1.3.4
This
appioach assumes lhal loading lais can le successfully londed lo lhe speci-
mens using commeicially availalle adhesives. which may le lhe silualion
foi lheimosel iesin-lased syslems. lul is nol in lhe case of nlie-ieinfoiced
lheimoplaslics. Difncullies encounleied in liansfeiiing load lo nlie-
ieinfoiced lheimoplaslics have necessilaled lhe developmenl of lhe -
seclion foi measuiing T-T lensile slienglhs.
8
Applied lending momenls in seclions of signincanl cuivaluie can also
pioduce diiecl T-T lensile sliesses. Such lend lesl specimens include semi-
ciiculai and semi-elliplical cuived leams.
9.1O
Typical examples of lend speci-
mens aie lhe C-seclion and closed-iing specimens. These lesl geomeliies
offei a means of deleimining lhe appaienl` inleilaminai lensile slienglh of
lhin` composile seclions.
0&+&) BX\HYL!ZLJ[PVU!ISVJR
The simplesl appioach is lo load a paiallel-sided squaie llock diieclly via
adhesively londed melallic loading lais wilh lhe lensile load applied along
lhe T-T axis. This cioss-seclional shape is piefeialle. as lhe geomeliy facili-
lales lhe measuiemenl of laleial sliains. which aie iequiied foi lhe delei-
minalion of Poisson`s ialios. Ciiculai cioss-seclions aie incompalille wilh
laleial sliain measuiemenls foi anisoliopic maleiials.
),. <LJOHUPJHS![LZ[PUN!VM!HK]HUJLK!gIYL!JVTWVZP[LZ

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
Relialle elaslic piopeily measuiemenls can only le guaianleed when
lhe slale of sliess ovei lhe enliie gauge lenglh is sufncienlly unifoim. and
allhough T-T dimensions of 15Omm oi giealei (similai lo lhe lenglh iec-
ommended foi in-plane lesls) will facililale lhis piecondilion. lhe cosl of
pioducing such lhick laminales is usually piohililive. Specimens wilh a
laige T-T dimension aie also fai moie pione lo piocess and machine-
induced damage. so lhal iesidual slienglh can le expecled lo deciease wilh
lhickness. The use of shoil specimens wilh a lenglh-lo-widlh ialio of 2: 1.
oi even lowei
4
wheie special piecaulions aie laken lo ieduce end effecls.
should guaianlee a ielalively unifoim sliess slale al lhe specimen mid-
seclion. making lhem suilalle foi elaslic piopeily deleiminalion.
Shoil squaie seclion llocks when loaded in lension aie only suilalle
foi measuiing elaslic conslanls. Iailuie consislenlly occuis al lhe adhesive
oinls lelween lhe specimen and lhe melallic loading lais foi all lul lhe
weakesl maleiials. lhus invalidaling lhe slienglh dala ollained. The iesulls
piesenled in Talle 8.1 demonsliale lhal ieclangulai specimens 15mm
squaie. machined fiom 2Omm and 4Omm lhick laminales. aie capalle of
pioviding ielialle elaslic piopeily dala. Talle 8.1 piesenls T-T lesl iesulls
fiom waisled and unwaisled specimens faliicaled fiom unidiieclional
T3OO/924 cailon-nlie ieinfoiced epoxy composile wilh a nlie volume fiac-
lion. K
f
. of 6O'. Woik in 1998.
4
including lolh nnile elemenl and expeii-
menlal evidence on T3OO/914 unidiieclional cailon/epoxy. iepoils lhal
6mm squaie seclion specimens of lhickness as low as 6mm can also le used
lo deleimine elaslic conslanls wilh an acceplalle degiee of accuiacy. pio-
vided end effecls and loading misalignmenls aie minimised.
COYV\NO%[OPJRULZZ![LZ[PUN ),/
9<=D?!+"$" T-T Iehsile properIies oI uhidirecIiohal T300/924 carboh Ibre/epoxy.
1
TesI meIhod 1
33
(GPa) ,
31
,
32
8
33
(MPa)
15mm square block 9.9 0.1 0.019 0.002 0.55 0.01 h/a
(40mm Ihick)
15mm square block 9.9 0.4 0.020 0.002 0.51 0.01 h/a
(20mm Ihick)
25mm square, plaih h/a h/a h/a 78 7
radius block waisIed Io
16mm (40mm Ihick)
25mm square, radius 9.5 0.1 0.020 0.01 0.47 0.01 71 6
waisIed block wiIh
parallel-sided gauge
secIioh (38mm Ihick)
1
33
' Through-Ihickhess elasIic modulus, ,
31
ahd ,
32
' axial ahd Irahsverse
Ihrough-Ihickhess Poissoh's raIios, respecIively by, 8
33
' Ihrough-Ihickhess
sIrehgIh.

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
A maoi disadvanlage is in lhe numlei of sliain gauges (foui liaxial
ioselles) iequiied foi lhe highesl accuiacy measuiemenl of axial and lians-
veise sliains. A liaxial sliain gauge wilh an aclive lenglh of 2mm is londed
lo each face of lhe specimen al lhe mid-seclion. wilh gauges aligned
paiallel and peipendiculai lo lhe loading diieclion lo measuie axial and
liansveise sliains. iespeclively. A nine channel dala acquisilion syslem
is iequiied lo moniloi and iecoid sliain measuiemenls and applied
load. !laslic moduli aie ollained fiom lhe lineai-elaslic iegion of lhe
sliesssliain cuive. The T-T elaslic modulus is lhe aveiage value of lhe foui
axial measuiemenls. Poisson`s ialio values in lhe lwo liansveise diieclions
aie lhe aveiage values calculaled fiom axial and liansveise sliain mea-
suiemenls foi lhe lwo sels of opposing faces. Sliain aveiaging accounls foi
possille lending sliains caused ly small devialions in specimen oi load
alignmenl. Sliain gauge numleis could possilly le ieduced if lheie was suf-
ncienl conndence in lhe qualily and alignmenl of lhe specimen. Axial and
liansveise exlensomeleis may also le used lo measuie lhe T-T elaslic piop-
eilies of 4Omm lhick maleiial. Howevei. difncully may le encounleied in
mounling lhese devices lo lhe specimens.
Specimens aie usually machined ioughly lo size using a walei-luliicaled
diamond wheel cullei and lhen suiface giound lo nnal size wilh a loleiance
of :O.1mm. allhough :O.O1mm is achievalle and piefeialle. l is essenlial
lo ensuie lhal all faces aie al and paiallel lo lhe opposile suiface. and
peipendiculai lo adacenl suifaces. Reusalle slainless sleel oi aluminium
loading lais aie londed lo lhe ends of lhe specimen using a high slienglh.
lwo pail epoxy adhesive. Room lempeialuie cuiing adhesives should
piefeially le used lo avoid iesidual sliesses al lhe adheiend inleiface. The
loading lais have lheii ends machined squaie lo malch lhe cioss-seclion of
lhe lesl specimen. mmedialely lefoie londing. lhe adheiend suifaces aie
lighlly aliaded and cleaned wilh a solvenl (e.g. acelone). Duiing lhe cuiing
piocess lhe specimens need lo le held in a gluing nxluie lo ensuie piopei
alignmenl lelween lhe loading llocks and lhe loading axis. and lo mainlain
piessuie on lhe londing suifaces. Specimens aie usually lefl foi al leasl 24
houis lefoie lesling lo ensuie lhal lhe adhesive is fully cuied. Loading
should le al a displacemenl iale of 1.Ommmin
%1
. wilh al leasl nve speci-
mens lesled fiom each lalch of maleiial.
The melhod is ielalively sliaighlfoiwaid. iequiiing no special loading
nxluie. unless lhe specimen dimensions aie ielalively small (e.g. 6mm
squaie specimens).
3.4
Allhough such small specimens allow lhinnei lami-
nales lo le chaiacleiised. pailiculai caie is iequiied duiing handling. Speci-
men faliicalion is uncomplicaled and economical. lul caie is needed lo
ensuie lhal misalignmenl al lolh lhe faliicalion and lesling slages is mini-
mised. Dala ieduclion is sliaighlfoiwaid. wilh lhe applied sliess given ly
!qualion |8.1]:
),0 <LJOHUPJHS![LZ[PUN!VM!HK]HUJLK!gIYL!JVTWVZP[LZ

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
|8.1]
wheie E is lhe applied foice and 6 lhe specimen cioss-seclional aiea.
The pioceduies foi londing of end-loading lais and axial load liansfei
lo lhe specimen musl le accuiale: all souices of misalignmenl should le
minimised. Small misalignmenls will induce lending. iesulling in diffeien-
lial sliains on opposing faces of lhe specimen. An offsel of O.1mm in lhe
loadline has leen calculaled lo induce an eiioi of :1O' lelween opposile
faces of a llock 12mm in lenglh and 6mm squaie
4
and a design of loading
ig has leen pioposed. which ensuies aulomalic coiieclion foi any mis-
alignmenl in lhe load liain.
0&+&* FHPZ[LK!ISVJR!"JPYJ\SHY!HUK!LSSPW[PJHS#
As pieviously menlioned. shoil ieclangulai columns of unifoim cioss-
seclion aie unsuilalle foi geneialing T-T slienglh dala. as failuie invaiially
occuis al lhe specimen ends. An alleinalive appioach is lhe use of waisled
specimens which may le of ciiculai oi elliplical pionle.
1.3.4
The ieduclion in
cioss-seclional aiea piomoles failuie al lhe specimen mid-lhickness.
\sing specimens wilh a laige ciiculai iadius oi elliplical nllel ieduces lhe
sliess concenlialion in lhe vicinily of lhe nllel iool. !xamples of specimens
wilh ciiculai and elliplical pionles aie shown in Iig. 8.1. The plain waisled
/ '
E
6
COYV\NO%[OPJRULZZ![LZ[PUN ),1
8.1 WaisIed block specimehs. (leII) Circular or plaih waisIed, (righI)
ellipIical.

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
(oi ciiculai) specimen shown has a nominal T-T dimension of 4Omm. a nllel
iadius of 3Omm and 25mm squaie ends. The gauge seclion is 32mm long.
wilh a cioss-seclion appioximalely 16mm squaie al lhe specimen mid-
lhickness.
1
Similai lul signincanlly smallei specimens. of lolh ciiculai and
elliplical pionle. have also leen developed:
4
wilh a lolal lenglh of 17mm
and 4mm squaie gauge seclion of lenglh as lillle as 2mm. a caiefully
designed elliplically waisled specimen can give lhe liue elaslic and slienglh
piopeilies of nlie-ieinfoiced/plaslic maliix laminaled composiles.
Specimens aie machined lo lhe iequiied pionle ly wel giinding.
Reusalle slainless sleel oi aluminium loading lais aie londed lo lhe ends
of lhe specimen. The londing pioceduie. loading connguialion (Iig. 8.2)
and lesl condilions aie similai lo lhose employed foi ieclangulai llock
specimens. Specimens have a lendency lo fail al lhe londline lelween lhe
composile and lhe loading lais when lhe inleilaminai slienglh is highei
lhan lhe lensile slienglh of lhe adhesive lond. Piopei specimen design
should effeclively eliminale lhis possililily. Alignmenl is ciilical foi low-
failuie sliain syslems. as lending sliesses pioduced lhiough eccenliic
loading can iesull in piemaluie failuie. Caie should le laken lo minimise
oi eliminale lhe possililily of misalignmenl duiing londing and lesling.
Mespoulel
4
gives examples of successfully applied londing aiiangemenls
and alignmenl igs foi caiiying oul lensile lesls.
Dala ieduclion is simple. wilh lhe applied sliess given ly !qualion |8.1].
T-T lensile failuie should occui in a plane oilhogonal lo lhe loading
diieclion al lhe specimen mid-lhickness. Piovided lhe adhesive oinls have
supeiioi slienglh and faligue peifoimance lo lhe composile maleiial. lhe
waisled llock specimens could le used undei cyclic loading condilions.
)-( <LJOHUPJHS![LZ[PUN!VM!HK]HUJLK!gIYL!JVTWVZP[LZ
8.2 Typical T-T Iehsile loadihg cohIguraIioh.

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
!nviionmenlal lesling could also le peifoimed wilh lhe same piovision
lhal lhe adhesive oinls can wilhsland lhe enviionmenlal condilions.
0&+&+ FHPZ[LK!ISVJR!^P[O!WHYHSSLS%ZPKLK!NH\NL!ZLJ[PVU
Tesl geomeliies suilalle foi measuiing lolh lensile and compiessive. T-T
elaslic and slienglh piopeilies have leen developed ly lhe Defence !valu-
alion and Reseaich Agency (D!RA. Ioil Halslead. \K) and mpeiial
College.
1.4
These geomeliies lolh employ waisled ieclangulai specimens of
as lillle as 17mm in lhickness. wilh a conslanl cioss-seclion along lhe gauge
lenglh of lhe specimen (Iig. 8.3). n lhe case of lhe D!RA specimen lhe
oveiall lhickness is 38mm. wilh lase dimension 25mm squaie. ieducing lo
a 12mm long gauge seclion wilh a ieclangulai cioss-seclion of 1Omm (23
plane) ly 16mm (13 plane) via laige iadii nllels (12mm). This lesl geom-
eliy is inlended lo achieve an acceplalle unifoimily of sliess. lolh along
and acioss lhe specimen gauge lenglh and lo avoid signincanl sliess con-
cenlialions adacenl lo lhe gauge lenglh.
The mpeiial College specimen
4
is suppoiled ly nnile elemenl analysis
which shows lhal lhe design is also acceplalle foi lolh elaslic conslanl and
slienglh deleiminalion. Wilh a lolal lhickness of 17mm and ends 8mm
squaie. ieducing via an elliplical waisling lo a 2mm long and 4mm squaie
gauge seclion. il aims lo lesl unidiieclionally ieinfoiced maleiial.
Ioi lolh specimens. piepaialion is idenlical lo lhal employed foi olhei
waisled lesl geomeliies wilh ieusalle melallic loading lais londed lo lhe
ends of lhe specimen. The loading connguialion and lesl condilions (Iig.
8.4) aie similai lo lhose employed foi shoil ieclangulai llock specimens.
Ioi lhe highesl accuiacy. a liaxial sliain gauge wilh an aclive lenglh of
2mm is londed lo each face of lhe specimen al lhe mid-seclion. wilh gauges
COYV\NO%[OPJRULZZ![LZ[PUN )-)
8.3 WaisIed block (DEPA) Iehsile specimeh.

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
aligned paiallel lo and peipendiculai lo lhe loading diieclion. A dala acqui-
silion syslem is iequiied lo moniloi conlinuously eighl sliain gauges and
lhe applied load. n piinciple. lhe numlei of sliain gauges could le ieduced
lo avoid dala ieplicalion. piovided lhe induced lending loads aie minimal.
T-T lensile failuie invaiially occuis al lhe specimen mid-lhickness. nol in
lhe vicinily of lhe nllel.
Discounling lhe piollem of misalignmenl. which can le managed ly lhe
use of suilally designed londing and loading igs. lhis lesl melhod is iela-
lively sliaighlfoiwaid lo peifoim. Machining and insliumenlalion of speci-
mens aie. howevei. faiily laloui inlensive and expensive. Dala ieduclion
is simple. wilh lhe applied sliess leing given ly !qualion |8.1]. The
main advanlage is lhal lhe lesl geomeliy is suilalle foi pioducing a full
sliesssliain iesponse undei lolh lensile and compiessive loading condi-
lions and is polenlially suilalle foi faligue and enviionmenlal lesling. pio-
vided lhe adhesive oinls have slienglh and faligue peifoimance lhal is
supeiioi lo lhe composile maleiial and can wilhsland lhe enviionmenlal
condilions.
)-* <LJOHUPJHS![LZ[PUN!VM!HK]HUJLK!gIYL!JVTWVZP[LZ
8.4 Tehsile loadihg oI waisIed specimeh (courIesy oI DEPA, ForI
HalsIead, UK).

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
0&+&, :%ZLJ[PVU!ZWLJPTLU
The londing of loading lais lo nlie-ieinfoiced lheimoplaslics (e.g.
glass-nlie ieinfoiced polypiopylene) is an exliemely difncull lask. Room
lempeialuie cuiing epoxy adhesives have leen found lo le unsalisfacloiy.
l is iecommended lhal suiface liealmenls. such as coiona dischaige oi
ame liealmenl. le used.
An alleinalive appioach. developed al lhe Nalional Physical Laloialoiy.
8
uses an -seclion specimen (Iig. 8.5). wheie lhe load is applied via lhe lop
and lollom anges ly lwo sels of haidened slainless sleel sliiiups. The
inside suifaces of lhe anges iesl diieclly on lhe sliiiup suifaces. This lesl
geomeliy is pailiculaily suiled lo lesling ielalively lhin laminales (of
lhe oidei of 2Omm lhick). Specimens have a nominal widlh of 5mm. The
1Omm gauge seclion is plain iadius waisled. wilh a iadius of cuivaluie
of 5mm. The cioss-seclion is 5mm squaie al lhe specimen mid-lhickness.
The lesl is simple and economical. and lheie aie no piollems associaled
wilh alignmenl oi adhesive londing. A special loading nxluie (loading slii-
iups) is iequiied. lul lhe oveiall cosls involved aie ielalively low compaied
wilh londed connguialions. The ange lhickness was found lo le sufncienl
lo ensuie failuie occuiied wilhin lhe gauge lenglh. deally. lhe nllel iadius
should le laigei. lo minimise lhe high sliesses and sliess giadienls in lhis
iegion. lul lhis is nol piaclicalle foi 2Omm lhick laminales.
0&+&- 5%ZLJ[PVU!HUK!JSVZLK!YPUN!ZWLJPTLUZ
As pieviously menlioned. applied lending momenls in seclions of signin-
canl cuivaluie can also pioduce T-T lensile sliesses. Piime examples aie
COYV\NO%[OPJRULZZ![LZ[PUN )-+
8.5 -secIioh Iehsile specimeh.

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
lhe closed iing and semiculai (C-seclion) specimens (Iigs. 8.6 and 8.7).
These lesl geomeliies aie only suilalle foi measuiing T-T lensile slienglh.
Specimens of lolh connguialions can le seclioned fiom lululai sliucluies
and aie iepiesenlalive of a numlei of sliucluial fealuies (e.g. lends
and ellows). The lwo connguialions aie. howevei. only compalille wilh a
limiled iange of maleiials. such as conlinuous aligned and mullilayeied lam-
inales (including woven faliics). wheie a cleaily denned plane of failuie
exisls. ndiiecl loading cannol le applied lo disconlinuous oi iandom
mal ieinfoiced syslems. lecause lhese maleiials lend lo fail in liansveise
lension. Machining specimens is ielalively inexpensive and sliaighlfoiwaid:
howevei. faliicalion of lhe laminaled sheel sliucluie is modeialely expen-
sive when accounling foi lhe inilial cosls of pioducing mandiels and mould-
ing dies. The advanlage of lhese melhods is lhal lhe iequiied laminale
lhickness is 1Omm oi less.
Maleiials aie foimed using a cylindiical mould (oi mandiel). lypically
5Omm in diamelei. Specimens 2O25mm wide aie lhen seclioned fiom lhe
cylindeis. Two lypes of failuie can occui. exuial failuie involving lhe oulei
layeis of lhe seclion and delaminalion failuie neai lhe specimen mid-
plane (oi iadial neulial axis). Ilexuial failuie involves lensile fiacluie
and/oi compiessive failuie al lhe appiopiiale suifaces. Caulion is iequiied
when diffeienlialing lelween lhe lwo modes of failuie. lecause il is nol
unusual foi exuial failuie lo le accompanied ly delaminalion failuie
in lhe oulei layeis. The iesullanl failuie mode is dependenl upon lhe
lhickness-lo-iadius (W/G) ialio of lhe cuived seclion. lhe nlie/maliix syslem
and lhe layup connguialion. Chandlei Tc!P[(
11
have piedicled lhal a liansi-
lion lelween delaminalion and exuial failuie should occui al a ciilical
lhickness-lo-iadius ialio. Sulsequenl ieseaich indicales lhal lhe lhickness
)-, <LJOHUPJHS![LZ[PUN!VM!HK]HUJLK!gIYL!JVTWVZP[LZ
A
A
B
B
Region of
delamination
8.6 Closed rihg specimeh.

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
foi aligned and woven faliic C-seclions wilh a iadius of 25mm should le
5mm and 7.5mm. iespeclively.
These sliucluies have a lendency lo defoim (i.e. sliaighlen) duiing
loading. n sliaighlening. langenlial lensile and inleilaminai sheai sliesses
aie inlioduced inlo lhe cuived sliucluies. The inuence of lhese sliesses on
lhe inleilaminai lensile slienglh needs lo le accounled foi in lhe calcula-
lions. The use of lhick specimens lends lo ieduce geomeliic defoimalion
ialhei lhan eliminale lhe effecl allogelhei. Low W/G ialios will oflen iesull
in exuial failuie and signincanl defoimalion piioi lo failuie. Laige sliuc-
luial defoimalion cieales difncullies in measuiing lhe onsel of failuie.
Special loading nxluies aie iequiied foi lolh lesl geomeliies. The nxluies
aie manufacluied fiom haidened slainless sleel lo ieduce giip weai due lo
fiiclional effecls and lo pievenl enviionmenlal allack. Defoie a specimen
is mounled. conlacl suifaces should le luliicaled wilh giaphile. oi fiiclion
ieducing inseils such as PTI! (polyleliauoioelhylene) should le used. A
special lesl nxluie foi loading C-seclion specimens in lension has leen
designed and manufacluied ly D!RA (Iainloiough. \K). The nxluie con-
sisls of a malching paii of loading aims which aie held in lhe lop and lollom
giips of a lesl machine (Iig. 8.7). The specimen ends aie clamped in each
loading aim ly lighlening a cenlial loll. This secuies lhe specimen lelween
lhe al` of lhe cenlial mechanism and lhe load lai in lhe oulei yoke`.
The lesl nxluie is designed lo induce simple lending wilhin lhe specimen
wilhoul inlioducing complicaled off-axis end loads/momenls oi offsel
loads. n oidei lo achieve lhis oleclive. lhe nxluie allows fiee end iolalion
of lhe specimen whilsl lhe load is applied. Sheai componenls wilhin lhe
laminale aie expecled lo cancel oul. iesulling in a puie` inleilaminai lensile
failuie mode neai lhe apex of lhe specimen.
1
A maoi disadvanlage of lhe use of indiiecl melhods foi inducing inlei-
laminai lension is lhe consideialle inuence lhal comlined sliess slales
COYV\NO%[OPJRULZZ![LZ[PUN )--
8.7 C-secIioh Iehsile IxIure ahd specimeh (courIesy oI DEPA,
Farhborough, UK).

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
have on sliucluial defoimalion and failuie. Iailuie mechanisms aie oflen
complex and lhe associaled analysis is usually ialhei elaloiale. These
connguialions aie also pione lo piocess-induced damage (e.g. pooi
compaclion). Iiaclogiaphic evidence suggesls lhal mixed-mode failuie
conlaining lolh lensile and sheai componenls occuis in piefeience lo
inleilaminai lensile failuie. Iailuie is caused ly a comlinalion of lensile
and sheai sliesses in lhe vicinily of lhe specimen ends. a iegion of maximum
sliesses. and nol along lhe mid-plane al lhe specimen apex. Al piesenl. lheie
is insufncienl evidence lo suppoil lhe use of eilhei lesl melhod.
/%+ 4SQTVJWWNSR!XJWX!QJXMSIW
The deleiminalion of in-plane compiessive piopeilies of nlie-ieinfoiced
plaslic composiles is pailiculaily difncull. as explained in Chaplei 5. The
piollems ielaling lo T-T compiession lesling aie also ialhei complex. wilh
failuie leing dependenl upon lhe specimen geomeliy. maleiial miciosliuc-
luie and loading connguialion. Amliguilies and unceilainlies in lhe inlei-
pielalion of fiacluie may iesull fiom compelilion lelween seveial failuie
mechanisms (e.g. inleifacial failuie. nlie micioluckling and plaslic defoi-
malion) piioi lo nnal fiacluie. These mechanisms aie oflen inleiaclive. wilh
piogiessive damage leading lo local sliess iedisliilulion. As a iesull. lhe
oveiall sliesssliain slale wilhin a sliucluie alleis conlinuously wilh pio-
giessive failuie. Howevei. lhe loading aiiangemenl ilself is fai simplei lhan
foi in-plane specimens.
This seclion is essenlially connned lo lhe evalualion of lhe following
waisled and unwaisled connguialions:
- squaie seclion llock
- squaie seclion waisled llock wilh eilhei a ciiculai oi elliplical pionle
- squaie seclion waisled ieclangulai llock wilh a paiallel gauge seclion.
Delails of suilalle lesl specimen geomeliies aie given in lhe seclion on
T-T lension. Specimen piepaialion. insliumenlalion iequiiemenls and dala
ieduclion. using !qualion |8.1]. aie similai lo lhose foi lension. Howevei.
caulion needs lo le exeicised lo ensuie alness and paiallelism of lolh
specimens and loading plalens.
0&,&) BX\HYL!ISVJR
The mosl lasic appioach is lo load a ieclangulai llock diieclly lelween
lwo al and paiallel haidened sleel plalens. wilh lhe specimens localed
al lhe cenlie of lhe plalens in closely nlling iecesses (allhough lhese
aie oplional). wilh lhe compiessive load leing applied along lhe T-T axis.
12
A foui-pillai die sel is oflen used. as lhis ensuies unifoim loading lo lhe
ends of lhe specimen. Theie aie no nalional oi inleinalional slandaids avail-
)-. <LJOHUPJHS![LZ[PUN!VM!HK]HUJLK!gIYL!JVTWVZP[LZ

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
alle. lul nleinalional Slandaid SO 6O4
13
is a polenlial piecuisoi. This slan-
daid specines a melhod foi lhe deleiminalion of compiessive piopeilies of
plaslics wilh lhe displacemenl iale (speed of lesling) sel in accoidance wilh
lhe puipose of lhe measuiemenl (modulus oi slienglh). lhe maleiial spec-
incalion (liillle oi duclile) and lhe specimen lenglh. A lenglh-lo-widlh ialio
7O.4 is iecommended lo avoid lhe possililily of compiessive luckling.
This lesl geomeliy piovides consislenl and ielialle elaslic piopeily dala
foi lolh monolilhic and layeied (sandwich consliuclion) maleiials. and is
amenalle lo slandaidisalion foi lhis puipose as shown in Talle 8.2. which
gives dala ollained foi unidiieclional T3OO/924 cailon nlie-ieinfoiced
epoxy (foi a K
f
of 6O'). The ieclangulai llock dala piesenled in Talle 8.2
weie ollained fiom 15mm squaie ieclangulai llocks. machined fiom
2Omm and 4Omm lhick laminales. !laslic and slienglh piopeilies weie
appioximalely lhe same foi lolh T-T dimensions. meaning negligille end
effecls. The use of specimens wilh a lenglh-lo-widlh ialio of 2: 1 should
ensuie a ielalively unifoim sliess slale al lhe specimen mid-seclion and
pievenl compiessive luckling. Slienglh values weie consislenl lo wilhin
:1O' and in ieasonalle agieemenl wilh lhe slienglh dala ollained using
COYV\NO%[OPJRULZZ![LZ[PUN )-/
9<=D?!+"%" T-T compressive properIies oI uhidirecIiohal T300/924 carboh
Ibre/epoxy.
1
TesI meIhod 1
33
(GPa) ,
31
,
32
8
33
(MPa)
15mm square block 10.0 0.1 0.022 0.001 0.52 0.01 263 3
(40mm Ihick)
15mm square block 9.9 0.1 0.020 0.001 0.56 0.01 256 6
(20mm Ihick)
Layered square block 10.0 0.02 0.52 258 3
(40mm Ihick)
25mm square, plaih h/a h/a h/a 343 7
radius block waisIed Io
16mm (40mm Ihick)
25mm square, plaih h/a h/a h/a 344 10
radius block waisIed Io
16mm (20mm Ihick)
25mm square, radius 10.3 0.2 0.020 0.005 0.50 0.01 297 5
waisIed block wiIh
parallel-sided gauge
secIioh (40mm Ihick)
25mm square, radius 9.6 0.4 0.018 0.008 0.51 0.03 283 12
waisIed block wiIh
parallel-sided gauge
secIioh (20mm Ihick)
1
33
' Through-Ihickhess elasIic modulus, ,
31
ahd ,
32
' axial ahd Irahsverse
Ihrough-Ihickhess Poissoh's raIios, respecIively, 8
33
' Ihrough-Ihickhess
sIrehgIh.

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
lhe waisled llock geomeliies. This lesl melhod is. howevei. unsuiled lo
measuiing T-T slienglh. as failuie invaiially iniliales al lhe specimen
ends. independenl of maleiial anisoliopy and degiee of homogeneily (see
Iig. 8.8). The piesence of sliess concenlialions in lhese iegions causes pie-
maluie failuie. hence lhe lowei slienglh value. This melhod is ielalively
insensilive lo maleiial aws. such as poiosily.
Signincanlly smallei (6mm squaie seclion. wilh a lhickness of 6mm)
T3OO/914 cailon/epoxy specimens have leen invesligaled.
4.14
giving quile
similai iesulls lo lhose in Talle 8.2.
Piepaialion and lesling of lhe shoil llock specimens aie sliaighlfoiwaid
and economical. allhough caie is iequiied lo ensuie lhal lhe specimen ends
aie machined al and paiallel. The lechnique iequiies no special nxluie.
The use of a high piecision die sel ensuies unifoim axial loading. Com-
meicial unils aie availalle al a ieasonalle piice. As wilh lhe lensile lesl. a
maoi diawlack ielales lo lhe numlei of sliain gauges iequiied foi lhe
highesl accuiacy measuiemenl of axial and liansveise sliain. The numlei
of sliain gauges could le ieduced if lheie is conndence aloul lhe alness
and paiallelism of lhe specimen and loading plalens. !xlensomeleis aie nol
pailiculaily suilalle foi measuiing axial and laleial sliains.
0&,&* FHPZ[LK!ISVJR!"JPYJ\SHY!HUK!LSSPW[PJHS#
This ielalively sliaighlfoiwaid appioach can le used lo measuie lolh T-T
lensile and compiessive slienglhs of monolilhic and sandwich consliuc-
lions. Tesling can le consideied uncomplicaled. iequiiing no special nxluie.
The use of a high piecision die sel will ensuie uniaxial loading ovei lhe
enliie specimen cioss-seclion. Compaied lo ieclangulai llocks. specimen
faliicalion is expensive and laloui inlensive. As wilh lension. a laige iadius
nllel (3Omm). oi elliplical pionle. ieduces lhe sliess concenlialion in lhe
vicinily of lhe nllel iool. allhough lhe sliess slale wilhin lhe gauge lenglh
is less unifoim lhan an equivalenl sized ieclangulai piism.
)-0 <LJOHUPJHS![LZ[PUN!VM!HK]HUJLK!gIYL!JVTWVZP[LZ
8.8 Failed Iabric specimehs: (leII) DEPA, (cehIre) plaih radius, (righI)
square block.

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
Consideialion needs lo le given lo specimen dimensions in oidei lo mini-
mise end effecls and avoid lhe possililily of compiession luckling. A
lenglh-lo-widlh ialio of 2: 1. as used foi lhe lesl geomeliy in Iig. 8.1. has
pioved lo le salisfacloiy foi an exlensive iange of composile maleiials. This
lesl geomeliy may le scaled down ly a facloi of 2. wilh minimal effecl on
compiessive slienglh. The iesulls in Talle 8.2 show lhal lhe inuence of end
effecls incieases slighlly wilh ieduclion in lhickness.
Sheai is lhe piedominanl cause of failuie in all nlie-ieinfoiced plaslic
composiles. independenl of lhe maleiial miciosliucluie oi loading conngu-
ialion. Iailuie is oflen inslanlaneous and calasliophic. iesulling in diagonal
and inleilaminai ciacking. wilh failuie modes geneially iemaining unaf-
fecled ly a ieduclion in specimen size. Ioi 2-D woven faliics. lwo oilhog-
onal fiacluie planes can le olseived al 45 lo lhe T-T axis.
0&,&+ FHPZ[LK!ISVJR!^P[O!WHYHSSLS%ZPKLK!NH\NL!ZLJ[PVU
This veisalile lesl geomeliy can le used lo measuie lolh T-T lensile and
compiessive elaslic and slienglh piopeilies.
1.4.14
The specimens aie sul-
ecled lo diiecl compiessive loading lelween lwo haidened sleel paiallel
plalens al a conslanl displacemenl iale (Iig. 8.9). The lesl geomeliy
(Iig. 8.3) may le scaled down ly a facloi of 2. wilh minimal effecl on eilhei
elaslic piopeily oi slienglh dala. l has leen olseived lhal lhe failuie mode
foi mosl composiles iemains unalleied as a iesull of ieducing specimen
lhickness. A ieduclion in specimen lhickness lo 15mm oi less makes
handling (sliain gauging and lesling) moie difncull. The accompanying
COYV\NO%[OPJRULZZ![LZ[PUN )-1
8.9 Compressioh IxIure wiIh DEPA specimeh (courIesy oI DEPA, UK).

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
ieduclion in cioss-seclional aiea has a lendency lo induce compiessive
luckling. pailiculaily foi lheimoplaslic-lased syslems.
Piepaialion and lesling of lhese specimens aie faiily expensive and
laloui inlensive. consideialle effoil leing iequiied lo machine specimens
lo size and lo inslall sliain gauges. Specimen piepaialion and insliumenla-
lion iequiiemenls and associaled piollems aie similai lo lhose encoun-
leied foi lension. The lechnique iequiies no special nxluie. allhough lhe
use of a high piecision die sel ensuies unifoim axial loading. As wilh
lension. a maoi diawlack is in lhe numlei of axial and liansveise sliain
gauges iequiied. These could le ieduced in numlei if lheie was sufncienl
conndence in lhe alness and paiallelism of lhe specimen and loading
plalens. !xlensomeleis aie nol pailiculaily suilalle foi measuiing axial and
laleial sliains.
Sheai failuie consislenlly occuis al lhe iadius iool. independenl of
lhe maleiial miciosliucluie. This is due lo lhe piesence of sliess concen-
lialions. Iailuie is usually inslanlaneous and calasliophic. wilh diagonal
ciacking occuiiing along lhe sheai planes and lelween layeis. Iailuie
modes geneially iemain unaffecled ly a ieduclion in specimen size. Lineai
elaslic nnile elemenl sliess analysis
1
has shown lhal foi isoliopic maleiials
lhe sliess concenlialion in lhe vicinily of lhe nllel is appioximalely 1.6. n
conliasl. lhe sliess concenlialion al lhe mid-seclion of specimens wilh
eilhei a ciiculai oi elliplical pionle is close lo unily.
1.4
piovided lhe iadius
of cuivaluie is laige. This pailially explains lhe lowei slienglh values
ollained using lhis lesl geomeliy. l is woilh noling lhal plaslic defoima-
lion and miciodamage foimalion lend lo ieduce sliess concenlialions. Dai-
ielling fiequenlly occuis. iesulling in failuie of lhe adhesive lond lelween
sliain gauges and lhe composile. lhus pievenling lhe measuiemenl of
failuie sliains. Iilie-ieinfoiced lheimoplaslics aie pailiculaily pione lo lhis
mode of failuie.
/%, BMJFV!XJWX!QJXMSIW
Al a nisl glance. lheie appeais lo le a mullilude of lesl melhods of vaiying
complexily foi lhe evalualion of inleilaminai sheai piopeilies. On closei
inspeclion. lhe numlei of lesl melhods lhal can le used effeclively foi T-
T sheai chaiacleiisalion is limiled. wilh all lechniques demonslialing den-
ciencies. A maoi difncully is in pioducing a slale of puie sheai sliess.
pailiculaily in lhe T-T diieclion. The piollem is compounded ly lhe
impiaclicalily of pioducing lhick seclions wilh similai dimensions lo lhose
employed foi in-plane lesling. This difncully incieases wilh maleiial
anisoliopy and inhomogeneily. Addilional piollems associaled wilh com-
plexily and cosl of specimen faliicalion and lesling and pooi ielialilily of
lesl dala consideially ieduce lhe numlei of lesl melhods suilalle foi eilhei
).( <LJOHUPJHS![LZ[PUN!VM!HK]HUJLK!gIYL!JVTWVZP[LZ

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
qualily conliol oi design puiposes. This seclion piovides an oveiview of
lhiee lesl melhods lhal aie used exlensively lhioughoul lhe composile
indusliy foi evalualing T-T sheai piopeilies:
- shoil leam
- doulle-nolch
- \-nolched leam (osipescu).
The shoil leam and doulle-nolch melhods have leen widely adopled
foi chaiacleiising lhe inleilaminai failuie iesislance of nlie-ieinfoiced
plaslic composiles. Owing lo lheii simplicily and lhe low cosls involved in
specimen faliicalion and lesling. lhe lwo melhods aie oflen used foi qualily
conliol puiposes. The \-nolched leam lesl is suilalle foi deleimining lolh
lhe in-plane and T-T sheai moduli and sheai slienglhs of mosl polymei
maliix composiles. piovided a suilalle sheai failuie occuis.
Slandaids exisl foi all lhiee melhods:
- shoil leam. DS !N SO 14.13O
15
- doulle-nolch. ASTM D 3846
16
- \-nolched leam. ASTM D 5379.
17
The doulle-nolch melhod. which consisls of loading a non-symmeliically
nolched composile coupon in uniaxial lension oi compiession. is also
included in DS 4994
18
and DS 6464.
19
ASTM D 3846
16
specines compiessive
loading. and lhe lwo DS slandaids specify lensile loading.
0&-&) BOVY[!ILHT
The shoil leam melhod is one of lhe simplesl lesls lo conducl and is
used widely foi measuiing lhe appaienl` inleilaminai sheai slienglh of
conlinuous aligned and faliic-ieinfoiced composiles. The lesl consisls of a
shoil leam specimen of ieclangulai cioss-seclion loaded in lhiee-poinl
lending so lhal an inleilaminai sheai failuie occuis (Iig. 8.1O). The speci-
men is suppoiled ly lwo cylindiical iolleis which allow laleial molion. and
lhe load is applied lhiough a cenlial iollei localed al lhe specimen mid-
lenglh. The suppoil and loading iolleis aie 6mm in diamelei. Ioi aligned
maleiials. lhe nlie axis is paiallel wilh lhe lenglh of lhe specimen. Ilexuie
nxluies wilh an aduslalle span facilily can le puichased fiom lesl machine
manufacluieis oi pioduced in-house al a ielalively low cosl. Tesls aie con-
ducled al a displacemenl iale of 1mmmin
%1
using slandaid mechanical lesl
equipmenl.
Specimen piepaialion is sliaighlfoiwaid and only a small amounl of
maleiial is iequiied. The slandaid specimen lhickness. W. is nominally 2mm
wilh a widlh. Q. and oveiall lenglh. A. of 1O and 2Omm. iespeclively.
15
n
accoidance wilh lhe SO slandaid. shoil leam specimens seclioned fiom
COYV\NO%[OPJRULZZ![LZ[PUN ).)

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
maleiials of non-slandaid lhickness should have an oveiall lenglh of 1OW
and a widlh of 5W. n all cases lhe loading span. H. is 5W : O.3mm. The small
loading span-lo-lhickness (H/W) ialio has leen adopled lo inciease lhe level
of sheai sliess ielalive lo lhe exuial sliess in lhe lesl specimen lo encoui-
age inleilaminai sheai failuie. nleilaminai sheai failuies aie difncull lo
allain al H/W ( 5. The foui-poinl lend lesl has leen consideied as an allei-
nalive melhod.
Accoiding lo classical leam lheoiy. lhe sheai sliess disliilulion in shoil
leams loaded in lhiee-poinl exuie is disliiluled paialolically lhiough lhe
specimen lhickness. The sliess is a maximum al lhe mid-plane and zeio al
lhe uppei and lowei suifaces. Iinile elemenl analysis has shown lhal lhe T-
T sheai sliess disliilulion is seveiely skewed neai lhe load and ieaclion
poinls and vaiies along lhe leam lenglh. The maximum inleilaminai sheai
sliess. 0
max
. is in facl posilioned lelween lhe mid-plane and lhe uppei
suiface. close lo lhe loading zone. and is laigei lhan piedicled ly classical
leam lheoiy.
2O.21
Dala ieduclion is sliaighlfoiwaid. wilh lhe maximum inleilaminai sheai
sliess given as:
15
|8.2]
wheie E is lhe load applied ly lhe cenlial loading cylindei. wilh Q and W
leing specimen widlh and lhickness. iespeclively.
The melhod is suilalle foi use wilh nlie-ieinfoiced plaslic composiles.
wilh lolh lheimosel and lheimoplaslic maliices. pioviding an inleilaminai
sheai failuie is ollained. nleilaminai sheai failuie has leen olseived foi
aligned glass-nlie and cailon-nlie ieinfoiced syslems. Mosl olhei maleii-
als (e.g. chopped sliand mal) lend lo fail on lhe lensile face. wilh ciacks
piopagaling lhiough lhe specimen lhickness.
The shoil leam lesl cannol give iesulls which aie acceplalle as lhe
alsolule maleiial sheai slienglh. lecause failuie is inuenced ly exuial
0
max
'
3
4
E
QW
).* <LJOHUPJHS![LZ[PUN!VM!HK]HUJLK!gIYL!JVTWVZP[LZ
P
Fibre direction
3
1
P
2
-
L
2
-
L
2
- P
2
-
8.10 ShorI beam loadihg cohIguraIioh.

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
and conlacl sliesses. Iailuie fiequenlly iesulls fiom a comlinalion
of high sheai and liansnliil compiession giadienls piesenl in lhe uppei
poilion of oilholiopic leams. neai lhe concenlialed cenlial load. The
suiface undei lhe cenlial loading zone is sulecled lo compiession. and lhe
composile may undeigo localised luckling. This effecl will le pailiculaily
seveie foi aiamid-ieinfoiced composiles. and lheimoplaslic-lased syslems.
which have a low iesislance lo compiession loading.
l should le emphasised lhal lhe iesull ollained is nol an alsolule value.
Ioi lhis ieason lhe leim appaienl` inleilaminai sheai slienglh is used lo
denne lhe quanlily ollained. Tesl iesulls fiom diffeienl sized specimens. oi
fiom specimens lesled undei diffeienl condilions. aie nol diieclly compa-
ialle.
15
Despile lhese difncullies. lhe simplicily of lhe lesl. comlined wilh
economic cosls. has ensuied ils populai use foi qualily conliol and as a
maleiials scieening lool. The foui-poinl lend aiiangemenl has leen con-
sideied as an alleinalive melhod. lul lesl dala have failed lo demonsliale
impioved ielialilily.
n conclusion. lhe shoil leam melhod is inappiopiiale foi geneialing
design dala. allhough lheie has leen a lendency lo use lhe measuiemenls
as design allowalles.
0&-&* 6V\ISL!UV[JO
An alleinalive appioach foi measuiing inleilaminai sheai slienglh is lo
apply uniaxial lensile oi compiessive load lo a non-symmeliically nolched
specimen of ieclangulai cioss-seclion. \aiious doulle-nolch geomeliies
have leen suggesled. including lhose specined in ASTM D 3846.
16
DS 4994
18
and DS 6464.
19
The specimen. shown in Iig. 8.11. is machined wilh lwo pai-
allel offsel nolches. one on each face of lhe specimen. cul acioss lhe enliie
widlh of lhe specimen. The nolches aie equally spaced on eilhei side of lhe
specimen mid-lenglh. A walei-luliicaled diamond culling lool should le
used lo machine lhe nolches. Iailuie of lhe specimen occuis in sheai. along
lhe mid-plane lelween lhe lwo nolches. The main advanlage of using lhe
doulle-nolch melhod is lhal ielalively lhin laminales (2.51Omm lhick) can
le lesled. This advanlage is counleiacled ly lhe difncully encounleied in
accuialely machining lhe nolches lo lhe iequiied deplh of half lhe speci-
men lhickness (i.e. mid-plane).
n piinciple. lhe enliie load is liansmilled ly sheai foices. dislii-
luled along lhe cenlial plane lelween lhe nolches. Lineai-elaslic sliess
analysis has shown lhal lhe sheai sliess disliilulion along lhe mid-
plane lelween lhe nolches is non-unifoim. lul lends lo lecome moie
unifoim as lhe nolch sepaialion incieases.
2O
Sheai sliess concenlia-
lions exisl al lhe nolches. The T-T sheai slienglh. H
gi
. is given ly !qualion
|8.3]:
COYV\NO%[OPJRULZZ![LZ[PUN ).+

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
|8.3]
wheie E
max
is lhe failuie load. A lhe dislance lelween nolches and l lhe
specimen widlh.
T-T sheai slienglh. as deleimined ly lhe lesl melhod specined in ASTM
D 3846.
16
is measuied ly applying a compiessive load lo a doulle-nolch
specimen al a displacemenl iale of 1mmmin
%1
.The specimen musl lo le sup-
poiled along ils enliie lenglh lo minimise oul-of-plane defoimalion. Speci-
mens aie nominally 79.5mm in lenglh and 12.7mm wide. The lwo paiallel
nolches aie 6.4mm (O.25in) apail and lelween 1mm and 1.6mm wide. Tesl
specimen geomeliy and loading connguialion aie given in Iigs. 8.11 and 8.12.
iespeclively.
The melhod specined in ASTM D 3846
16
is ielalively sliaighlfoiwaid lo
peifoim. iequiiing a suppoil nxluie of modeiale cosl. The melhod piovides
consislenl slienglh dala. wilh inleilaminai failuie iegulaily occuiiing along
lhe mid-plane oining lhe lwo nolches. T-T sheai slienglh dala is geneially
consislenl wilh iesulls ollained using lhe \-nolched leam melhod. Speci-
men piepaialion and lesling aie ielalively sliaighlfoiwaid. allhough lhe
qualily of machining lhe nolches has a signincanl effecl on slienglh dala.
Nolch deplh musl le accuialely machined. Iiaclogiaphic examinalion of
lhe failuie suifaces ieveals sheai dominaled mixed-mode failuie.
DS 4994
18
specines a melhod foi lensile loading 3mm lhick doulle-nolch
coupons wilh an oveiall lenglh of 2OOmm and a widlh of 25mm. The lwo
nolches aie 12.5mm apail and equidislanl fiom lhe specimen mid-lenglh.
No pailiculai delails aie availalle on lhe nolch widlh. Since lhis sliucluie
is nol laleially suppoiled. lhe coupon lends. Wilhoul laleial suppoil. lhis
oul-of-plane lending iesulls in piemaluie failuie. Sheai slienglhs using lhis
H
E
QA
gi
'
max
)., <LJOHUPJHS![LZ[PUN!VM!HK]HUJLK!gIYL!JVTWVZP[LZ
Notch depth is
1/2 specimen
thickness
6.4 mm
36.3 mm
2.54 to 6.60 mm
10.0 mm
79.5 mm
notch width
1.02 to 1.65 mm
8.11 Double-hoIch specimeh Ior deIermihaIioh oI T-T shear sIrehgIh.

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
melhod have leen found lo le lowei lhan coiiesponding lesls peifoimed
in compiession.
No allowances have leen made in eilhei lhe ASTM oi DS slandaids lo
accounl foi lhe non-unifoimily of lhe sliess disliilulion lelween lhe
nolches. lhe effecl of lending oi lhe local sliess concenlialion al lhe nlie
ends associaled wilh lhe nolch geomeliy. The close agieemenl lelween
slienglh measuiemenls. shown in Talle 8.3. ollained using lhe doulle-
nolch (ASTM D 3846)
16
and \-nolched leam sheai lesls foi a wide iange
of maleiials indicales lhal lhe slienglh calculalions do nol need lo le
adusled lo accounl foi sliess concenlialions piesenl al lhe nolches of
doulle-nolch specimens. Non-lineai sliess analysis conducled al lhe
Nalional Physical Laloialoiy has shown lhal lhe sliess concenlialion al lhe
nolches is close lo unily foi an isoliopic doulle-nolch specimen loaded
accoiding lo ASTM D 3846.
16
This analysis would need lo le exlended lo
anisoliopic solids in oidei lo sulslanliale lhe expeiimenlal olseivalion.
Specimen alignmenl. as wilh all lesls. can le iegaided as ciilical lo lesl
peifoimance.
COYV\NO%[OPJRULZZ![LZ[PUN ).-
8.12 Compressioh IxIure wiIh double-hoIch shear specimeh.

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
0&-&+ E%UV[JOLK!ILHT!ZOLHY
Delails of lesl pioceduie. specimen geomeliy and piepaialion foi lhis lesl
melhod can le found in Chaplei 6 on sheai lesling. Pioviding adequale
maleiial lhickness is availalle (al leasl 1Omm). lhis melhod can le used lo
measuie sheai modulus and sheai slienglh (Talle 8.3) in all lhiee maleiial
planes (i.e. M-N. M-O and N-O) foi a diveise iange of composile maleiials.
22
T-T specimens aie machined fiom 2Omm lhick panels lo lhe iequiied
dimensions accoiding lo ASTM D 5379.
17
Diffeiences lelween sheai
moduli. caused ly oul-of-plane defoimalion. could le as high as 1O' foi a
lalch of nominally idenlical specimens. To ensuie maximum accuiacy. sheai
modulus is deleimined fiom lhe aveiage sliain iesponse of lack-lo-lack
liaxial ioselles. Al piesenl. lhe slandaid iequiies only one specimen fiom
a lalch lo le lesled in lhis mannei. piovided lhe amounl of lwisl foi lhis
leslpiece is no giealei lhan 3' (foi fuilhei delails see Chaplei 6 on sheai
lesling).
).. <LJOHUPJHS![LZ[PUN!VM!HK]HUJLK!gIYL!JVTWVZP[LZ
9<=D?!+"&" Typical T-T shear properIies.
MaIerial ahd IesI meIhod 3
LN
(GPa) 3
MN
(GPa) 8
LN
(MPa) 8
MN
(MPa)
UD carboh-Ibre/epoxy
ShorI beam h/a h/a 108 6 h/a
Double hoIch h/a h/a 75 12 h/a
V-hoIched beam 5.3 0.2 2.9 0.3 111 2 64 9
CSM
ShorI beam h/a h/a 13.4 3.0 |13.4 3.0I
Double hoIch h/a h/a 38.3 4.7 |38.3 4.7I
V-hoIched beam 1.64 0.09 |1.64 0.09I 40.7 1.7 |40.7 1.7I
2/2 Iwill glass-Ibre
Iabric/epoxy
ShorI beam h/a h/a 52.5 0.6 |52.5 0.6I
Double hoIch h/a h/a 64.9 1.8 |64.9 1.8I
V-hoIched beam 4.12 0.14 |4.12 0.14I 68.4 0.9 |68.4 0.9I
DiscohIihuous glass-
Ibre/hyloh 66
ShorI beam h/a h/a 18.6 0.4 |18.6 0.4I
Double hoIch h/a h/a 66.4 4.8 |66.4 4.8I
V-hoIched beam 1.68 0.06 uhavailable 56.9 3.6 uhavailable
Pahdom glass-Ibre
maI/polypropylehe
ShorI beam h/a h/a 14.2 1.5 |14.2 1.5I
Double hoIch h/a h/a 18.1 3.3 |18.1 3.3I
V-hoIched beam 1.04 0.04 |1.04 0.04I 22.7 0.8 |22.7 0.8I
| I assumed Irom maIerial symmeIry, hoh-shear Iailure mode.

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
0&-&, 5VTWHYPZVU!VM!ZOLHY!KH[H
A compaiison of lypical T-T sheai modulus and sheai slienglh dala
ollained fiom a wide iange of composiles is shown in Talle 8.3. Defaull
values aie liackeled. wheie il is assumed lhe maleiial is symmeliic in lhe
M-O and N-O planes.
/%- 4SRHPYINRL!VJQFVOW
Talle 8.4 summaiises lhe suilalilily of each lesl melhod foi measuiing T-
T piopeilies. The diffeiences lelween lensile and compiessive elaslic piop-
eily measuiemenls aie minimal. in view of lhe piollems associaled wilh
coiiecl alignmenl. sliess non-unifoimily and heleiogeneily of lhe maleii-
als. lhe iesulls aie geneially consislenl (i.e. :5' foi elaslic moduli and
:1O' foi slienglh). Owing lo lhe ease of specimen piepaialion (i.e. no
londed loading lais) and lesling. a usei would le uslined in conducling
compiession lesls lo pioduce lhe iequiied elaslic piopeily dala.
2HORS[PJILJQJRXW
This chaplei was wiillen wilh lhe suppoil of lhe Maleiials Measuiemenl
Piogiamme. a piogiamme of undeipinning ieseaich nnanced ly lhe \niled
Kingdom Depailmenl of Tiade and ndusliy. The aulhoi acknowledges lhe
conliilulions of his colleagues Di Giaham Sims and Miss Maiia Lodeiio
COYV\NO%[OPJRULZZ![LZ[PUN )./
9<=D?!+"'" SuiIabiliIy oI IesI meIhods Ior measurihg T-T properIies.
MeIhod ElasIic properIies SIrehgIh
Tehsioh
Plaih shorI block SuiIable NoI suiIable
Circular proIle NoI applicable SuiIable
EllipIical proIle SuiIable SuiIable - heeds IurIher assessmehI
DEPA SuiIable SuiIable
C-secIioh NoI applicable NoI suiIable
-secIioh NoI applicable SuiIable - heeds IurIher developmehI
Compressioh
Plaih shorI block SuiIable OA ohly
Circular proIle NoI applicable SuiIable
EllipIical proIle SuiIable SuiIable - heeds IurIher assessmehI
DEPA SuiIable SuiIable - IhermoseI sysIems ohly
Shear
ShorI beam NoI applicable OA ohly - cohIihuous alighed lamihaIes
Double-hoIch NoI applicable SuiIable
V-hoIched beam SuiIable SuiIable - cauIioh oh Iailure mode

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
al lhe Nalional Physical Laloialoiy. Di Clive Messengei and Mi Mallhew
Hiley. Defence !valualion and Reseaich Agency al Iainloiough. and Mi
Roleil Ieiguson. Defence !valualion and Reseaich Agency. Ioil Halslead.
AJKJVJRHJW
1. W R Dioughlon and G D Sims. 6]!DeTaeXTf!^U!IWa^dVW'cWXRZ]Tbb!ITbc!BTcW^Sb
U^a!E^[h\Ta!BPcaXg!8^\_^bXcTb. NPL Repoil DMM(A)148. Oclolei 1994.
2. S Mespoulel. IWa^dVW'cWXRZ]Tbb! ITbc! BTcW^Sb! U^a! AP\X]PcTS! 8^\_^bXcTb! m!6
GTeXTf. Cenlie foi Composile Maleiials. mpeiial College. London. \K.
Ieliuaiy 1995.
3. S Mespoulel. 1 M Hodgkinson. I L Mallhews. D Hilchings and P Rolinson. A
novel lesl melhod lo deleimine lhe lhiough-lhickness lensile piopeilies of long
nlie ieinfoiced composiles`. Ea^RTTSX]Vb! ^U! HTeT]cW! :da^_TP]! 8^]UTaT]RT! ^]
8^\_^bXcT!BPcTaXP[b!$:88B'1%. nslilule of Maleiials London. \K. \olume 2.
Woodhead Pullishing. Camliidge. May 1996. 1317.
4. S Mespoulel. IWa^dVW'cWXRZ]Tbb! ITbc! BTcW^Sb! U^a! AP\X]PcTS! 8^\_^bXcT!
BPcTaXP[b. PhD Thesis. Cenlie foi Composile Maleiials. mpeiial College.
London \niveisily. \K. 1anuaiy 1998.
5. N C W 1udd and W W Wiighl. \oids and lheii effecls on lhe mechanical
piopeilies of composiles appiaisal`. H6BE:!?^da]P[. 1978 1anuaiy/Ieliuaiy
1O4.
6. M R Wisnom and M 1ones. Size effecls in inleilaminai lensile and sheai
slienglh of unidiieclional glass nlie/epoxy`. ?^da]P[!^U!GTX]U^aRTS!E[PbcXRb!P]S
8^\_^bXcTb. 1996 #' 1anuaiy 215.
7. C O Hoian and 1 G Simmonds. Sainl-\enanl end effecls in composile sliuc-
luies`. 8^\_^bXcTb!:]VX]TTaX]V. 1994 &(3) 27986.
8. W R Dioughlon. A ciilical evalualion of lhiough-lhickness lesl melhods`.
Ea^RTTSX]Vb! ^U! cWT! :[TeT]cW! >]cTa]PcX^]P[! 8^]UTaT]RT! ^]! 8^\_^bXcT! BPcTaXP[b.
Auslialian Composile Sliucluies Sociely Gold Coasl. Oueensland. Auslialia. ed
M L Scoll. \olume 25. Woodhead Pullishing. Camliidge. 1uly 1997. 8949O4.
9. M Sumich. Manufacluie of composile lesl specimens foi delaminalion sludies`.
:g_TaX\T]cP[!ITRW]X`dTb. 1989 #% 2O2.
1O. C C Hiel. M Sumich and D P Chappell. A cuived leam lesl specimen foi delei-
mining lhe inleilaminai lensile slienglh of a laminaled composile`. ?^da]P[! ^U
8^\_^bXcT!BPcTaXP[b. 1991 $' 85468.
11. H W Chandlei. A 1 Longmuii. S McRollie. Y-S Wu and A G Gilson. Tensile
delaminalion failuie of cuived laminales of single and doulle-skinned con-
sliuclion`. Ea^RTTSX]Vb!^U!cWT!,]S!>]cTa]PcX^]P[!8^]UTaT]RT!^]!9TU^a\PcX^]!P]S
;aPRcdaT! ^U! 8^\_^bXcTb. \MST. Mancheslei. \K. Maich 1993. nslilule of
Maleiials. pullished ly oM Communicalions Lld. 1993. 16.11O.
12. S Chaleiee. D Adams and D W Oplingei. ITbc!BTcW^Sb!U^a!8^\_^bXcTb!P!HcPcdb
GT_^ac. \olume : 8^\_aTbbXeT! ITbc! BTcW^Sb. \S Depailmenl of Tianspoil.
Iedeial Avialion Adminislialion. Repoil DOT/IAA/CT-93/17. . Nalional
Technical nfoimalion Seivice. Spiingneld. \A 22161. \SA. 1une 1993.
13. SO 6O4: E[PbcXRb!m!9TcTa\X]PcX^]!^U!8^\_aTbbXeT!Ea^_TacXTb. 1993.
14. S Mespoulel. 1 M Hodgkinson. I L Mallhews. P Rolinson and D Hilchings. The
developmenl of a lhiough-lhickness compiession lesl foi laminaled CIRP`.
).0 <LJOHUPJHS![LZ[PUN!VM!HK]HUJLK!gIYL!JVTWVZP[LZ

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1
Ea^RTTSX]Vb! ^U! cWT! .cW! >]cTa]PcX^]P[! 8^]UTaT]RT! ^]! 9TU^a\PcX^]! P]S! ;aPRcdaT
^U! 8^\_^bXcTb. \MST. Mancheslei. \K. Maich 1997. nslilule of Maleiials.
pullished ly oM Communicalions Lld. 1997. 3718.
15. DS !N SO 14.13O: ;XQaT'aTX]U^aRTS! E[PbcXR! 8^\_^bXcTb! m! 9TcTa\X]PcX^]! ^U
6__PaT]c!>]cTa[P\X]Pa!HWTPa!HcaT]VcW!Qh!HW^ac!7TP\!BTcW^S. 1997.
16. ASTM D 3846: Slandaid lesl melhod foi in-plane sheai of ieinfoiced plaslics`.
6]]dP[!7^^Z!^U!6HIB!HcP]SPaSb. 1OO Daii Hailoi Diive. Wesl Conshohocken.
PA 19428. \SA. \ol 8.O2. 1998. 47981.
17. ASTM D 5379: Slandaid lesl melhod foi sheai piopeilies of composile
maleiials ly lhe \-nolched leam melhod`. 6]]dP[!7^^Z!^U!6HIB!HcP]SPaSb.
1OO Daii Hailoi Diive. Wesl Conshohocken. PA 19428. \SA. \ol 15.O3. 1997.
23547.
18. DS 4994: 9TbXV]! P]S! 8^]bcadRcX^]! ^U!KTbbT[b! P]S!IP]Zb! X]! GTX]U^aRTS! E[PbcXRb.
1987.
19. DS 6464: GTX]U^aRTS!E[PbcXRb!EX_Tb& ;XccX]Vb!P]S!?^X]cb!U^a!Ea^RTbb!E[P]cb. 1984.
2O. S Chaleiee. D Adams and D W Oplingei. ITbc!BTcW^Sb!U^a!8^\_^bXcTb!P!HcPcdb
GT_^ac!K^[d\T! >>>4 HWTPa!ITbc! BTcW^Sb. \S Depailmenl of Tianspoil. Iedeial
Avialion Adminislialion. Repoil DOT/IAA/CT-93/17. . Nalional Technical
nfoimalion Seivice. Spiingneld. \A 22161. \SA. 1une 1993.
21. R D Pipes. R A Dlake 1i. 1 W Gillespie 1i and L A Cailsson. Tesl melhods`.
9T[PfPaT! 8^\_^bXcTb! 9TbXV]! :]RhR[^_TSXP. \olume 6. eds L A Cailsson and
1 W Gillespie 1i. Technomic Pullishing. Lancaslei. PA. \SA. 199O.
22. W R Dioughlon. M Lodeiio and G D Sims. !xpeiimenlal validalion of
sheai lesl melhods foi lhiough-lhickness piopeilies`. Ea^RTTSX]Vb! ^U! HTeT]cW
:da^_TP]!8^]UTaT]RT!^]!8^\_^bXcT!BPcTaXP[b!$:88B1%. nslilule of Maleiials
London. \K. \olume 2. Woodhead Pullishing. Camliidge. May. 1996. 1253O.
COYV\NO%[OPJRULZZ![LZ[PUN ).1

H
o
d
g
k
i
n
s
o
n
,
J
M
,
O
c
t
2
7
,
2
0
0
0
,
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
f
i
b
r
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
W
o
o
d
h
e
a
d
P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g
L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
I
S
B
N
:
9
7
8
1
8
5
5
7
3
8
9
1
1