Chapter 2 Cellular 1

Chapter 2: The Cellular System
Graduat e Program Graduat e Program

Depart ment of Elect rical and Comput er Engineering
Goal of the Chapter
- In cellular system, the available radio spectrum is limited
- E.g., because of regulatory issues
- Hence the number of simultaneous call supported is limited - Hence, the number of simultaneous call supported is limited
- How to achieve high capacity (or support simultaneous
calls) at the same time covering very large areas? calls) at the same time covering very large areas?
- Frequency reuse by using cells?
- Overview system design fundamentals on cellular y g
communication
- Cell formation and the associated frequency reuse, handoff, and
power control power control
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Wireless Communications - Ch. 2 Cellular System 2
Overview
- Cellular system
- Cell shape
F - Frequency reuse
- Cell capacity and reuse
- Channel assignment strategies - Channel assignment strategies
- Handoff
- Interference and system capacity y p y
- Trunking and grade of service
- Improving capacity
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Cellular System - Architecture
R di t Radio tower
Mobile Switching
PSTN
Telephone
Network
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Mobile Switching
Center
Cellular System .
- High capacity is achieved by limiting the coverage of each
base stations to a small geographic region called a cell
- Single high power transmitter (large cell) are replaced with many - Single, high power transmitter (large cell) are replaced with many
low power transmitters (small cells)
- A portion of the total number of channels is allocated to p
each cell or base station
- Available group of channels are assigned to a small number of
neighboring base stations called cluster neighboring base stations called cluster
- Near by base stations are assigned d/t groups of channels to
minimize interference
- Same channels (frequencies/timeslots/codes) are reused
by spatially separated base stations
Reuse distance and frequency reuse planning?
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Reuse distance and frequency reuse planning?
Cellular System .
A switching technique called handoff enables a call to
proceed from one cell to another
- As demand (or # of users) increases the number of base - As demand (or # of users) increases, the number of base
stations may be increased to provide additional capacity
Smaller cells, e.g., Microcells, Picocell, Femtocell
Also cell sites in trucks to replace downed cell towers after natural
disasters, or to create additional capacity for large gatherings
(football games, rock concerts)
Transmission power reduction => interference decreases
- Typical power transmitted by the radios in a cell system
Base station: Maximum Effective Radiated Power (ERP) is - Base station: Maximum Effective Radiated Power (ERP) is
100W, or up to 500 W in rural areas
- Mobile station: Typically 0.5 W. For CDMA, transmit power is
lowered when close to a BS
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lowered when close to a BS
Forward and Reverse Channels
- Forward Voice Channel (FVC): Used for voice transmission
from BS to MS
- Reverse Voice Channel (RVC): Used for voice
transmission from MS to BS
C C ( CC) f - Forward Control Channel (FCC): Used for initiating a call
from BS to MS
R C t l Ch l (RCC) U d f i iti ti ll - Reverse Control Channel (RCC): Used for initiating a call
from MS to BS
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Anatomy of a Cellular Call
- A cell phone, when turned on, (though not yet engaged in a
call) scans the group of FCC to determine the one with the
strongest signal strongest signal
- It monitors the channel until it drops below the usable
threshold threshold
- It then scans for another channel with the strongest signal
- Control channels are defined and standardized throughout - Control channels are defined and standardized throughout
the service area
- Typically the control channels use up to 5% of the total
number of channels
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A Call TO a Mobile User
- The MSC dispatches the request to all the base stations
- The Mobile Identification Number (MIN) is broadcast as a paging
message over all FCC throughout the service area. g g
- The MS receives the paging message from the BS it is
monitoringg
- It responds by identifying itself over the RCC
- The BS conveys the handshake to the MSC y
- The MSC instructs the BS to move to an unused voice
channel
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A Call TO a Mobile User. . .
- The BS signals the MS to change over to unused FVC and
RVC
- A data message (called alert) is transmitted over the FVC
to instruct the mobile to ring
f f f - All of these sequences of events occur in just few
seconds, and are not noticeable to the user
Whil th ll i i th MSC dj t th - While the call is in progress, the MSC adjusts the
transmitted power in order to maintain the call quality
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A Call FROM a Mobile User
- A call initiation request is sent to the RCC
- Along with this, the MS transmits its MIN, Electronic Serial
Number (ESN) and the phone number of the called party
- The MS also transmits the Station Class Mark (SCM) which
f indicates the maximum transmitter power level for the
particular user
Th BS f d th d t t th MSC hi h lid t th - The BS forwards the data to the MSC, which validates the
data and makes connection to the called party through the
PSTN
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Overview
- Cellular system
- Cell shape
F - Frequency reuse
- Handoff
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Cell Shape Why hexagon?
The hexagonal shape is a simplistic assumption
- (a) is theoretical coverage area and (b) measured coverage area
h d bl d ll i di t i l t th i where red, blue, green, and yellow indicate signal strength, in
decreasing order
- Footprint: Actual radio coverage and obtained experimentally
- Actual shape is a random that depends on the environment
- Circular (theoretical): If path loss was a decreasing function
of distance say 1/d
n
where d is the distance b/n BS & MS
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of distance, say, 1/d , where d is the distance b/n BS & MS
Cell Shape Required
- Geometric shape that
approximates the
theoretical shape? theoretical shape?
- Shape whose non-
overlapping and
repetitive placement
covers an entire
region? eg o
- Possible shapes
- Triangles, squares, g , q ,
hexagons
- Which one to choose?
Has dead zones Has dead zones
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Cell Shape . . .
RR
R
R
a
T
= 3
3/2
R
2
/4 a
R
= 2R
2
a
H
= 3
3/2
R
2
/2
- Hexagonal cell is conceptual, however, it is universally g p , , y
adopted for most theoretical treatment because:
- Hexagons are a geometric shape that approximates a circle (for
O i di ti l di ti ) Omni-directional radiation)
- Using a hexagon geometry, fewest number of cells can cover the
entire geographic region
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Cell Shape . . .
- When using hexagon to model coverage areas
- Center-excited cell: Base station (BS) depicted as being in the
center of the cell
- Omni-directional antenna is used
- Edge-excited cell: on three of the six cell vertices
S t d di ti t i d - Sectored direction antenna is used
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Overview
- Cellular system
- Cell shape
F - Frequency reuse
- Handoff
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Frequency Reuse Example
- Assume a city of 10 Million mobile users
- Let every user is allocated a radio spectrum for analog speech of 4
kHz bandwidth
- Thus the required bandwidth is 4 kHz * 10 Million users = 40 GHz!
- Clearly impractical!
N th i ibl i di t i i - No other services possible using a radio transmission
- Most of the spectrum will be unused most of the time
- Cellular radio systems rely on intelligent allocation and
reuse of channels through out the coverage area
- Available group of channels are assigned to a cluster - Available group of channels are assigned to a cluster
- Same group of frequencies are reused to cover another cell
separated by a large enough distance, i.e., there is a tradeoff
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Frequency Reuse Example
- Example: Consider a
cluster of 7 cells
- Same color labeled
cells use the same
frequency frequency
- Frequency reuse factor
is 1/7 since each cell
t i th contains one-seventh
of the total available
channels
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Geometry of Hexagons
U
V
y
U
x
D
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- Axes U and V intersect at 60
o
- Unit distance is the distance between cell centers
If ll di t i t f h i R th - If cell radius to point of hexagon is R, then
- 2Rcos 30
o
= 1 or R = 1/3 (Normalized radius of a cell)
- To find the distance of a point P(u,v) from the origin, use X- To find the distance of a point P(u,v) from the origin, use X
Y to U-V coordinate transformation
0
0
2 2 2
30 i
30 cos u x
y x r
=
+ =
2
1
2 2
0
) (
30 sin
u uv v r
u v y
+ + =
+ =
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- Using these equations, to locate the co-channel cells,
start from a reference cell and move
- i-hexagons along the U-axis and - i hexagons along the U axis and
- j-hexagons along the V-axis
- The distance, D, between co-channel cells in adjacent
clusters is given by
2 2
j ij i D + + =
- The number of cells in a cluster, N, is given by
2 2
j ij i N + + =
where i and j are non-negative integers
- There are only certain cluster sizes and layouts possible
T i l l f N 1 3 4 7 12
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- Typical values of N are 1, 3, 4, 7, 12,
Example
Re-use Coordinates Number of Cells
in the cluster
Normalized
repeat distance
i j N D i j N D
1 0 1 1
1 1 3 1 732 1 1 3 1.732
2 1 7 2.646
2 2 12 3 464 2 2 12 3.464
1 3 13 3.606
3 2 19 4 359 3 2 19 4.359
1 4 21 4.583
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Locating Co-Channel Cells: Example N=7, i=2 & j=1
V
- To find out the
nearest co-channel
neighbors of a
BS1
neighbors of a
particular cell, do the
following
M i ll i th U
U
- Move i cells in the U
direction
- Then turn 60 degree
t l k i d
BS1
BS1
counter clockwise and
move j cells in the V
direction
BS1
1/\3
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Locating Co-Channel Cells: Example N=19, i=3, j=2
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Re-use Factor
- For Hexagonal cells,
the re-use distance is
i b
D
given by:
R
N R D 3 =
- Where R = cell size and
N = cluster size
- Re use factor is
R
- Re-use factor is
defined as:
BS1
BS1
D
BS1
N
R
D
q 3 = =
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Overview
- Cellular system
- Cell shape
F - Frequency reuse
- Handoff
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Cell Capacity and Reuse
- Consider a cellular system
- Which has S duplex channels available for re-use
- Each cell allocated a group of k channels - Each cell allocated a group of k channels
- Let the S channels be divided among N cells (unique and disjoint)
then,
kN S =
- Cluster: N cells, which collectively use the complete set of
available frequencies
- If a cluster is replicated M times in the system, the total
number of duplex channels, C, as a measure of capacity is
S M N k M C = =
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Cell Capacity and Reuse . . .
- If cluster size N is reduced while cell size is kept constant
- More clusters are required to cover area of interest, i.e.,
- So capacity is directly prop to replication factor for fixed area
| | C M
- So capacity is directly prop. to replication factor for fixed area
- However, small cluster size means co-channel cells are
located much closer together located much closer together
- Results in larger co-channel interference
- May result in lower Quality of Service (QoS)
- Conversely, large cluster size indicates that co-channel
cells are far from each other
- Less co channel interference and frequency utilization - Less co-channel interference and frequency utilization
- The value of N is a function of how much interference a
mobile or BS can tolerate
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mobile or BS can tolerate
Cell Capacity and Reuse: Example 1
- Assume that:
- 50 MHz is available for
forward channels
- GSM is deployed
- Each channel is 200 kHz
- In GSM TDMA is used so - In GSM, TDMA is used so
that 8 simultaneous calls can
be made on each channel
- How large is k?
- How many forward calls
can be made can be made
simultaneously for the
deployment containing 28
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cells as in the figure?
Cell Capacity and Reuse: Solution
- Solution:
- There are 50 MHz / 0.2 MHz = 250 channels per cluster
- With N = 4 then k = 250/4 = 62 5 - With N 4, then k 250/4 62.5
- With 62.5 channels, 8(62.5) = 500 simultaneous calls can be made
in each cell
- There are 28 cells on the cell map in Figure, so the total forward
calls is 28(500) = 1410
3
calls can be made simultaneously
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Cell Capacity and Reuse: Example 2
- Suppose 33 MHz BW allocated to particular FDD cellular
system, where two 25 KHz simplex channel to provide full-
duplex for voice/data duplex for voice/data
- Compute the number of channels per cell if a system uses
- Four-cell reuse
S ll - Seven-cell reuse
- Twelve-cell reuse
- Solution: Given that
- Total BW = 33 MHz, channel BW = 25 KHz x 2 = 50 KHz/duplex
channel
- S = 33,000/50 = 660 channels
- For N = 4, k = 660 / 4 165 channels
- For N = 7, k = 660 / 7 95 channels
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- For N = 12, k = 660 / 12 55 channels
Overview
- Cellular system
- Cell shape
F - Frequency reuse
- Handoff
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Channel Assignment Strategies
- Which channels should be assigned to a cell?
- Channel assignment strategies can be classified as either
fixed or dynamic fixed or dynamic
- Within a cluster, separate channels in as much as possible Within a cluster, separate channels in as much as possible
- This reduces adjacent channel interference
- A scheme for increasing capacity and minimizing g p y g
interference is required
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Fixed Channel Assignment
- Each cell is assigned a fixed number of voice channels
- Any call attempt within the cell can only be served by the unused
channels in that particular cell
- If all the channels in the cell are in use, the call is blocked
- I.e., the user will not get service
- Simple, but a busy cell will run out of channels before a
neighboring cell
- Service variations of fixed assignment strategy exit
- System performance will be limited by the most crowded cell
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Fixed Channel Assignment
- In a variant of the fixed channel assignment, a cell can
borrow channels from its neighboring cells if its own
channels are full channels are full
- MSC supervises such procedures and ensures that the borrowing
of a channel does not disturb any call in the donor cell
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Dynamic Channel Assignment
- In dynamic channel assignment (DCA), channels are not
assigned to cells permanently
- Each basestation can change the channels it uses - Each basestation can change the channels it uses
- When a call request is made, the BS requests a channel
from the MSC from the MSC
- MSC only allocates the channel after verifying that the channel is
not presently in use
- To ensure a required QoS, the MSC allocates a given
frequency if that frequency is not currently used in
- The cell or - The cell, or
- In any other cell which falls within the limiting reuse distance, i.e.,
channels in neighboring cells must still be different
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Dynamic Channel Assignment . . .
- The MSC allocates a channel taking into account
- The likelihood of future call blocking
- The frequency usage of the candidate channel - The frequency usage of the candidate channel
- The reuse distance of the channel
- Other cost functions
- DCA reduces the likelihood of blocking, thus increasing the
capacity of the system
- DCA strategies require the MSC to collect real-time data
on channel occupancy and traffic distribution on a
continuous basis continuous basis
- DAC requires more careful control as it gives extra load to
the MSC
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Overview
- Cellular system
- Cell shape
F - Frequency reuse
- Handoff
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Handoff
- The process of transferring a call, which is in progress from
one channel or BS to another is called handoff or handover
- Handoff is required when a MS moves into a different cell
- MSC facilitates the transfer
In general handoff involves - In general, handoff involves
- Identifying the new BS
- Allocation of voice and control channels in the new BS
- Prioritize handoff requests over call initiation requests
when allocating unused channels in a cell site
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Handoff Region Power Strength
P1(x) BS-1 BS-2 P2(x)
- By looking at the variation of signal strength from either base
station, it is possible to decide on the optimum area where
handoff can take place
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handoff can take place
Handoff
- Handoffs must be performed
- Successfully
- As infrequently as possible and - As infrequently as possible, and
- Must be imperceptible to the user
- To meet these requirements, a minimum usable signal To meet these requirements, a minimum usable signal
level must be specified for acceptable voice quality at the
base station
If the received power drops too low prior to handoff the call will be - If the received power drops too low prior to handoff, the call will be
dropped so that users complain about dropped calls
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Handoff Region . . .
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Handoff Margin
- Consider the following two power levels
- P
r,min. usable
be the minimum received power in dB, below which a
call cannot be received
- A handoff has to be initiated much prior to this point
- P
r,handoff
be a higher threshold in dB at which the MSC initiates the
h d ff d handoff procedure
- Handoff is made when the received signal at the BS falls below the
threshold
- Define handoff margin in dB as
- = P
r,handoff
P
r,min. usable
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Handoff Margin
- How much margin is needed to handle a mobile at driving
speeds?
- The margin should not be too large or too small - The margin should not be too large or too small
- The handoff threshold power is selected such that it is slightly
greater than the minimum usable signal power for an acceptable
voice quality voice quality
- If is too large, it may lead to unnecessary handoffs which
may burden the MSC may burden the MSC
- The call may be headed over to the neighboring BS when the MS
is well inside the home cell
- If is too small, there may be insufficient time to complete
a handoff before a call is lost due to weak signal conditions
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g
Handoff Margin
A ll d l h h th i i - A call drop can also happen when there is an excessive
delay by the MSC in assigning a channel
- E.g., during high traffic conditions g g g
- To effect handoff, it is important to ensure that the mobile is
actually moving away from the serving base station
- The measured signal level drop may be due to momentary fading
- In order to ensure this, BS monitors signal level for a certain
period of time before a handoff is initiated p
- The length of monitoring depends on the speed of mobile units
- Where to get information about the mobile speed?
- At high mobile speeds, handoff needs to happen quickly
- In GSM, handoff is typically within 1-2 seconds
- In AMPS this was 10 seconds (higher potential for dropped calls!)
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- In AMPS, this was 10 seconds (higher potential for dropped calls!)
Handoff Margin Example
- Assume that
- A mobile moving at a speed of v = 35 mps (~125 Kph)
- Path-loss exponent n = 4 - Path loss exponent n 4
- Cell radius of 500 meters (the distance at which the call is
dropped)
- 2 second handoff - 2 second handoff
- What is the required handoff margin?
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Handoff Margin - Solution
- Assume the mobile is driving directly away from the BS
- So distance d changes by 70 meters in two seconds
- Consider the received power at the two times - Consider the received power at the two times
P
r,min. usable
= H
0
10nlog
10
d
P
r,handoff
= H
0
10nlog
10
(d70)
- Taking the difference of the 2
nd
and the 1
st
equations,
= 10nlog
10
d 10nlog
10
(d 70) = 10n log
10
(d/(d 70))
- Taking that the call is dropped at d = 500 meters, we have
= 40 log
10
(500/430) = 2.6 dB
- Note: In this example, the propagation equation used is for
large scale path loss only, which changes slowly
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Handoff Strategies
1. MSC controlled
- Used in the 1
st
generation analog cellular systems
- Signal strength measurements are made by the BS and - Signal strength measurements are made by the BS and
supervised by the MSC
- A spare receiver in each BS, called the location receiver, is used to
determine signal strengths of mobile users which are in determine signal strengths of mobile users which are in
neighboring cells (and appear to be in need of handoff)
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Handoff Strategies .
2. Mobile-assisted hand-off (MAHO)
- Used in the 2
nd
generation systems
- MSs measures the received power from surrounding BSs and - MSs measures the received power from surrounding BSs and
report the results to home BS
- Handoff is initiated when the received power at the MS from the
neighboring BS begins to exceed the home BS by a certain level neighboring BS begins to exceed the home BS by a certain level
for a certain period of time
- The MAHO performs at a much faster rate, and is particularly
suited for micro cellular environments suited for micro cellular environments
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Handoff Strategies .
- Intersystem handoff
- When a mobile user moves from one cellular system to a different
cellular system controlled by a different MSC y y
- It may become a long-distance call and a roamer
- Compatibility between the two MSCs need to be determined
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Handoff Strategies - Prioritizing Handoffs
- Having a call abruptly terminated while in the middle of a
conversation is more annoying than being blocked
occasionally on a new call attempt occasionally on a new call attempt
- Concept of guard channels
- A fraction of the total available channel is reserved for handoff A fraction of the total available channel is reserved for handoff
requests, which then are not offered to mobiles making new calls
- It may reduce the total carried traffic
- However it offers efficient spectrum utilization when dynamic - However, it offers efficient spectrum utilization when dynamic
channel assignment strategies are used
- Queuing of handoff requests g q
- Does not guarantee a zero probability of forced termination
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Handoff Strategies - Practical Handoff Considerations
- How to handle the simultaneous traffic of high speed and
low speed users while minimizing the handoff intervention
from the MSC? from the MSC?
- Using microcells to increase capacity also increases burden on
MSC
Another practical limitation is the abilit to obtain ne cell - Another practical limitation is the ability to obtain new cell
sites, particularly in an urban environment
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Handoff Strategies - Umbrella Cell
- By using different antenna heights (often at the same
building or tower) and different power levels, large and
small cells are co-located at a single location small cells are co located at a single location
- Minimizes the number of handoffs for high speed users and
provides additional microcell channels for pedestrian users
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Handoff Strategies Hard Handoff
- Hard handoff: The channel in the source cell is released
only when the channel in the target cell is engaged
- I e assign different radio channels during a handoff - I.e., assign different radio channels during a handoff
- For 1
st
generation analog systems, if takes about 10 seconds and
the value for is on the order of 6dB to 12dB
- For 2
nd
generation digital systems, typically requires only 1 or 2
seconds, and usually is between 0 dB and 6 dB
- In 2
nd
generation systems, handoff decision is also based on a co-
channel and adjacent channel interference levels
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Handoff Strategies Soft Handoff in CDMA
- The channel in the source cell is retained and used for a
while in parallel with the channel in the target cell
- Used in CDMA system
- In CDMA, users share the same channel in every cell
- Consequently, handoff does not mean a physical change in the Consequently, handoff does not mean a physical change in the
assigned channel, rather that a different base station handles the
radio communication task
B i lt l l ti th i i l f i l - By simultaneously evaluating the receiver signals from a single
subscriber at several neighboring base stations, the MSC may
actually decide which version of the users signal is best at any
moment in time moment in time
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Overview
- Cellular system
- Cell shape
F - Frequency reuse
- Handoff
- Co-channel interference
- Adjacent channel interference
- Power control for reducing interferences - Power control for reducing interferences
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p g p y
Interference
- Interference is a major limiting factor in the performance of
cellular radio
- It limits capacity thereby increasing the number of dropped calls - It limits capacity thereby increasing the number of dropped calls
- Interference are difficult to control in practice largely due to
random propagation effects random propagation effects
- Sources of interference include
- Another mobile in the same cell or in a neighboring cell g g
- Other BSs operating in the same frequency band
- Any cellular (e.g., from competing cellular carriers) or non-cellular
system which inadvertently leaks energy into the cellular frequency system which inadvertently leaks energy into the cellular frequency
band
-
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Interference Effects
- Interference in the voice channels causes crosstalk
- A subscriber hears interference in the background due to an
undesired transmission
- Interference in the control channels causes error in digital
signaling which causes signaling which causes
- Missed calls
- Blocked calls
- Dropped calls
- Interference is more severe in urban areas, due to the
t RF i fl d th l b f b greater RF noise floor and the large number of base
stations and mobiles
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Interference Types
- There are two major types of Interferences:
- Co-channel Interference (CCI)
- Adjacent channel Interference (ACI) - Adjacent channel Interference (ACI)
CCI is caused due to the cells that reuse the same
frequency set frequency set
These cells using the same frequency set are referred to as co-
channel cells
ACI is caused due to signals that are adjacent in frequency
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Co-Channel Interference First-tier Interference
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Co-Channel Interference First-tier Interference
First-tier co-channel BSs
D
1
D
1
D
2
D
5
D
6
S i B
D
3
D
4
Serving Base
Station
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Co-Channel Interference
- Unlike thermal noise, CCI cannot be overcome by increasing
the carrier power of a transmitter
- This is because any increase in the transmitter power also increases - This is because, any increase in the transmitter power also increases
the interference to other co-channel cells
- Instead, co-channel cells must be physically separated by a p y y p y
minimum distance to provide sufficient isolation due to
propagation
- To reduce CCI the co-channel cells must be sufficiently separated - To reduce CCI the co-channel cells must be sufficiently separated
- Co-channel interference is a function of
- The radius of the cell R and - The radius of the cell, R, and
- The distance to the center of the nearest co-channel cell, D
i
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- For a hexagonal geometry, the co-channel reuse ratio, Q is
related to the cluster size
D
- It determines the spatial separation relative to the coverage
N
R
D
Q 3 = =
It determines the spatial separation relative to the coverage
distance of the cell
- N small gives Q small g
- Provides a larger capacity (i.e., can re-use more), but higher CCI
- N large means Q large
B tt t i i lit d t ll l l f h l - Better transmission quality due to a small level of co-channel
interference but small capacity
- Hence there is capacity vs interference tradeoff
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- Hence there is capacity vs. interference tradeoff
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Signal-to-Interference Ratio
- Signal-to-interference ratio (S/I) for a mobile which
monitors a forward channel is
S S
- Where S: desired signal power, I
j
: interference caused by the j
th
co-
=
=
m
j
j
I
I
1
j
channel cell, and m: first-tier co-channels cells
- The average received power at a distance d from the
transmitting antenna is approx by transmitting antenna is approx. by
or
n
o r
d
d
P P
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
) log( 10 ) ( ) (
0
0
d
d
n dB P dB P
r
=
- Where P
o
is the received power at a close-in reference distance in
the far-field and n is the path-loss exponent
o
d
. \ 0
d
Sem. II, 2010/11
- The path loss exponent, n, ranges between 2 and 6
If D i th di t f th i
th
i t f th i d - If D
i
is the distance of the i
th
interferer, the received power
is proportional to
- If transmit power of each BS is equal & n is the same
n
i
D

) (
- If transmit power of each BS is equal & n is the same
throughout the coverage area, S/I for a mobile is approx. as
n
R S
- To simplify, assume all first-tier interferers are equidistance
=
m
i
n
i
D
I
1
) (
To simplify, assume all first tier interferers are equidistance
( )
( )
m
N
m
R
D
I
S
n n
3
= =
- This relates S/I to the cluster size, and in turn determines the
overall capacity of the system
m m I
Sem. II, 2010/11
- Puts a limits on how low we may set N
- For a hexagonal cluster of
cells with the MS situated at
the edge of the cell
R
the edge of the cell
( )
n
n
N
R
D
I
S
3
6
1
6
1
=
|
.
|
\
|
=
D
D
- As long as all cells are of the
i S/I i
R I 6 6
. \
D
D
D
same size, S/I is
independent of the cell
radius, R
D
D
Sem. II, 2010/11
Signal-to-Interference Ratio - Example 1
- Design parameters:
- Desired S/I = 15dB
- Path-loss exponent n = 4 - Path loss exponent n 4
- Assume that there are six co-channel cells in the first tier and all of
them are at the same distance from the mobile
- What is the required re-use factor and cluster size that
should be used for maximum capacity?
Sem. II, 2010/11
Signal-to-Interference Ratio Example 1
- Six co-channel
cells in the first
tier tier
Sem. II, 2010/11
Signal-to-Interference Ratio - Example 1
- Lets try for N= 4. The co-
channel re-use ratio is
D
Lets try: N= 7
D
58 . 4 =
- And the signal-to-interference
ratio is
46 . 3 =
R
D
( )
dB
I
S
R
66 . 18 5 . 73
58 . 4
6
1
58 . 4
4
= =
=
ratio is
Which is greater than
the desired
( ) dB
I
S
8 . 13 24 46 . 3
6
1
4
= = =
- Smaller than the desired
15 dB
We m st mo e to the ne t re se
Hence, N=7 can be
used
The frequency reuse
- We must move to the next reuse
distance
The frequency reuse
factor = 1/7
Sem. II, 2010/11
Example 2 - Repeat Example 1 for n = 3
- Solution
- Lets try for a seven-cell reuse pattern, i.e. N= 7. Like the previous
example p
- Which is smaller than the desired 15 dB, hence we need to use
larger N
( ) dB
I
S
and
R
D
05 . 12 04 . 16 58 . 4
6
1
58 . 4
3
= = = =
larger N
- Let us try N=12
( ) dB
S
and
D
56 15 36 00 6
1
00 6
3
= = = =
- Since this is greater than 15 dB, N=12 can be used
N t 3 i t i l l f b b
( ) dB
I
and
R
56 . 15 36 00 . 6
6
00 . 6 = = = =
- Note: n=3 is typical value for sub-urban area
- Exercise: Try for n=2, which represents rural area!
Sem. II, 2010/11
Summary - Re-Use Factor for n=2, n=3, and n=4
30

20
25
Path loss n= 2
Path loss n = 3
Path loss n=4
10
15
I
R

i
n

d
B

N=12
N=7
0
5
S
I
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-5
0
Cluster Size N

Sem. II, 2010/11
Cluster Size, N
Worst Case Calculation of S/I
- The MS is at the cell
boundary
- The approximate S/I is - The approximate S/I is
given by:
( ) ( ) ( )
n n n
n
R D D R D
R
I
S

+ + +
=
2 2 2
S
1
( ) ( ) ( )
n n n
Q Q Q
I

+ + +
=
1 2 2 1 2
Sem. II, 2010/11
Overview
- Cellular system
- Cell shape
F - Frequency reuse
- Handoff
Sem. II, 2010/11
p g p y
Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI)
- Results from signals that are adjacent in frequency to the
desired signal
- Due to imperfect receiver filters that allow nearby frequencies to - Due to imperfect receiver filters, that allow nearby frequencies to
leak
- Near-far effect: The adjacent channel interference is j
particularly serious. This occurs when:
- When an interferer close to the BS radiates in the adjacent
h l hil th b ib i f f th BS channel, while the subscriber is far away from the BS
- The BS may not discriminate the desired mobile user from the bleed
over caused by the close adjacent channel mobile
- Or, an interferer which is in close range to the subscribers
receiver, is transmitting while the receiver receives from the BS
Sem. II, 2010/11
Near-Far Effect - Interferer Close to BS
One solution is power control, i.e., reducing the power
level transmitted by mobiles close to the BS
Subscriber Interferer
Sem. II, 2010/11
Near-Far Effect - Interferer Close to MS
Subscriber
Interferer
Sem. II, 2010/11
Adjacent Channel Interference
- ACI can be reduced by
- Careful filtering
- Careful channel assignment - Careful channel assignment
- The frequency separation between each channel in a cell
should be made as large as possible should be made as large as possible
- Assign non-adjacent channels within each cells channel group
- Example: Assign S = 50 channels into groups for N = 7. p g g p
- Solution
- There are about k = 50/7 7 channels per cell
F 1 f d h l {1 8 15 22 29 36 43 50} - For group 1, use forward channels {1, 8, 15, 22, 29, 36, 43, 50}
- For group i, i = 2, . . . 7, let the channels for group i consist of {i, i
+7, i + 14, i + 21, i + 28, i + 35, i + 42}
Sem. II, 2010/11
- Example: The frequency separation between each
channel in a cell should be made as large as possible while
assigning them assigning them
Sem. II, 2010/11
- If a subscriber is at a distance d
1
and the interferer is d
2
from the base station, then SIR (prior to filtering) is:
n
| |
n
d
d
I
S

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
1
- Example
- Suppose a subscriber is at d
1
= 1000m from the BS and an
dj t h l i t f i t d 100 f th BS adjacent channel interferer is at d
2
= 100m from the BS
- Assume: Path-loss exponent is n = 3
- The signal-to-Interference ratio prior to filtering is then
dB
d
d
I
S
n
30 10
100
1000
3
3
2
1
= =
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

Sem. II, 2010/11

Overview
- Cellular system
- Cell shape
F - Frequency reuse
- Handoff
Sem. II, 2010/11
p g p y
Power Control to Reduce Interference
- In practice, power levels transmitted by every subscriber
are under constant control by the serving BS
- Each MS transmits with the smallest power necessary - Each MS transmits with the smallest power necessary
- In power control
1. Reduces the transmit power level of MSs close to the BS since a 1. Reduces the transmit power level of MSs close to the BS since a
high TX power is not necessary in this case
2. MSs located far away must transmit with larger power than those
nearby nearby
- Advantages of power control
- Reduces out-of-band interference
- Prolongs battery life and
- Even reduces even co-channel interference on the reverse
channel
Sem. II, 2010/11
channel
Power Control to Reduce Interference
- However, power control requires well control
- Controlling a mobile means communication from the BS to the
mobile to inform it whether to increase or decrease its power, p ,
which incurs overhead
- In CDMA systems, every user in every cell share the same
radio channel means a tight power control is required
- The near-far problem is even more of a problem in CDMA
- Need to reduce the co-channel interference Need to reduce the co channel interference
- Reduced interference leads to higher capacity
Sem. II, 2010/11
Overview
- Cellular system
- Cell shape
F - Frequency reuse
- Handoff
- Basic definitions
Bl k d ll l d - Blocked calls cleared
- Blocked calls delayed
Sem. II, 2010/11
p g p y
Trunking
- Trunking: How to accommodate a large number of users in
a limited radio spectrum?
T ki f t h i fi d d ll b f - Trunking refers to sharing a fixed and small number of
channels among a large and random user community
- Each user demands access from a pool of channel - Each user demands access from a pool of channel
infrequently & at random times
- A channel is allocated on a per call basis and a channel is returned
to the pool up on termination of a call
- So a dedicated channel for each user is not required
- If U be number of users and C be number of channels, for any C < y
U, possibility of more requests than channels
- Trunking exploits statistical behavior of users so that a fixed
b f h l d t l d
Sem. II, 2010/11
number of channels accommodate a large, random user
Trunking
- Trunking accommodates large & random users:
- By providing access to each user on demand from a pool of
available channels
- When a user requests service and if all channels are in use
1. The user is blocked, or denied access to the system , y
2. In some systems, a queue may be used to hold the requesting
users until a channel becomes available
Upon termination of the call the previously occupied channel is - Upon termination of the call, the previously occupied channel is
immediately returned to the pool
- Designing a trunked system, that can handle a given Designing a trunked system, that can handle a given
capacity at a specific grade of service, requires trunking
and queuing theories
Sem. II, 2010/11
Trunking Definition of Terms . . .
- Setup time: The time required to allocate a radio channel to
a requesting user
- Users request may be blocked or have to wait - Users request may be blocked or have to wait
- Blocked Call: A call that cannot be completed at the time of
request due to congestion
- Also called lost call => lost revenue, e.g., pick hours, holidays,
- Holding time: Average call duration in seconds, denoted H
- Depends on users and operator's tariff
- Request (or call) rate: Average number of calls per unit time,
denoted seconds
-1
denoted seconds
- Typically taken to be at the busiest time of day
- Depends on type of users community: Office, residential, call center,
Sem. II, 2010/11

Trunking Definition of Terms . . .
- Traffic Intensity: A measure of channel time utilization
- Is the average channel occupancy measured in Erlang, denoted by A
- Load: Traffic intensity across the entire trunked radio system - Load: Traffic intensity across the entire trunked radio system
- Measured in Erlang
- Erlang: A unit of measure of usage or traffic intensity - Erlang: A unit of measure of usage or traffic intensity
- A channel kept busy for one hour is defined as having a load of one
Erlang
- Grade of Service (GoS): Measure of congestion (or ability of
a user to access a trunked system) during the busiest hour
- Typically given as likelihood that a call is blocked called Erlang B or - Typically given as likelihood that a call is blocked, called Erlang B or
- The likelihood of a call experiencing a delay greater than a certain
amount of time, called Erlang C
Sem. II, 2010/11
Trunking
- Average arrival rate, :
- Average number of MSs requesting service (call request/time)
- Average hold time H - Average hold-time, H
- Average duration of a call (or time for which MS requires service)
- An average traffic intensity offered (generated) by each user - An average traffic intensity offered (generated) by each user
- Example 1: If a user makes on average two calls per hour
) (Erlangs H A
u
=
- Example 1: If a user makes on average two calls per hour,
and that a call lasts an average of 3 minutes
Erlang A 1 0 min 3
2
= = Erlang A
u
1 . 0 min 3
min 60
= =
Sem. II, 2010/11
Trunking
- Example 2: In a cell with 100 MSs average of 30 requests
are generated in an hour with average holding time of
6 minutes 6 minutes
- The arrival rate:
sec /
3600
30
requests =
- Offered load is: Erlangs
Call
Seconds
Seconds
Calls
A
u
3
360
*
3600
30
= =
Sem. II, 2010/11
Trunking
- The total offered traffic intensity for U users
- Note: A is not necessarily the traffic carried by the trunked system
u
UA A =
- In a C channel trunked system, if traffic is distributed equally
among channels, then traffic intensity per channel
A UA
I E l 1 th t th 100 d 20
C
A
C
UA
A
u
C
= =
- In Example 1, assume that there are 100 users and 20
channels
- Then A = 100(0.1)= 10 and A
c
= 10/20 = 0.5 ( )
c
- Note: A
c
is a measure of the efficiency of channels utilization
Sem. II, 2010/11
Trunking and GoS
- Offered traffic is not necessarily the traffic carried by the
trunked system, only that is offered to the system
- Maximum possible carried traffic is the total number of channels C - Maximum possible carried traffic is the total number of channels, C,
in Erlangs
- AMPS system is designed for a GOS of 2% blocking y g g
- Channel allocations for cells are designed so that 2 out of 100 calls
will be blocked due to channel occupancy during the busiest hour
- What do we do when a call is offered (requested) but all
channels are full?
Blocked calls cleared? Offers no queuing for call requests Erlang B - Blocked calls cleared? Offers no queuing for call requests, Erlang B
- Blocked calls delayed? Erlang C
Sem. II, 2010/11
Overview
- Cellular system
- Cell shape
F - Frequency reuse
- Handoff
- Basic definitions
Sem. II, 2010/11
p g p y
Trunking Blocked Calls Cleared
1 C ll i l t f ll P i di t ib ti 1. Calls arrival request follows a Poisson distribution
2. Memoryless arrivals of requests
- I e all users including blocked users may request a channel at - I.e., all users, including blocked users, may request a channel at
any time
3. The probability of a call durations (or a user occupying a
channel) is exponentially distributed channel) is exponentially distributed
- I.e., longer calls are less likely to occur
4. There are infinite number of users and finite channels
- Rather than a finite number U of users each requesting A
u
traffic,
set the total offered traffic as a constant A, and then let U and
A
u
0 in a way that preserves A = UA
u u
y p
u
- These assumptions leads to the Erlang B formula
- Also known as the blocked calls cleared formula
Sem. II, 2010/11
Trunking Erlang B Formula
- The probability of an arriving call being blocked is:
GOS
!
] [ = =
C k
c
r
C
A
blocking P
- Where C: number of trunked channels and A: total offered traffic
!
] [
0
=
C
k
k
r
k
A
g
- Erlang B is a measure of the GOS for a trunked system
which provides no queuing for blocked calls
- Setting the desired GOS, one can derive
- Number of channels needed
- The maximum number of users we can support as A = UA or - The maximum number of users we can support as A = UA
U
or
- The maximum A
U
we can support (and set the number of minutes
on our calling plans accordingly)
S C
Sem. II, 2010/11
- Since C is very high, it is easier to use table or graph
Erlang B Formula - Table Form
Sem. II, 2010/11
Erlang B Formula - Graphical Form
Sem. II, 2010/11
Overview
- Cellular system
- Cell shape
F - Frequency reuse
- Handoff
- Basic definitions
Sem. II, 2010/11
p g p y
Trunking Blocked Calls Delayed
- Instead of clearing a call, put it in a queue and have it wait
until a channel is available
- First-in first-out line: Calls will be processed in the order received - First in, first out line: Calls will be processed in the order received
- There are two things to determine here
1. The probability a call will be delayed (enter the queue), and 1. The probability a call will be delayed (enter the queue), and
2. The probability that the delay will be longer than t seconds
- The first is no longer the same as Erlang B g g
- It goes up, because blocked calls arent cleared, they stick
around and wait for the first open channel
- Meaning of GOS
- The probability that a call will be forced into the queue AND it will
wait longer than t seconds before being served (for some given t)
Sem. II, 2010/11
g g ( g )
Trunking - Blocked Calls Delayed
- Additional assumptions:
1. The queue is infinitely long: Translates to infinite memory
2 No one who is queued gives up/hangs up (rather than wait) 2. No one who is queued gives up/hangs up (rather than wait)
- The probability of an arriving call not having an immediate
access to a channel (or being delayed) is given by Erlang access to a channel (or being delayed) is given by Erlang
C Formula
= > ] 0 [
c
A
delay P
=
+
= >
1
0
!
) 1 ( !
] 0 [
C
k
k
c
r
k
A
C
A
C A
delay P
- It is typically easiest to find a result from a chart
Sem. II, 2010/11
Trunking - Calls Delayed
- Once it enters the queue, the probability that the delay is
greater than t (for t > 0) is given as
| |
A C
GOS: The marginal (overall) probability that a call will be
|
.
|
\
|

= > > t
H
A C
delay t delay P
r
exp ] 0 [
- GOS: The marginal (overall) probability that a call will be
delayed AND experience a delay greater than t is then
> > > = > delay t delay P delay P t delay P
r r r
] 0 | [ ] 0 [ ] [
|
.
|
\
|

> = t
H
A C
delay P
y y y y
r
r r r
exp ] 0 [
] | [ ] [ ] [
- The average delay for all calls in a queued system
A C
H
delay P D
r
> = ] 0 [
Sem. II, 2010/11
A C
Erlang C Formula - Graphical Form
Sem. II, 2010/11
Trunking - Example 1
- Consider a system with
- 100 cells
- Each cell has C = 20 channels - Each cell has C 20 channels
- Generates on average = 2 calls/hour
- The average duration of each call (H) = 3 Minutes
f f - How many number of users can be supported if the
allowed probability of blocking is 2%?
S l ti - Solution:
- From Erlang B Chart, total carried traffic = 13 Erlangs
- Traffic intensity per user A
U
= H = 0.1 Erlangs y p
U
g
- The total number of users that can be supported by a cell = 13/0.1
= 130 Users/cell
- Therefore, the total number of users in the system is 13,000
Sem. II, 2010/11
Therefore, the total number of users in the system is 13,000
- Consider a system with
- 100 cells, each cell has C = 20 channels
- Generates on average = 2 calls/hour - Generates on average 2 calls/hour
- The average duration of each call (H) = 3 Minutes
- How many number of users can be supported if the How many number of users can be supported if the
allowed probability of blocking is 0.2%?
- Solution
- Again from Erlang B Chart, total carried traffic = 10 Erlangs
- Traffic intensity per user A
U
= H = 0.1 Erlangs
- The total number of users that can be supported by a cell = 10/0 1 - The total number of users that can be supported by a cell = 10/0.1
= 100 Users/cell
- Therefore, the total number of users in the system is 10,000
W t l b f
Sem. II, 2010/11
- We support less number of users
C id t ith - Consider a system with
- Total number of channels = 20
- Probability of blocking = 1%
- How shall we use this set of channels?
- Approach 1: Divide 20 channels into 4 trunks of 5 channels each
- Traffic capacity of one trunk (5 channels) = 1 36 Erlangs - Traffic capacity of one trunk (5 channels) = 1.36 Erlangs
- Traffic capacity of four trunks (20 channels) = 5.44 Erlangs
- Approach 2: Divide 20 channels into 2 trunks of 10 channels each
T ffi it f t k (10 h l ) 4 46 E l - Traffic capacity of one trunk (10 channels) = 4.46 Erlangs
- Traffic capacity of two trunks (20 channels) = 8.92 Erlangs
- Approach 3: Use the 20 channels as they are
- Traffic capacity of one trunk (20 channels) =12.0 Erlangs
- Better to make a large pool instead of dividing
- Allocation of channels in a trunked radio system has a major impact
Sem. II, 2010/11
y j p
on overall system capacity
- Given
- An urban area has a population of 2 million residents
- Three competing trunked mobile networks (system A B and C) - Three competing trunked mobile networks (system A, B, and C)
provide cellular service in this area
- System A has 394 cells with 19 channels each
- System B has 98 cells with 57 channels each - System B has 98 cells with 57 channels each
- System C has 49 cells each with 100 channels
- Each user averages 2 calls per hour at an average call duration of
3 minutes 3 minutes
- Required
- The number of users that can be supported at 2% blocking?
- Assuming that all three trunked systems are operated at maximum
capacity, compute the percentage market penetration of each
cellular provider
Sem. II, 2010/11
Overview
- Cellular system
- Cell shape
F - Frequency reuse
- Handoff
- Improving capacity and coverage
- Cell splitting
- Sectoring
- Microcell zoning and use of repeaters
Sem. II, 2010/11
Microcell zoning and use of repeaters
Improving Capacity
- A network may need to expand because of
- Increase in traffic or demand for service
- Or because of a change in the environment (e g a new building) - Or because of a change in the environment (e.g., a new building)
- As traffic increases, the channels originally assigned to
each cell will be congested
- System designers have to provide more channels per unit
coverage area
- Common techniques - Common techniques
- Cell splitting, sectoring, microcell zoning, and use of repeaters
Sem. II, 2010/11
Cell Splitting
- Cell splitting: Process of subdividing a congested cell into
smaller cells (called microcells), where each cell has
- Its own BS (increase in BSs deployed) and - Its own BS (increase in BSs deployed) and
- Reduction in the transmitter power and antenna height
- Splitting the cells reduces the cell size and thus more Splitting the cells reduces the cell size and thus more
number of cells have to be used
- More number of cells = > more number of clusters => more
channels => higher capacity channels => higher capacity
- Cell splitting allows a system to grow by replacing large
cells by small cells without new spectrum usage
- Additional channels per unit area are created
Sem. II, 2010/11
Cell Splitting . . .
Large cell
(low density)
S ll ll
Depending on traffic
patterns, the smaller
cells may be
Small cell
(high density)
cells may be
activated/deactivated
in order to efficiently
ll use cell resources
The co-channel re-
Smaller
use factor D/R is
unchanged
O l i h
cell (higher
density)
Only increases the
number of channels
per unit area
Sem. II, 2010/11
Cell Splitting - Example 1
- Suppose the radius of cell is reduced by half
- To cover the entire area, four times microcells are required
- What is the required transmit power for these new cells? - What is the required transmit power for these new cells?
- We have:
n
We have:
- Power at the boundary of un-split cell:
Power at the boundary of a new microcell:
n
tu u
R P P

=
n
R P P

= ) 2 / (
- Power at the boundary of a new microcell:
- Where P
tu
: transmitted power for un-split cell, P
mc
: transmitted
tmc mc
R P P = ) 2 / (
power from for microcell
- For same CCI performance P
u
= P
mc
implies
n
tu tmc
P P 2 / =
Sem. II, 2010/11
tu tmc
Cell Splitting - Example 1 . . .
- For n = 4; (a typical suburban area)
16
tu
tmc
P
P =
- Thus, the transmit power must be reduced by 12dB in
order to fill in the original coverage area with microcells,
16
tmc
order to fill in the original coverage area with microcells,
while maintaining the S/I requirement
Sem. II, 2010/11
7 Cell
4 Cell
Cl ster
Cluster
Cluster
Smaller
Cells
7 Cell
Cluster
12 Cell
Cluster Cluster
- Typical city cellular radio cell plan different cell sizes and
clusters
- Combination of cell size and cluster size to increase capacity
Sem. II, 2010/11
- Combination of cell size and cluster size to increase capacity
- Suppose a congested service area is - Suppose a congested service area is
originally covered by
- 5 Cells
- Each with 80 Channels
- Capacity = 5*80 = 400
After Splitting: - After Splitting:
- Let
- We now have 20 cells to cover the region
2 / R R
new
=
- New Capacity = 20*80 = 1600
- In general, the relationship in capacity between cell
litti d b ib dditi b d splitting and subscriber addition can be expressed as
- Where C : network capacity after n times cell splitting and C:
C C
n
n
4 =
Sem. II, 2010/11
- Where C
n
: network capacity after n times cell splitting and C:
Network capacity before cell splitting
Overview
- Cellular system
- Cell shape
F - Frequency reuse
- Handoff
- Cell splitting
- Sectoring
Sem. II, 2010/11
Cell Sectoring
S t i di ti l t t f th t l - Sectoring uses directional antennas to further control
interference and frequency reuse
- As opposed to cell splitting, where D/R is kept constant while
decreasing R, in sectoring keeps R untouched and reduces the
D/R ratio
- Capacity improvement is achieved by reducing the number of
cells per cluster thus increasing frequency reuse
Sem. II, 2010/11
cells per cluster, thus increasing frequency reuse
Cell Sectoring . . .
- In order to do this, it is necessary to reduce the relative
interference without decreasing the transmitter power
- CCI is reduced by replacing single omni-directional
antenna by several directional antennas, each radiating
within a specified sector within a specified sector
- A directional antenna transmits to and receives from only a
fraction of the total number of co-channel cells
- Thus CCI is reduced
- CCI reduction factor depends on the amount of sectoring p g
- A cell is normally partitioned into three 120 sectors or six 60
sectors
Sem. II, 2010/11
Sem. II, 2010/11
- Assume 7 cell reuse
and 120
0
sector
- Number of interference - Number of interference
in the first tier reduces
from 6 to 2
- Significant compared to
omni-directional case
- Sectored groups g p
Sem. II, 2010/11
For a 7-cell cluster, the MS will
receive signals from only 2
other clusters (instead of 6 in
an omni-directional antenna)
For worst case, when mobile is
at the edge of the cell
n n
n
R D D
R
SIR

+ +
=
) 7 0 (
n n
R D D + + ) 7 . 0 (
Interfering co-channel cells @D distance
Desired channel
Sem. II, 2010/11
Interfering co-channel cells @ D distance
Desired channel
Cell Sectoring Problems
- Increased number of antennas at each BS
- Decrease in trunking efficiency due to sectoring
- Dividing the bigger pool of channels into smaller groups
- Increased number of handoffs (sector-to-sector)
- Good news: Many modern BSs support sectoring and
related handoffs without the help of the MSC
Sem. II, 2010/11
Cell Sectoring Modern BSs
1
3
2
1-1
1 3
2
120
o
1-2
1-3
CCI
Sector in use
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Overview
- Cellular system
- Cell shape
F - Frequency reuse
- Handoff
- Cell splitting
- Sectoring
Sem. II, 2010/11
Microcell Zone Concept
- The problems of sectoring, i.e., increased handoff, can be
addressed by the Microcell Zone concept
- A cell is divided into microcells or zones
- Each microcell (zone) is connected to the same base
station via fiber microwave link or coaxial station via fiber, microwave link, or coaxial
- Each zone uses a directional antenna
- As a MS travels from one zone to another it retains the - As a MS travels from one zone to another, it retains the
same channel, i.e., no handoff
- The BS simply switches the channel to the next zone site p y
Sem. II, 2010/11
- Let each cell be divided into three zones
Zone
Selector
Sem. II, 2010/11
- While the cell maintains a particular coverage area, the
CCI is reduces because:
- The large central BS is replaced by several low power transmitters - The large central BS is replaced by several low power transmitters
- Directional antennas are used
- Decreases CCI improves Decreases CCI improves
- Signal Quality
- Capacity
Sem. II, 2010/11
Sem. II, 2010/11
- Example:
- Suppose the desired S/I = 18 dB,
- Path loss exponent n = 4 - Path loss exponent n 4,
- How much capacity increase can occur if we use Microcell
zoning with 3 zones per cell?
- Solution
To achieve S/I 18 dB we need N 7 - To achieve S/I = 18 dB, we need N=7
- Now we create 3 zones within a cell
- The cluster size has been reduced to N = 3
- A capacity increase factor of 7/3 = 2.33
Sem. II, 2010/11
Repeaters for Range Extension
- Useful for hard-to-reach areas
- Within buildings or basements
- Tunnels - Tunnels
- Valleys
- Radio transmitters, called repeaters, can be used to
provide coverage in these areas
- Repeaters are bi-directional
- Receive signals from BSs
- Amplify the signals
- Re-radiate the signals g
- Problem: received noise and interference is also
reradiated!
Sem. II, 2010/11
Repeaters for Range Extension
Sem. II, 2010/11
Summary
- Concepts such as handoff, frequency reuse, trunking
efficiency, and frequency planning are covered
- Capacity of cellular system is a function of many things - Capacity of cellular system is a function of many things,
- E.g., S/I that limits frequency reuse, which intern limits the number
of channels within the coverage area
- Trunking efficiency limits the number of users that can
access a trunked radio system
- Capacity can be improved by cell splitting sectoring and - Capacity can be improved by cell splitting, sectoring, and
the zone microcell techniques
Sem. II, 2010/11

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Chapter 2 Cellular 1

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Chapter 2: The Cellular System

Graduat e Program Graduat e Program

Sem. II, 2010/11

Wireless Communications - Ch. 2 Cellular System 88

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