CHAPTER-1 INDUCTION MOTORS

1.1 INTRODUCTION: Induction Motors are the most common motors used in the industrial motion control system, as well as in main powered home appliances. Simple and drugged design, low cost, low maintenance and direct connection to an Ac Power source are the main advantages of AC Induction Motors. Various types of AC Induction Motors are available in the market. Different motors are suitable for different applications. Although AC Induction Motors are easier to design than DC Motors, the speed and the torque control in various types of AC Induction Motor require a greater understanding of the design and the characteristics of these motors. 1.2 TYPES OF AC INDUCTION MOTOR: Generally, Induction motors are categorized based on the number of stator Windings. They are: Three phase Induction motor. Single Phase induction motor.

1.2.1 THREE PHASE AC INDUCTION MOTOR: Three phase AC Induction motors are widely used in Industrial and commercial applications. They are classified as Squirrel Cage and Wound rotor motors. These motors are self starting and use no capacitors, start winding, centrifugal switch or other starting device. They produce medium to high degrees of starting torque. The power capabilities and efficiency in these motors range from medium to high compared to their single phase counter parts. Popular applications include grinders, lathes, drills, presses, pumps compressors, conveyors, also printing equipment, farm equipment, electronic cooling and other mechanical duty applications. 1.2.2 SQUIRREL CAGE MOTOR: Almost 90% of the three phase AC Induction motors are of this type. Here the rotor is of the squirrel cage type and it works as explained earlier. The power ratings range from one third to several hundred horse power in the three phase motors. Motors of this type rated one horsepower or larger, cost less and can start heavier loads other than their single phase counterparts. 1.2.3 WOUND ROTOR MOTOR: The slip ring motor or wound rotor motor is a variation of the squirrel cage Induction motor. While the stator is same as that of the squirrel cage motor, it has a set of windings on the rotor which are not short circuited, but they are terminated to a set a set of slip rings.

These are helpful in adding external resistors and contactors. the slip necessary to generate the maximum torque is directly proportional to the rotor resistance. In the slip ring motor, the effective rotor resistance is increased by adding external resistance through the slip rings. As the motor accelerates, the value of the resistance can be reduced, altering the characteristics to suit the load requirement. Once the motor reaches the base speed, external resistors are removed from the rotor. 1.2.4 SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR: There are probably more single phase AC Induction motors in use today than the total of all the other types put together. It is logical that the least expensive, lowest maintenance type motors should be used most often. The single phase AC Induction motor best fits this description. As the name suggests this type of motor has only one stator winding and operates with a single-phase power supply. A single phase induction motor is similar to that of a Polyphase Induction motor with the difference that its stator has only one winding. If such a stator is supplied with single phase AC, the field produced by it changes in the magnitude and direction sinusoidally. Such an alternating field is equivalent to two fields of equal magnitude rotating in opposite directions at equal speed. Consider two fields represented by quantities OA and OB of equal magnitude revolving in opposite directions is alternating. Therefore an Alternating current can be considered as having two components which are equal in magnitude and rotating in opposite direction.

Fig-1.1Single phase field represented by two oppositely Rotating fields. From the above it is clear that when a single phase AC is supplied to stator of single phase motor, the field produced will be of alternating in nature which can be divided into two components of equal magnitude, one revolving in clockwise and other in Anti-clockwise direction. To make it self starting, several methods are employed as given below:

By shading the poles (Shaded pole motor).

By splitting the phase (split phase motor).

1.2.5 TYPES OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR:

Split Phase Induction Motor.

Shaded Pole Induction Motor. Reluctance Start Induction Motor.

1.3 VARIABLE FREQUENCY OPERATION: The stator frequency of a machine is increased beyond the rated value, but the voltage is kept constant. The torque-speed curves derived from the equation given (1.3.1) below can be plotted as shown in fig 1.2 Te =3(p/2) (Rr/Se) (Vs2/ (Rs+Rr/S) 2+e2 (Lis +Lir) 2. --------- (1.3.1)

Fig 1.2 Torque speed at variable frequency curve. The air gap flux and rotor current decreases as the frequency increases and the correspondingly the developing torque also increases. The breakdown torque as a function of slip (at constant frequency) can be derived from the equation (1.3.2) given below: Tem =3(p/2) (Vs/see) 2 (slmRr/ Rr2+2slmLlr2) ------------------- (1.3.2) Where slm= Rr/Llr is the slip frequency at maximum torque. The

equation (2.2) shows Tem e2=constant.

1.3.1 SPEED CONTROL WITH SLIP REGULATION: An improvement of open loop voltage /Hz control is closed loop speed control by slip regulation as shown in fig 1.3. Here the speed loop error generates the slip command sl through out a proportional-integral controller and limiter. The slip is added to the feedback speed signal to generate the frequency command. The frequency command e also generate the voltage command through a voltage/Hz function generator which incorporates the low frequency stator drop compensation. Since the slip is proportional to the developed torque at constant flux. This scheme can be considered as a open loop torque control within a speed control loop. The feedback current signal is not used anywhere in the loop. With a set up speed command, the machine accelerates freely with a slip limit that corresponds to the stator current or torque limit, and then settles down to the Slip value at steady state as dictated by the load torque.

Fig 1.3 Close loop speed control with voltage/Hz control and slip regulation.

1.3.2 SPEED CONTROL WITH TORQUE AND FLUX CONTROL: The voltage/Hz control has the disadvantage that the flux may drift, and as a result, the torque sensitivity with slip will vary. In addition line voltage variation incorrect volts/Hz ratio, stator drop variation by line current, and machine parameter variation may cause weaker flux or the flux may saturate. In fig 1.2 if the flux becomes weak, the developed torque will decrease with the slip limit and the machines acceleration/deceleration capability will decrease. A speed control system with close loop torque and flux control is shown in fig 1.3. Additional feedback loops mean complexity of additional feedback signal synthesis and potential stability problems. A torque loop within the speed loop improves the speed loops response. The flux control loop controls the voltage. However if, PWM operation decide in field weakening mode, the flux command must be decreased to vary inversely with the speed signal. So that the PWM converter does not saturate. The flux control loop is slower than the torque control loop. The drive can operate in regenerative braking mode, but the reversal of speed requires a reversal of the phase sequence of the inverter. With scalar control as the frequency command e is increased by the torque loop, the flux temporarily decreases until it is compensated by the sluggish flux control loop. This inherently coupling effect slows down the torque response.

Instead of controlling inverter voltage by the flux loop, the stator current can also be controlled. Closed loop current control is beneficial to power semiconductor because of the inherent protection from the over current. Besides the torque and flux of the machine are directly sensitive to currents. A voltage fed inverter drive with outer loop torque and flux control and hysterisis band current control in the inner loop is shown in fig 1.4.

Fig1.4-Close loop speed control with torque and flux control.

CHAPTER -2 THEME OF OUR PROJECT

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2.1 INTRODUCTION: In a typical speed sensing module of a Motor, the speed sensor will be coupled to the Motors shaft - like that in a tachometer - Contact Type. Or - it could be an optical encoder disc attached to the shaft of the Motor - coupled to a light sensor - Non-Contact Type. This project is implemented using a reprogrammable versatile Multipurpose Speed Controller for Induction Motor, using a Microcontroller using Pulse Width Modulation Technique. The arrangement consists of an optical encoder disk which is mounted to the shaft of the motor whose speed is to be measured.

MicroControll er based Speed Sensor Display

Device
Motor Shaft | IR Emitter | Optical Encoder | Optical Pickup | Optic Fiber

Fig 2.1 Basic principle of speed control of single phase AC induction motor using optic fiber. On one side of the encoder disk we have an Infra Red light emitter and on the other side we have an Optic Fiber Pickup . The microcontroller upon sensing the start switch, start sending a pulse train
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of predetermined frequency.While the motor runs, the microcontroller senses the speed of the motor and at the time the motor reaches the desired value, the microcontroller changes the Pulse frequency of the power supply to the motor coils. The project also contains an LCD Interface and Keypad Interface for the user to select the speed setting, ON, OFF controls etc., and to display the current status of the Motor. The motor will start with an initial preset speed. This speed can be changed during runtime. The Optical Tachometer will sense the speed of the shaft and will feed the Microcontroller with the speed signal of the motor (Speed Measurement). Based on the measured speed and the set speed of the motor, the Program loaded in the PIC Microcontroller will generate the appropriate frequency for PWM type of Motor Speed Control. 2.2 DESCRIPTION: The purpose of a motor speed controller is to take a signal representing the demanded speed, and to drive a motor at that speed. The controller may or may not actually measure the speed of the motor. If it does, it is called a Feedback Speed Controller or Closed Loop Speed Controller, if not it is called an Open Loop Speed Controller. Feedback speed control is better, but more complicated, and may not be required for a simple robot design.

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Below is a simple block diagram of the speed controller: Fig 2.2 Block diagram of speed controller.

2.3 THEORY OF MOTOR SPEED CONTROL: The speed of a motor is directly proportional to the supply voltage, so if we reduce the supply voltage from 12 Volts to 6 Volts, the motor will run at half the speed. The speed controller works by varying the average voltage sent to the motor. A better way is to switch the motor's supply on and off very quickly. If the switching is fast enough, the motor doesn't notice it, it only notices the average effect. Now imagine a light bulb with a switch. When you close the switch, the bulb goes on and is at full brightness, say 100 Watts. When the switch is open it goes off (0 Watts). If the switch is closed for a fraction of a second, and then opens it for the same amount of time, the filament won't have time to cool down and heat up, and it will get an average glow of 50 Watts. This is how lamp dimmers work, and the same principle is used by speed controllers to drive a motor.

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This on-off switching is performed by power MOSFETs. A MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) is a device that can turn very large currents on and off under the control of a low signal level voltage. The time that it takes a motor to speed up and slow down under switching conditions is dependant on the inertia of the rotor (basically how heavy it is), and how much friction and load torque there is. The graph below shows the speed of a motor that is being turned on and off fairly slowly.

Fig-2.3 Speed variation of Induction motor.

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It can be seen that the average speed is around 150, although it varies quite a bit. If the supply voltage is switched fast enough, it wont have time to change speed much, and the speed will be quite steady. This is the principle of switch mode speed control. Thus the speed is set by PWM Pulse Width Modulation.

2.4 PWM FREQUENCY: The frequency of the resulting PWM signal is dependant on the frequency of the ramp waveform. What frequency do we want? This is not a simple question. Some pros and cons are:
Frequencies between 20 Hz and 18 kHz may produce audible

screaming from the speed controller and motors. RF interference emitted by the circuit will be worse the higher the switching frequency is. Each switching on and off of the speed controller MOSFETs results in a little power loss. Therefore the greater the time spent switching compared with the static on and off times, the greater will be the resulting 'switching loss' in the MOSFETs. The higher the switching frequency, the more stable is the current waveform in the motors. This waveform will be a spiky switching waveform at low frequencies, but at high frequencies the inductance of the motor will smooth this out to an average DC current level proportional to the PWM demand.

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2.5 GENERATING PWM SIGNALS:

The PWM signals can be generated in a number of ways. It is possible that your radio receiver already picks up a PWM waveform from the handset transmitter. If there is a microcontroller on the robot, this may be able to generate the waveform, although if you have more than a couple of motors, this may be too much of a load on the microcontrollers resources. Several methods are described below.

2.5.1 ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS:

The PWM signal is generated by comparing a triangular wave signal with a DC signal. The DC signal can range between the minimum and maximum voltages of the triangle wave.

Fig -2.4 PWM signal generated through analogue method. When the triangle waveform voltage is greater than the DC level, the output of the op-amp swings high, and when it is lower, the output

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swings low. From the graph it can be seen that if the DC level went higher, the pulses would get even thinner. 2.5.2 DIGITAL METHOD:

. Fig-2.5 PWM signals generated through Digital Method. The digital method involves incrementing a counter, comparing the counter value with a pre-loaded register value The register must be loaded with the required PWM level by a microcontroller. It may be replaced by a simple ADC if the level must be controlled by an analogue signal (as it would from a radio control servo).

2.5.3 ONBOARD MICROCONTROLLER:

If an onboard microcontroller is chosen, then as part of selection process, include whether it has PWM outputs. This can greatly simplify

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the process of generating signals. The Hitachi H8S series has up to 16 PWM outputs available, but many other types have two or three. 2.6 OPTO-ISOLATORS: 2.6.1 INTRODUCTION:

Opto-isolators, or Opto-couplers, are made up of a light emitting device, and a light sensitive device, all wrapped up in one package, but with no electrical connection between the two, just a beam of light. The light emitter is nearly always an LED.

Fig-2.6 Phototransistor. The output of this circuit simply follows the input as shown in figure 3.7All opto-isolators will only work up to a certain frequency. Some are much faster than others. The rise time is slower than the fall

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time of the output waveform is that the rising edge is due to the resistor, which has to discharge the capacitance in the opto transistor. If this needs to be speeded up, the resistor value can be reduced, at the expense of using more current when the output is low. .

Fig-2.7 Output Waveform. When the LED is driven with a current of 10mA or so, it shines onto the phototransistor, which then starts to conduct (turn on). This takes the output voltage low. However much electrical noise is on one side, it can never be transmitted over to the other side. We may use an opto-isolator to send PWM signals from the low-power electronics side to the MOSFET drivers on the high-power side, and we may use them to

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transmit information from the high- power side back to the low-power side. To complete the isolation of the low and high power sides, each must be powered by a completely separate battery. The high power side will be powered by the main 12v or 24v battery. The low-power side can be powered by a much smaller battery. 2.7 CONTROL BY A TRIAC FOR AN INDUCTIVE LOAD: Triacs are well suited to the requirements of switching inductive loads. Nevertheless many users still encounter difficulties when designing Triac control circuits which are to be both economical and applicable to inductive loads. 2.7.1 TRIGGERING WITH SYNCHRONIZATION ACROSS THE TRIAC: The triggering circuit with "synchronization across the Triac" (See Figure 1 and Figure 2) turns on the component at an angle after the current drops to zero. Time Tr is defined by the time constant (P + Rt) C. Fig-2.8 Synchronization across the Triac.

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Synchronization across the Triac: .

Fig-2.9 Shape of the signals.

This is the simplest possible circuit but in certain cases of utilization it can have an important drawback. For example, consider a highly inductive load where the Triac is turned on with a considerable Delay of 100 after the mains voltage zero .The duration of conduction of the Triac turned on at point A, is about 150. The Triac is blocked at point 250 after the zero voltage point. At that instant a negative voltage is applied to the triggering circuit which turns on the Triac at after an angle of 100, i.e. 350 from the starting point. The second turn-on will occur at a very low voltage and the angle will be much smaller. The following period begins under similar conditions and the unbalance persists. This type of asymmetrical operation is not only unacceptable but can be dangerous.

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The unbalance is illustrated for a particular case, starting from zero of the mains voltage. Other causes also produce this fault: variation of the load impedance, transient operation, modification of the adjustment. The reason for this is the principle of the circuit which does not take its reference from the mains Voltage zero. Synchronization is by the voltage across the Triac, which is a function of the current in the load. Summing up, this first very simple triggering circuit, synchronized by the voltage across the Triac, has: Definite advantages: o Simple design and low cost. o Connection by two wires, without polarity. o Absence of a separate power supply. o Little power dissipated in P and Rt. A serious disadvantage: Because of its principle, this circuit cannot be used for highly inductive loads with a narrow conduction angle because it can result in unacceptable asymmetrical operation. This very simple triggering circuit should be reserved for low-cost applications with the following characteristics: o Resistive or slightly inductive loads. o No stringent requirements concerning the accuracy of regulation.

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o Variation on highly inductive loads between 85 and 100% of the maximum power. 2.7.2 TRIGGERING WITH SYNCHRONIZATION BY THE MAINS VOLTAGE: This triggering circuit is synchronized by the mains voltage. The pulses are always shifted by 180 with respect to each other, whatever the type of load.

Fig-2.10 Synchronization by mains voltage. 2.7.3 Synchronization by the Mains Voltage: Shape of Signals:

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Angle , characterizing the delay between the mains voltage zero and the triggering pulse, can be adjust-ed by means of potentiometer P from 0 to 180 to vary the voltage across the load. The current in an inductive load (L.R) lags with respect to the voltage by an angle. : that is (tan. = L. / R). For triggering angles higher than. , operation is perfectly symmetrical and stable. This simple circuit can still present the risk of a fault in case angle is smaller than angle. 2.7.4 Synchronization by the Mains Voltage - Shape of the Signals for Asymmetrical Operation:

Fig-2.12 Shape of signals for Asymmetrical Operation. This is possible for loads whose L and R parameters remain strictly constant. 1) Advantages: Simple design. More accurate control than the previous circuit. No auxiliary power supply or transformer required. 2) Disadvantages:
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Connection of the circuit by 3 marked wires, instead of 2 without polarity in the previous circuits. Power dissipated in passive components P and Rt. Operation becomes completely asymmetrical if the control angle is less. This triggering circuit can only be used for applications in which the phase shift of the load remains constant. 2.8 OPTIC FIBER FOR DATA/SIGNAL TRANSMISSION:

In recent years it has become apparent that fiber-optics are steadily replacing copper wire as an appropriate means of communication signal transmission. They span the long distances between local phone systems as well as providing the backbone for many network systems. Other system users include cable television services, university campuses, office buildings, industrial plants, and electric utility companies. A fiber-optic system is similar to the copper wire system that fiber-optics is replacing. The difference is that fiber-optics use light pulses to transmit information down fiber lines instead of using electronic pulses to transmit information down copper lines. Looking at the components in a fiber-optic chain will give a better understanding of how the system works in conjunction with wire based systems. A fiber-optic system is similar to the copper wire system that fiber-optics is replacing. The difference is that fiber-optics use light pulses to transmit information down fiber lines instead of using electronic pulses to transmit information down copper lines.

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Looking at the components in a fiber-optic chain will give a better understanding of how the system works in conjunction with wire based systems.At one end of the system is a transmitter. This is the place of origin for information coming on to fiber-optic lines. equivalently coded light pulses. A light-emitting diode (LED) or an injection-laser diode (ILD) can be used for generating the light pulses.

Fig-2.13 Optic fiber There are three types of fiber optic cable commonly used: single mode, multimode and plastic optical fiber (POF).

Fig-2.14 Cross sectional view of Optic fiber.

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Transparent glass or plastic fibers which allow light to be guided from one end to the other with minimal loss. Fiber optic cable functions as a "light guide," guiding the light introduced at one end of the cable through to the other end. The light source can either be a light-emitting diode (LED)) or a laser. The light source is pulsed on and off, and a lightsensitive receiver on the other end of the cable converts the pulses back into the digital ones and zeros of the original signals. Even laser light shining through a fiber optic cable is subject to loss of strength, primarily through dispersion and scattering of the light, within the cable itself. The faster the laser fluctuates, the greater the risk of dispersion. Light strengtheners, called repeaters, may be necessary to refresh the signal in certain applications. While fiber optic cable itself has become cheaper over time - a equivalent length of copper cable cost less per foot but not in capacity. Fiber optic cable connectors and the equipment needed to install them are still more expensive than their copper counterparts. Single Mode cable is a single stand of glass fiber with a diameter of 8.3 to 10 microns that has one mode of transmission. Single Mode Fiber with a relatively narrow diameter, through which only one mode will propagate typically 1310 or 1550nm. Carries higher bandwidth than multimode fiber, but requires a light source with a narrow spectral width. Synonyms mono-mode optical fiber, single-mode fiber, single-mode optical waveguide, uni-mode fiber. Single-mode fiber gives you a higher transmission rate and up to 50 times more distance than multimode, but it also costs more. Singlemode fiber has a much smaller core than multimode.

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The small core and single light-wave virtually eliminate any distortion that could result from overlapping light pulses, providing the least signal attenuation and the highest transmission speeds of any fiber cabletype.Single-mode optical fiber is an optical fiber in which only the lowest order bound mode can propagate at the wavelength of interest typically 1300 to 1320nm. Multimode cable is made of glass fibers, with common diameters in the 50-to-100 micron range for the light carry component (the most common size is 62.5). POF is a newer plastic-based cable which promises performance similar to glass cable on very short runs, but at a lower cost.

Fig -2.15 Multimode Fiber.

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Multimode fiber gives you high bandwidth at high speeds over medium distances. Light waves are dispersed into numerous paths, or modes, as they travel through the cable's core typically 850 or 1300nm. Typical multimode fiber core diameters are 50, 62.5, and 100 micrometers. However, in long cable runs (greater than 3000 feet [914.4 meters), multiple paths of light can cause signal distortion at the receiving end, resulting in an unclear and incomplete data transmission. The applications of optical fiber communications have increased at a rapid rate, since the first commercial installation of a fiber-optic system in 1977. Telephone companies began early on, replacing their old copper wire systems with optical fiber lines. Today's telephone companies use optical fiber throughout their system as the backbone architecture and as the long-distance connection between city phone systems. Cable television companies have also begun integrating fiberoptics into their cable systems. The trunk lines that connect central offices have generally been replaced with optical fiber. Some providers have begun experimenting with fiber to the curb using a fiber/coaxial hybrid. Such a hybrid allows for the integration of fiber and coaxial at a neighborhood location. This location, called a node, would provide the optical receiver that converts the light impulses back to electronic signals. The signals could then be fed to individual homes via coaxial cable.

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CHAPTER-3 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Controlled 220V AC Input to Motor

AC Motor
Optical Tacho

PWM or Current Regulator /Driver

LCD Display Motor Speed

Key Pad

Micro controller PIC16F84A or PIC16F628 With Speed Controller Software

220V AC Input Keypad Interface for Incrementing or Decrementing Motor Speed Setting

Fig 3.1- Block diagram of speed control of single-phase ac induction motor. 3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION: The block diagram of Speed control Of Single Phase AC Induction Motor consists of the following elements: o Driver Circuit. o Controller Circuit o Keypad Circuit

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o Display Circuit. 3.1.1 DRIVER CIRCUIT: The driver circuit consists of an Opto isolator. Opto isolator is an inbuilt IC which contains LED and Photoconductive Diac. According to the Signals Received from the controller circuit, the LED glows. As the LED glows, the Photo conductive Diode conducts. When the diode conducts, it gives gate triggering pulses to the TRIAC. The TRIAC conducts and it feeds the signals to motor in such a way that the motor runs in desired speed. 3.1.2 CONTROLLER CIRCUIT: The controller circuit consists of PIC microcontroller. The PIC16F84A is a reprogrammable microcontroller. The signals from the optical Tacho are fed to the Microcontroller through the Optic fiber. According to the signals fed to it, the Microcontroller controls the Driver circuit in such a way that the motor runs in desired speed. 3.1.3 KEYPAD CIRCUIT: The keypad circuit consists of switches that are used to set the speed of motor. Through the Keypad circuit, the speed can either be incremented or decremented. 3.1.4 DISPLAY CIRCUIT:

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The display circuit displays the speed of the motor to the operator. The HD44780U dot matrix liquid crystal display controller and driver LSI displays alphanumeric, Japanese kana characters and symbols. CHAPTER-4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

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Fig-4.1 OPTO TRIAC DRIVER CIRCUIT.

Fig-4.2 PIC16F84A CONTROLLER CIRCUIT.

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Fig-4.3 KEYPAD CIRCUIT.

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LCD Controller Operating Procedure

Schematic of Two-Wire Control Signals for 4-bit Data, R/S and Enable Line of LCD Controller

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Fig-4.5 DRIVER STAGE.

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CHAPTER-5 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION OF MOTOR SPEED CONTROL.

The PIC16F84A microcontroller is connected to a 5V DC regulated supply using an LM7805 Voltage Regulator. The Clock is derived from a 4MHz Crystal Oscillator. Stray oscillations are suppressed using 22pF Capacitors connected between the terminals of the oscillator and GND line. The MCLR line of PIC is tied to 5V section through a 10K Resistor in series. This 10K Resistor is connected to the GND line through a Push to ON switch. This switch acts as the RESET Key. Of the 13 I/O ports available in the PIC, RA0 and RA1 are configured as output ports. They serve as the CLK line (RA0) and Data line (RA1) for the LCD Display. A 74LS174 shift register is configured to work as a serial to parallel converter which converts the serial data received from PIC to 4 bit command or data required for PIC along with RS value and Chip Enable signal. RA2 and RA3 are configured as output port and they serve as the line for sending triggering pulses for the Photo Coupler connected to the Motor Drive Control Circuit. RA3 always carries a 0 and RA2 carries a 1 whenever the motor is to be pulsed.

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The 5V output from the RA2 lines goes through the emitter of the Photo Coupler through an LED which serves as an indication of the triggering pulses sent to the Motor Drive Control. Port RB4, RB3 and RB2 are configured as Input Ports which senses the Key Presses and Pulses sensed from the Motor Speed Detector. RB1 and RB2 always get a 1 signal. When a key is pressed, that line gets grounded and the PIC senses a 0 in that Port. This is used to detect whether the user wants to increment the speed or decrement the speed. A photo gap detector is configured to detect the rolling of the motor shaft. When the gap detector is blocked by the encoded shaft of the Motor, the light emitted by the emitter of the gap detector is blocked for the detector section of the gap detector. This pulse from the speed detector is used for sensing the motor speed by sensing the number of zeroes detected for a fixed amount of time. A 74LS174 shift register is configured to work as a serial to parallel converter which converts the serial data received from PIC to 4 bit command or data required for PIC along with RS value and Chip Enable signal. RA2 and RA3 are configured as output port and they serve as the line for sending triggering pulses for the Photo Coupler connected to the Motor Drive Control Circuit. RA3 always carries a 0 and RA2 carries a 1 whenever the motor is to be pulsed

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CHAPTER-6 DATA SHEETS 6.1 PIC16F84A 18-PIN ENHANCED FLASH /EEPROM 8-BIT MICRO CONTROLLER: 6.1.1 HIGH PERFORMANCE RISC CPU FEATURES: Only 35 single word instructions to learn. All instructions single-cycle except for program branches which are Two-cycle. Operating speed: DC -20 MHz clock input. DC-200 ns Instruction cycle. 1024 words of program memory. 68 bytes of data RAM. 64 bytes of data EEPROM. 14 bit wide instruction words. 8 bit wide data bytes. 15 special function hardware registers. 8 level deep hardware stack. Direct and Indirect and relative Addressing modes. Four Interrupt sources: External RBO/INT pin TMRO timer overflow. PORTB <7:4> Interrupt on change

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 Data EEPROM write complete. 6.1.2 PERIPHERAL FEATURES: 13 I/O pins with individual direction control

High current sink/source for direct LED drive. o 25 mA sink max.per pin. o 25 mA source max.per pin. TMRO: 8 bit timer/counter with 8 bit programmable prescaler. 6.1.3 SPECIAL MICROCONTROLLER FEATURES: 10000 erase/write cycles enhanced flash program memory 10,000,000 typical erase/write cycles EEPROM data EEPROM data retention greater than 40 years.

typical. memory typical.

Power on reset (POR),power up timer(PWRT) Oscillator start up timer(OST) Watch dog timer (WDT) with its own on chip RC oscillator for reliable operation.

Code protection. Power saving sleep mode.

Selectable oscillator options. 6.1.4 CMOS ENHANCED FLASH/EEPROM TECHNOLOGY:

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Low power high speed technology. Fully static design. Wide operating voltage range. o Commercial : 2.0V to 5.5V o Industrial : 2.0V to 5.5V Low power consumption.

o o
o

<2.0 mA typical @5.0V, 4MHz. 15 A typical @ 2.0V, 32KHz <0.5 A typical stand by current at 2.0V.

Fig 6.1-Pin diagram of PIC16F84A.

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6.2 PIC16F84A PINOUT DESCRIPTION:

PIN NAME OSC1/CLKIN

PDIP NO 16

I/O TYPE I

BUFFER

DESCRIPTION

TYPE ST/CMOS Oscillator crystal input/external clock source input. Oscillator crystal output.connects to crystal or resonator in crystal oscillator mode.in RC mode osc 2 pin outputs CLKOUT, which has the frequency of osc 1 and denotes the instruction cycle rate. Master clear (RESET)

OSC2/CLKOUT 15

MCLR

I/P

ST

Input/Programming voltage input. This pin is an active low reset to the device. PORTA is a bidirectional I/Port Can also be selected to be the clock input to the TMR0

RA0 RA1 RA2 RA3 RA4/TOCKI

17 18 1 2 3

I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O

TTL TTL TTL TTL ST

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time/counter. PIN NAME PDIP NO I/O TYPE BUFFER TYPE PORTB is a bidirectional I/O port. PORTB can be software programmed for internal weak pull-up on all inputs. RB0/INT RB1 RB2 RB3 RB4 RB5 RB6 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O TTL/ST^1 RBO/INT can also be selected as an external interrupt pin. TTL TTL TTL TTL TTL Interrupt on- change pin Interrupt on- change pin programming clock RB7 13 I/O TTL/ST^2 Interrupt on-change pin serial VSS 5 P programming data. Ground reference for logic and I/O VDD 14 P Pins. Positive supply for logic and I/O pins. T.No-6.1 Pin details of PIC16F84A.
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DESCRIPTION

TTL/ST^2 Interrupt on-change pin serial

I/O P ST TTL

input /output power Not used Schmitt trigger TTL Input.

6.3 ELECTRICAL CHARACERISTICS OF PIC16F84A:

o Ambient temperature under bias ----------------------- -55C to +125C

o o

Storage temperature-------------------------------------- -65C to +150C Voltage on any pin with respect to VSS -------------- -0.3V to (VDD+0.3 Volt) Voltage on VDD with respect to VSS---------------- -0.3 to +0.75 Voltage on MCLR with respect to VSS^1----------- - 0.3 to +14 Voltage on RA4 with respect to VSS----------------- -0.3 to +8.5 Total power dissipation ^2----------------------------- 800MW Maximum current out of VSS pin--------------------- 150mA Maximum current into VDD pin---------------------- 100mA Input clamp current ------------------------------------- 20mA Output clamp current ---------------------------------- 20mA Maximum output current sunk by any I/O pin ----- 25mA Maximum current sourced by any I/O pin ---------- 25mA Maximum current sunk by PORTA ------------------ 80mA Maximum current sourced by PORTA -------------- 50mA Maximum current sunk by PORTB ----------------- 150mA Maximum current sourced by PORTB ------------- 100Ma
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o o o o o o o o o o o o o

6.4 HD44780U (LCD-II) DOT MATRIX LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY CONTROLLER: 6.4.1 DESCRIPTION: The HD44780U dot matrix liquid crystal display controller and driver LSI displays alphanumeric, Japanese kana characters and symbols. It can be configured to drive a dot matrix liquid crystal display under the control of 4 bit or 8 bit microprocessor. Since all the functions such as display RAM, character generator and liquid crystal driver, required for driving a dot matrix display are internally provided on one chip, a minimal system can be interfaced with this controller/driver. A single HD44780U can display upto one 8 character line or two 8 character line. The HD44780U has pin function compatability with the HD44780S which allows the user to easily replace an LCD II with an HD44780U character generator ROM is extended to generate 208 5x8 dot character fonts for a total of 240 different character fonts. The low power supply (2.7V to 5.5V) of the HD44780U is suitable for any portable battery-driven product requiring low power dissipation. 6.4.1 FEATURES: 5 8 and 5 10 dot matrix possible Low power operations support 2.72 to 5.5V

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Wide range of liquid crystal display driver power 3.0 to 11V Liquid crystals drive waveform a one line frequency AC waveform. Correspond to high speed MPU bus interface 2MHz 4 bit or 8 bit MPU interface enabled. 80 8 bit display RAM (8characteristics Maximum.) 9920 bit character generator ROM for a total of 240 character font. 208 character fonts (58 dot) 32 character font (510 dot) Wide range of instruction functions Display clear, cursor home, and display on/off, cursor on/off, display character blink, cursor shift, and display shift. Pin function compatibility with hd447808 Automatic reset circuit that initializes the controller/driver after power on Internal oscillator with external resistors Low power consumption. 6.5 NON ZERO CROSSING TRIACS: 6.5.1 DESCRIPTION: The MOC3020, MOC3022 and MOC3023 are optically isolated TRIAC driver devices. These devices contain a GaAs infrared emitting
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diode and a light activated silicon bilateral switch, which functions like a TRIAC. This is designed for interfacing between electronic controls and power TRIACS to control resistive and inductive loads for 240V AC operations. 6.5.2 FEATURES: Excellent stability IR emitting diode has low degradation. High isolation voltage minimum 7500V AC peak. Under writers laboratory (UL) recognized. 6.5.3 APPLICATION:
European applications for 240V AC

TRIAC driver Industrial controls. Traffic lights. Vending machines. Motor control. Solid state relay. 6.6 SN74LS174 HEX D FLIP-FLOP: The LSTTL/MSISN74LS174 is a high speed hex D-Flip-flop. The device is used primarily as a six bit edge triggered storage register. The
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information on the D inputs is transferred to storage during the low to high clock transition. The device has a master Reset to simultaneously clear all flip-flops. The LS174 is fabricated with the Schottky barrier diode process for high speed and is completely compatible with all ON semiconductor TTL families.

Edge triggered D type inputs. Buffered positive edge triggered clock. Asynchronous common reset Input clamp diodes limit high speed termination effects.

6.6.1 FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION: The LS174 consist of six Edge triggered D Flip-flops with individual D inputs and Q outputs. The clock and Master Reset are common to all flip-flops. Each D inputs state is transferred to the corresponding flip-flops output following the low to high clock transition. A low input to the master reset will force all outputs Low independent of clock or data inputs. The LS174 is useful for applications where the true output only is required and the clock and the Master Reset are common to all storage Elements.

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CHAPTER-7 MICROCONTROLLER PROGRAM #include<pic.h> __CONFIG (0x3FF1); #define BITNUM(adr, bit) ((unsigned)(&adr)*8+(bit)) static bit LCD_DATA @ BITNUM(PORTA, 1); static bit LCD_CLK @ BITNUM(PORTA, 0); static bit MOTOR @ BITNUM(PORTA, 2);

unsigned int TMR0Overflows; unsigned int AnzRB0Int; occured on pin RB0 unsigned long int Frequency; void LCD_Write(char Nybble, char RS); void Write2Nibbles(char c, char RS); void millisecdelay(int d); void DisplayNum(unsigned int count); // variable holds the count of Interrupts

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void interrupt isr( void ); void main(void) { char lbl1[] = "Motor Speed Ctrl"; char lbl2[] = "Speed: "; int i; TRISA = 0x00; PORTA = 0x00; GIE = 0; RP0 = 1; OPTION = 5; TRISB = 0x01; RP0 = 0; T0IE = 1; INTE = 1; RBIE = 0; GIE = 1; TMR0Overflows = 0; Frequency = 0; millisecdelay(25);
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LCD_Write(0x03, 0); millisecdelay(10); LCD_Write(0x03, 0); millisecdelay(200); LCD_Write(0x03, 0); millisecdelay(200); LCD_Write(0x02, 0); millisecdelay(200); Write2Nibbles(0x20, 0); Write2Nibbles(0x08, 0); Write2Nibbles(0x01, 0); millisecdelay(5); Write2Nibbles(0x06, 0); Write2Nibbles(0x0C, 0); millisecdelay(100); for(i=0; i<16; i++) Write2Nibbles(lbl1[i], 1); millisecdelay(3000); MOTOR = 1; while (1==1) { Write2Nibbles(0x01,0); millisecdelay(5);
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for(i=0; i<7; i++) Write2Nibbles(lbl2[i], 1); DisplayNum(Frequency); Write2Nibbles('/', 1); Write2Nibbles('S', 1); millisecdelay(200); CLRWDT(); } } void interrupt isr( void ) { if (T0IF == 1) { TMR0=130; TMR0Overflows++; if (TMR0Overflows > 124) { TMR0Overflows = 0; Frequency = AnzRB0Int ; AnzRB0Int = 0; } T0IF = 0; } if (INTF == 1) {
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AnzRB0Int++; INTF = 0; } }

void LCD_Write(char Nibble, char RS) { unsigned char i; LCD_DATA = 0; for (i = 0; i < 6; i++) { LCD_CLK = 1; LCD_CLK = 0; } LCD_DATA = 1; LCD_CLK = 1; LCD_CLK = 0; LCD_DATA = RS; LCD_CLK = 1; LCD_CLK = 0; for (i = 0; i < 4; i++) { if ((Nibble & 0x08) != 0)
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LCD_DATA = 1; else LCD_DATA = 0; LCD_CLK = 1; LCD_CLK = 0; Nibble = Nibble << 1; } LCD_DATA = 1; LCD_DATA = 0; }

void Write2Nibbles(char c, char RS) { char TEMP; TEMP = c >> 4; LCD_Write(TEMP, RS); TEMP = c; LCD_Write(TEMP, RS); } void millisecdelay(int d) { int i, j; for (i = 0; i < d; i++)
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for (j = 0; j < (250/4); j++) NOP (); }

void DisplayNum(unsigned int count) { Write2Nibbles('0'+count/10000, 1); count = count % 10000; Write2Nibbles('0'+count/1000, 1); count = count % 1000; Write2Nibbles('0'+count/100, 1); count = count % 100; Write2Nibbles('0'+count/10, 1); count = count % 10; Write2Nibbles('0'+count, 1); }

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CHAPTER-8 PERFORMANCE OF THE MOTOR -OBSERVATION Details of the motor: Supply Voltage Rating Current Rating Duty : Single Phase AC Supply : 220V : 1.0 Amp. : Continuous Duty.

Smooth Operating Range: Smooth operating Range Occurs From 17RPS to 23RPS. OPERATING REGION OF MOTOR. S.no 1. 2. 3. Speed Setting Set Speed Minimum speed Maximum speed 22 1320 44 Speed in rps 11 2 Speed in rpm 660 120 Frequency in Hz 22 4

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T.NO-8.1 Operating region of motor. The smooth operating Region of our Project occurs from 17RPS to 22RPS. S.No Speed in rps Speed in rpm Frequency in Hz 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 17 18 19 20 21 22 1020 1080 1140 1200 1260 1320 34 36 38 40 42 44

T.NO-8.2 Smooth operating region of motor.

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CONCLUSION

Any industrial process needs to be atomized for its efficient production and reliability and this needs any controller to take care of. In our project, we have taken speed as a parameter to be controlled and we have used PIC16F84A micro controller for implementation. We have successfully controlled the speed of AC Induction Motor by supplying appropriate PWM signals to the motor coils. Our project has the advantages like compact size, flexibility, easily programmable, versatile. This technique is also used to control three phase Induction Motors of any rating. This technique can be applied to control the speed of the conveyors, Bucket wheel excavators, lignite handling systems (LHS) in Thermal Stations, where speed is to be controlled accurately. Our project is also used in Machines like Milling, Planning and feed Motors where the motors are to be run at different required speeds.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

REFERENCE BOOKS

Franz, J.H.and Jain, V.K, Optical Communications-Components &Systems-Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi, pp.102-130.

Jacob Millman,Christos C Halkias,Satyabrata Jit, Mill mans Electronic Devices and Circuits(Second Edition)-The Mc Graw-Hill Companies,pp.434-456.

WEBSITES

www.tech.online.com www.semiconductors.philips.com www.eparorama.com www.electroniccircuits.com http://onsemi.com www.tnpl.co.in

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