An optical fiber (or fibre) is a glass or plastic fiber designed to guide light along its length by confining as much

light as possible in a propagating form. In fibers with large core diameter, the confinement is based on total internal reflection. In smaller diameter core fibers, (widely used for most communication links longer than 200 meters) the confinement relies on establishing a waveguide. Fiber optics is the overlap of applied science and engineering concerned with such optical fibers. Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communication, which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher data rates than other forms of wired and wireless communications. They are also used to form sensors, and in a variety of other applications. The term optical fiber covers a range of different designs including graded-index optical fibers, step-index optical fibers, birefringent polarization-maintaining fibers and more recently photonic crystal fibers, with the design and the wavelength of the light propagating in the fiber dictating whether or not it will be multi-mode optical fiber or single-mode optical fiber. Because of the mechanical properties of the more common glass optical fibers, special methods of splicing fibers and of connecting them to other equipment are needed. Manufacture of optical fibers is based on partially melting a chemically doped preform and pulling the flowing material on a draw tower. Fibers are built into different kinds of cables depending on how they will be used. Structure of Fibre Optical fibres are very fine fibres of glass. They consist of a glass core, roughly fifty micrometres in diameter, surrounded by a glass "optical cladding" giving an outside diameter of about 120 micrometres. They make use of TIR to confine light within the core of the fibre.

Figure - Structure of an Optical Fibre

3.2 Principle of operation

An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide that transmits light along its axis, by the process of total internal reflection. The fiber consists of a core surrounded by a cladding layer. To confine the optical signal in the core, the refractive index of the core must be greater than that of the cladding. The boundary between the core and cladding may either be abrupt, in step-index fiber, or gradual, in graded-index fiber.

3.3 FIBER TYPES

There are two general categories of optical fiber :Single mode Multi-mode Step-index, Graded index

Multimode Fibres Multimode fiber has a much lighter core than single mode fiber, allowing hundreds of modes of light to propagate through the fiber simultaneously. Although it may seem from what we have said about total internal reflection that any ray of light can travel down the fibre, in fact, because of the wave nature of light, only certain ray directions can actually travel down the fibre. These are called the " Fibre Mode". In a multimode fibre many different modes are supported by the fibre. This is shown in the diagram below

Step Index Fibre

Step index fibre is so called because the refractive index of the fibre 'steps" up as we move from the cladding to the core of the fibre. Within the cladding the refractive index is constant, and within the core of the refractive index is constant.

Graded Index Fibre

Graded Index Fibre has a different core structure from single mode and multimode fibre. Whereas in a step-index fibre the refractive index of the core is constant throughout the core, in a graded index fibre the value of the refractive index changes from the centre of the core onwards. In fact it has what we call a Quadratic Profile. This means that the refractive index of the core is proportional to the square of the distance from the centre of the fibre.

Figure-Graded Index Fibre

Single Mode

Because its core is so narrow Single Mode fibre can support only one mode. This is called the "Lowest Order Mode". Single mode fibre has some advantages over multimode fibre.

3.4 Pulse Spreading

The data which is carried in an optical fibre consists of pulses of light energy following each other rapidly. There is a limit to the highest frequency, i.e. how many pulses per second which can be sent into a fibre and be expected to emerge intact at the other end. This is because of a phenomenon known as pulse spreading which limits the "Bandwidth" of the fibre.

Figure 11 Pulse Spreading in an Optical Fibre

The pulse sets off down the fibre with an nice square wave shape. As it travels along the fibre it gradually gets wider and the peak intensity decreases.

Cause of Pulse Spreading

The cause of cause spreading is dispersion. This means that some components of the pulse of light travel at different rates along the fibre. Chromatic Dispersion Chromatic dispersion is the variation of refractive index with the wavelength (or the frequency) of the light. Another way of saying this is that each wavelength of light travels through the same material at its own particular speed which is different from that of other wavelengths. For example, when white light passes through a prism some wavelengths of light bend more because their refractive index is higher, i.e. they travel slower This is what gives us the "Spectrum" of white light. The "red' and "orange" light travel slowest and so are bent most while the "violet" and "blue" travel fastest and so are bent less. All the other colours lie in between.This means that different wavelengths travelling through an optical fibre also travel at different speeds. This phenomenon is called "Chromatic Dispersion".

Figure 10 Dispersion of Light through a Prism

Modal Dispersion In an optical fibre there is another type of dispersion called "Multimode Dispersion". More oblique rays (lower order modes) travel a shorter distance. These correspond to rays travelling almost parallel to the centre line of the fibre and reach the end of fibre sooner. The more zig-zag rays (higher order modes) take a longer route as they pass along the fibre and so reach the end of the fibre later. Material dispersion It is due to wavelength dependence of the refractive index and, consequently, of group velocity. The differing group velocities result in pulse spreading. Pulse dispersion is given by, Tm = /c d2n/d2 where - operating wavelength c - velocity of light n refractive index - spectral width of the device The second derivative of refractive index and hence material dispersion falls to zero in wavelength region 1.2 to 1.4 m depending on the material constituents of fibre. The material dispersion versus wavelength is shown in figure. The sign of material dispersion is different on the two sides of the zero crossing. The sign represents the negative or positive delay of longer wavelength to shorter wavelengths. This property permits a certain amount of manoeuvring in chromatic dispersion as the wavelength dispersion is of constant sign. In pure Silica the zero material dispersion occurs around 1.27 m. Waveguide dispersion Waveguide dispersion in fibre occurs due to refractive index dependence on wavelength. Even if material dispersion is zero in a single mode fibre, pulse spreading will occur. This can be attributed to waveguide dispersion related to core diameter and exists even if dn/d = 0. However it is generally very small and negligible except in single made fibres.

Or put simply: for various reasons some components of a pulse of light travelling along an optical fibre move faster and other components move slower. So, a pulse which starts off as a narrow burst of light gets wider because some components race ahead while other components lag behind, rather like the runners in a marathon race.

3.5 Consequences of pulse spreading

Frequency Limit (Bandwidth)

The further the pulse travels in the fibre the worse the spreading gets

Figure 12 - Merging of Pulses in a Fibre.

Pulse spreading limits the maximum frequency of signal which can be sent along a fibre. If signal pulses follow each other too fast then by the time they reach the end fibre they will have merged together and become indistinguishable. This is unaceptable for digital systems which depend on the precise sequence of pulses as a code for information. The Bandwidth is the highest number of pulses per second, that can be carried by the fibre without loss of information due to pulse spreading.
Distance Limit

A given length of fibre, as explained above has a maximum frequency (bandwidth) which can be sent along it. If we want to increase the bandwidth for the same type of fibre we can achieve this by decreasing the length of the fibre. Another way of saying this is that for a given data rate there is a maximum distance which the data can be sent.
Bandwidth Distance Product (BDP)

We can combine the two ideas above into a single term called the bandwidth distance product (BDP). It is the bandwidth of a fibre multiplied by the length of the fibre. The BDP is thebandwidth of a kilometre of fibre and is a constant for any particular type of fibre

10

3.6 Choice of Fibre

Step-index Fibre

Muitimode fibre is suitable for local area networks (LAN's) because it can carry enough energy to support all the subscribers to the network. In a LAN the distances involved, however, are small. Little pulse spreading can take place and so the effects of dispersion are unimportant.
Graded-Index Fibre

In graded index fibre rays of light follow sinusoidal paths. This means that low order modes, i.e. oblique rays, stay close to the centre of the fibre, high order modes spend more time near the edge of core. Low order modes travel in the high index part of the core and so travel slowly, whereas high order modes spend predominantly more time in the low index part of the core and so travel faster. This way, although the paths are different lengths, all the modes travel the length of the fibre in tandem, i.e., they all reach the end of the fibre at the same time. This eliminates multimode dispersion and reduces pulse spreading. Graded Index fibre has the advantage that it can carry the same amount of energy as stepindex fibre (reduced pulse spreading). The disadvantage is that this effect takes place at only one wavelength, so the light source has to be a laser diode which has a narrow linewidth.

Single Mode Fibre.

Multimode Dispersion is eliminated by using Single Mode fibre. The core is so narrow that only one mode can travel. So the amount of pulse spreading in a single mode fibre is greatly reduced from that of a multimode fibre. Chromatic dispersion however remains even in a single mode fibre. Thus even in single mode fibre pulse spreading can occur. But chromatic dispersion can be reduced by careful design of the chemical composition of the glass. The energy carried by a single mode fibre, however, is much less than that carried by a multimode fibre. For this reason single mode fibre is made from extremely low loss, very pure, glass. Single mode low absorption fibre is ideal for telecommunications because pulse spreading is small.

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3.7 LOSS MECHANISMS IN FIBER OPTIC CABLES

Attenuation losses
The loss of light in a fibre occurs because of two main mechanisms. As light passes through the fibre, the material in the fibre causes absorption of a percentage of it. At the same time, impurities and imperfections in fibre cause scattering of some of the light. The scattering of light due to variations in density is called Rayleigh scattering and is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength.Loss of light also occurs when there are small bumps or variations in the surface of the core of the fibre. These variations are known as microbends. The radiation losses in glass fibres are caused by bending and microbending in fibres. Maximum loss in fibres is caused by hydroxyl impurities which have prominent absorption peaks around 1.25m and 1.4m wavelengths.

Attenuation is specified in db.km-1

Where I out = outgoing intensity (intensity is measured in W.m-2) I in = ingoing intensity (W.m-2) Attenuation in a fibre is measured using an OTDR (Optical Time-Domain Reflectometer) which looks at the light reflected back long the fibre when a pulse of light is sent down the fibre. Another method is to send light from a continuous source of light and measure the power emerging at the other end of the fibre.

Optical Time Domain Reflectometer

Causes of Attenuation
The light travelling along a fibre is attenuated, i.e. its intensity decreases as it moves along the fibre. This happens for 3 main reasons Atomic absorption of light photons Scattering of light by flaws and impurities Reflection of light by splices and connectors
12

Atomic Absorption

The atoms of any material are capable of absorbing specific wavelengths of light because of their electron orbital structure. This absorption can be observed if you look into the edge of a pane of glass. The light which emerges has a green colour because so much red and blue light have been absorbed by the atoms of the glass. In the same way, as light passes along an optical fibre. more and more light is absorbed by the atoms as it continues on its path
Scattering by Flaws and Impurities

This type of scattering is called "Rayleigh Scattering". The amount of Rayleigh Scattering which takes place depends on the relative size of the scattering particle and the wavelength of the light. If the wavelength of the light is large compared to the size of the scattering particle then little light is scattered. If the wavelength of the light is small compared to the scattering particles then a lot of light is scattered. So long wavelengths are preferred in fibre optics because of the lower absorption. Thus 1500 nm is better than 1300 nm which is better than 850 nm

Figure - Fibre Optic Loss as a Function of Wavelength

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3.8 Termination and splicing

ST fiber connector on multimode fiber

Optical fibers are connected to terminal equipment by optical fiber connectors. These connectors are usually of a standard type such as FC, SC, ST, LC, or MTRJ. Optical fibers may be connected to each other by connectors or by splicing, that is, joining two fibers together to form a continuous optical waveguide. The generally accepted splicing method is arc fusion splicing, which melts the fiber ends together with an electric arc. For quicker fastening jobs, a "mechanical splice" is used. Fusion splicing is done with a specialized instrument that typically operates as follows: The two cable ends are fastened inside a splice enclosure that will protect the splices, and the fiber ends are stripped of their protective polymer coating (as well as the more sturdy outer jacket, if present). The ends are cleaved (cut) with a precision cleaver to make them perpendicular, and are placed into special holders in the splicer. The splice is usually inspected via a magnified viewing screen to check the cleaves before and after the splice. The splicer uses small motors to align the end faces together, and emits a small spark between electrodes at the gap to burn off dust and moisture. Then the splicer generates a larger spark that raises the temperature above the melting point of the glass, fusing the ends together permanently. The location and energy of the spark is carefully controlled so that the molten core and cladding don't mix, and this minimizes optical loss. A splice loss estimate is measured by the splicer, by directing light through the cladding on one side and measuring the light leaking from the cladding on the other side. A splice loss under 0.1 dB is typical. The complexity of this process is the major thing that makes fiber splicing more difficult than splicing copper wire. Mechanical fiber splices are designed to be quicker and easier to install, but there is still the need for stripping, careful cleaning and precision cleaving. The fiber ends are aligned and held together by a precision-made sleeve, often using a clear gel (index matching gel) that enhances the transmission of light across the joint. Such joints typically have higher optical loss, and are less robust than fusion splices, especially if the gel is used. All splicing techniques involve the use of an enclosure into which the splice is placed for protection afterward. Fibers are terminated in connectors so that the fiber end is held at the end face precisely and securely. A fiber optic connector is basically a rigid cylindrical barrel surrounded by a sleeve that holds the barrel in its mating socket. It can be push and click, turn and latch, or threaded. A typical connector is installed by preparing the fiber end and inserting it into the rear of the connector body. Quick set glue is usually used so the fiber is held securely, and a strain relief
14

is secured to the rear. Once the glue has set, the end is polished to a mirror finish. Various types of polish profile are used, depending on the type of fiber and the application. For singlemode fiber, the fiber ends are typically polished with a slight curvature, such that when the connectors are mated the fibers touch only at their cores. This is known as a "physical contact" (PC) polish. The curved surface may be polished at an angle, to make an angled physical contact (APC) connection. Such connections have higher loss than PC connections, but greatly reduced backreflection, because light that reflects from the angled surface leaks out of the fiber core; the resulting loss in signal strength is known as gap loss. Various methods to align two fiber ends to each other or one fiber to an optical device (VCSEL, LED, waveguide etc.) have been reported. They all follow either an active fiber alignment approach or a passive fiber alignment approach.
Reflection by Splices and Connectors

In a long fibre cable there may be many splices which join the individual lengths of fibre together. In a Local Area Network there will be many connectors because of the number of subscribers to the system. At each connector and/or splice some light will be reflected back along the fibre in the opposite direction. This will happen even for the most perfect splice or connector. Light reflected backwards does not leave the fibre but is no longer usefully available for the rest of the fibre, i.e. it is no longer part of the ongoing light.
Splicing

Optical fibres have to be joined together to make longer lengths of fibre or existing fibre lengths which have been broken have to be repaired. Also the ends of the fibre have to be fitted with convenient connectors (terminations) to allow them to be easily plugged into equipment such as power meters, data transmitters, etc. Unlike electrical cables where all that is needed is to solder lengths of cable together, the process of joining two fibres (splicing) or terminating the end of a fibre is more complex and requires special equipment. Splicing is the process of joining the two bare ends of two fibres together. The ends of the fibre must be precisely lined up with each other, otherwise the light will not be able to pass from one fibre across the gap to the other fibre. There are four main alignment errors and any splicing technique is designed to deal with ends of these errors.

Possible alignment errors during splicing

There four alignment errors in splicing optical fibres. These are:15

Lateral, Axial, Angular, Poor End Finish. These are illustrated in the diagrams below.
Figure 20 Lateral Misalignment Figure 17 Angular Misalignment Figure 18 Axial Misalignment Figure 19 Poor End Finnish

There are two main types of splicing: Fusion Splicing and; Mechanical Splicing

16

Fusion Splicing
Figure 21 Fusion Splicing

Fusion Splicer In fusion splicing the ends of the fibres are aligned either manually using micro-manipulators and a microscope system for viewing the splice, or automatically either using cameras or by measuring the light transmitted through the splice and adjusting the positions of the fibres to optimise the transmission The ends of the fibres are then melted together using a gas flame or more commonly an electric arc. Near perfect splices can be obtained with losses as low as 0.02 dB (best mechanical splice 0.2 dB)

3.9 How Does an Optical Fiber Transmit Light?

Suppose you want to shine a flashlight beam down a long, straight hallway. Just point the beam straight down the hallway -- light travels in straight lines, so it is no problem. What if the hallway has a bend in it? You could place a mirror at the bend to reflect the light beam around the corner. What if the hallway is very winding with multiple bends? You might line the walls with mirrors and angle the beam so that it bounces from side-to-side all along the hallway. This is exactly what happens in an optical fiber.
Diagram of total internal reflection in an optical fiber

17

The light in a fiber-optic cable travels through the core (hallway) by constantly bouncing from the cladding (mirror-lined walls), a principle called total internal reflection. Because the cladding does not absorb any light from the core, the light wave can travel great distances. However, some of the light signal degrades within the fiber, mostly due to impurities in the glass. The extent that the signal degrades depends on the purity of the glass and the wavelength of the transmitted light (for example, 850 nm = 60 to 75 percent/km; 1,300 nm = 50 to 60 percent/km; 1,550 nm is greater than 50 percent/km). Some premium optical fibers show much less signal degradation -- less than 10 percent/km at 1,550 nm.

3.10 Light Sources & Transmitters

Two types of light sources are commonly used for optical fiber in communications applications. These sources are the light-emitting diode (LED) and the semiconductor laser (or laser diode). These two sources have distinct characteristics in terms of performance, cost, and ease of use. The selection is usually based on the higher cost and higher performance of the laser versus the lower cost and lower performance of the LED. Light Emitting Diodes The light-emitting diode has a wide range of applications since it offers low price, ease of use, minimal amount of electrical power and does not require any specialized devices to operate. However, LEDs have got wider spectral width resulting in a heavier penalty in terms of material dispersion, limiting the fiber bandwidth.

The following types of LED diodes are found:

18

a) Edge Light Emitting Diode b) Super Luminescent Diode

LASER produces light that is highly directional, coherent, and monochromatic. Thus laser diodes dictate the implementation of high capacity systems. However, laser diodes have several disadvantages which includes temperature dependence, non-linear characteristics, requirement of cooling elements and feedback control, and necessary coupling arrangements for launching of laser into fiber.

Laser Diodes:

The following types of Laser Diodes are found: a) Gain-guided Laser Diodes b) Index-guided Laser Diodes Light Receivers & Detectors Photodiodes and Avalanche photodiodes are the most commonly used detectors. Photodiodes: PIN Photodiodes- Photodiodes are simple p-n junctions of semi conductor materials. By introducing an additional high resistance intrinsic layer between P and N layers of photodiode, its performance can be enhanced, resulting into PIN photodiodes. The intrinsic layer (I in PIN) is a neutral layer and increases the size of depletion layer. An increased depletion region leads to an increased light-sensitive area allowing the detector to pick up a wide range of incoming light and also increases the speed of the PIN by reducing the junction capacitance to around 0.2 picofarad. The quantum efficiency of such PIN diodes is typically 80 percent and rise time vary between 5 and 50 nanoseconds. These are very inexpensive and can be operated with a fairly simple power supply and circuit. These properties make the PIN diodes the most popular detector in optical fiber communications.

19

PIN-FET Photodiodes- the PIN-FETs are PIN diodes followed by low noise FET amplifiers which further improve the performance of photodiodes. These operate on low voltage, have low temperature sensitivity and simple control circuitary.

Avalanche Photodiodes (APD)When the reverse bias exceeds the break down voltage, extra carrier pairs are generated in the depletion region due to impact ionisation. This results in the avalanche process increasing the photocurrent M times where M is multification factor. APDs may be fabricated with different material systems to cover various operating wavelengths. A few most popular APDs are: a) Silicon APD b) Ge APD

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4. CABLE LAYING TECHNIQUE

The optical fibre cable is generally laid at approximately 1.4m below the ground level. The trench excavated shall be so taken as to ensure proper laying of the cable. The cable laying operation shall be planned such that the complete drum length of cable can be laid without cutting in between. A soft padding of sand or soft soil shall be done before placing the cable. The cable laying, testing and backfilling activities shall be completed before land restoration. The cable can be laid using a mobile reel system or a fixed reel system depending on the characteristics of the layout. In case of a mobile reel system the cable shall be locked in position on the carrier or other means of transportation, as to avoid any rotation on the vertical plane of the reels axis. In case of a fixed reel system, the traction stress shall not be more than the permitted resistance of the cable. The cable shall be laid near trench and later lowered on the bed manually. Normal laying Generally Pvc sheet, red colour warning mat is placed 300 mm above the laid cable. a 100 mm soft padding of sand or soft shall be done before placing the cable. ROAD, RAILWAY, NULLAH, CANAL AND RIVER CROSSINGS: Crossings can be executed by the following two methods: Crossings executed by open cut method, i.e., the cable shall be laid through the high-density polyeythene (HDPE) conduit. For water crossings HDPE conduit shall be used till the normal underground trench depth on both sides. For crossings executed through using pipes or by boring/jacketing methods. In case of crossings to be done with boring/ jacketing, the HDPE conduit shall be subducted in a steel conduit. Easy to install heat shrinkable sleeves and caps shall be used to seal the ends of the conduit to prevent ingress of water, dirt and rodents which may damage the OF cable. The O.F. Cable may be lubricated for easy pulling of the cable through the duct by means of pulling rope attached to the pulling eye at the cable end. During the pulling operation, continuous monitoring of pulling tension is necessary.

21

5. Telecom Transmission Technologies 5.1 Evolution of Transmission Technology

The worlds telephone network as we know it today evolved as a mechanism for transporting voice conversations between telephone handsets. Until about 1970 this was achieved by carrying analogue signals over copper twisted pairs, with Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) used on long-haul routes to combine multiple signals on to coaxial cable. In the early 1970s, digital transmission systems began to appear, utilising PCM- first proposed by Alec Reeves of STC in 1973. PCM enables analogue speech signals to be represented in a binary form, and using this method it is possible to convert the standard 300 to 3400 Hz analogue telephone bandwidth into a 64 Kbit/s digital bit stream. Fig. shows the principles of PCM. The analogue speech signal is sampled, quantised and then encoded to give a binary pattern, which faithfully represents the analogue speech signal from which it was derived.
Code Number Quantization level m(t), volts 4 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 -2 -2.5 -3 -3.5 -4 22 m(t)

Sample value. Nearest Quantization level Code Number.. Binary Representation..

1.3 1.5 5 101

3.4 3.5 7 111

2.9 2.5 6 110

1.7 1.5 5 101

0.7 0.5 4 100

-0.7 -0.5 3 011

- 1.6 -1.5 2 010

Sam pler

Quantiser

Enco der

FIG.2: PULSE CODE MODULATION

Engineers saw the potential to produce mare cost-effective transmission systems by combining several PCM channels and transmitting them down the copper twisted pair as had previously been occupied by a single analogue signal.. The method used to combine multiple 64 Kbit/s channel into a single high-speed bit stream is known as Time Division Multiplexing (TDM), (see Fig.3). In simple terms, a byte from each incoming channel is transmitted in turn down the outgoing high-speed channel. This process is sometimes referred to as sequential byte interleaving.

FIG. : TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

In Europe, and subsequently in many other parts of the world, a standard TDM scheme was adopted whereby thirty 64 Kbit/s channels were combined together with two additional channels carrying control and signalling information, to produce a structure with a bit rate of 2.048 Mbit/s (for simplicity, referred to as 2 Mbit/s). As demand for voice telephony increased, and levels of traffic in the network grew ever higher, it become clear that the standard 2 Mbit/s signal was not sufficient to cope with the traffic loads occuring in the trunk network. In the to avoid having to use excessively large numbers of 2 Mbit/s links, it was decided to create a further level of multiplexing. The standard adopted in Europe involved the combination of four 2 Mbit/s channels to produce a single 8 Mbit/s channel (more exactly, 8.448 Mbit/s). This level of multiplexing differed slightly from the previous in that the incoming signals were combined one bit at a time instead of one byte at a time (i.e. bit interleaving was used as opposed to byte interleaving). As the need arose, further levels of multiplexing were added to the standard at 34 Mbit/s (34.368 Mbit/s), 140 Mbit/s (139.264 Mbit/s), and 565 Mbit/s (564.992 Mbit/s) to produce a full hierarchy of bit rates. 23

While the European transmission hierarchy was being developed, similar work was occuring in North America to develop their own hierarchy. Although the same principles were used, the hierarchy which evolved differed considerably in that its bit rates were 1.5 Mbit/s (1.544 Mbit/s), 6 Mbit/s (6.312 Mbit/s), and 45 Mbit/s (44.736 Mbit/s). These differences were to make interworking between the two hierarchies expensive to achieve. Fig.4 shows the comparison between the North America and Europian transmission hierarchies.

DS 1
1,544 Kbit/s

DS 2
6,312 Kbit/s

DS 3
44,736 Kbit/s

DS 4
*274,176

Kbit/s

x4 x24 DS 0
64 Kbit/s

x7

x6

x3

x3

Zero Order x 30 x4
2,048 Kbit/s

x4
8,448Kbit/s

x4
34,368 Kbit/s

x4
139,264 Kbit/s *564,992K bit/s

First Order

Second Order

Third Order

Fourth Order

FIG.: EUROPEAN & NORTH AMERICAN TRANSMISSION HIERARCHIES

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5.2 Principles of Plesiochronous Operation

The multiplexing hierarchies described above appear simple enough in principle, but in practice there are complications. When multiplexing a number of 2 Mbit/s channels can be bit interleaved they must all be brought up to the same bit rate by adding dummy information bits, or justification bits. The justification bits are recognised as such when demultiplexing occurs, and discarded leaving the original signal. This process is known as Plesiochronous Operation, after the Greek meaning almost synchronous. The operation of a plesiochronous multiplexer is shown in Fig.

Not many justification bits Added (two shown) Fast Incoming 2Mbit/s Channel

Bit rate Adaptation

Bits

Master Oscillator Timing

Bit rate Adaptation

Slow incoming 2Mbit/s Channel

Many justification bits Added (three shown)

Fig.5: Plesiochronous Multiplexing

25

The same problem with synchronisation as described above occurs at every level of the multiplexing hierarchy, so justification bits are added at each stage. The use of plesiochronous operation throughout the hierarchy has led to adoption of the term plesiochronous digital hierarchy, or PDH.

The PDH rates are often reffered to by an n suffix. This suffix is also used in SDH when referring to PDH signals. Table 1 shows the n suffix for each PDH rate. The use of n suffix will be discussed later (C-12, VC-11, VC-3 etc.). The suffix n is made up of one or two digits. For the two-digit suffix, the first represents the level of the transmission hierarchy as defined in G.702 and the second digit identifies the higher (2) or lower (1) rate. It should be noted that no 4th level exists in the 1.5 Mbit/s hierarchy hence only a single digit for 140 Mbit/s. The suffix 0 is often used to represent 64 Kbit/s.

n Suffix 0 11 12 21 22 31 32 4

Bit Rate (Kbit/s) 64 1,544 2,048 6,312 8,448 34,368 44,736 139,264

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5.3 Limitations Of PDH

Cant increase the bandwidth with same fiber. Not ideally suited for the efficient delivery and management of high bandwidth connections. 34.368 Mbit/s
140 Mbit/s LTE 140 34 140 140 Mbit/s 34 LTE

34 8

8.448 Mbit/s 2.048 Mbit/s 8 2 8 2

34 8

Customer
FIG.: PLESIOCHRONOUS DROP & INSERT

Drop & Insert: It is the flexibility problem or the inability to identify individual channels in a high speed bit stream. If a higher speed structure passes near the customer, the operation of providing a single 2Mbit/s from within the higher speed structure would seem straightforward enough. In practice, however, it is not so simple. Shown above in the Fig.1. Demultiplexing Problem: In order to access a 2 Mbit/s line the 140 Mbit/s structure must be completely De-multiplexed down to its 64 constituent 2 Mbit/s lines via 34 and 8 Mbit/s. Once the required 2 Mbit/s has been identified and extracted, the remaining 2 Mbit/s lines must then be re-multiplexed back up to 140 Mbit/s. The problem associated with huge amounts of multiplexing equipment in the network.

27

 Lack of performance monitoring Capability: Frame structures with insufficient provision for carrying network management information. These limitations are not critical in a network dominated by POTS, but as more sophisticated services become popular, the PDH begins to struggle. The seriousness of this situation becomes apparent when one considers that growth rates of POTS services is relatively low, while some new services are growing by as much as 50% each year. The higher margins associated with business customers means that many network operators gain a disproportionate share of their income from these services, so they are understandably keen to overcome the limitations of the PDH.

28

5.4 NEED FOR SYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION

Origins Of The SDH & SONET
The PDH has reached a point where it is no longer sufficiently flexible or efficient to meet the demands being placed on it. As a result, synchronous transmission systems have been developed to overcome the problems associated with plesiochronous transmission, in particular the inability of the PDH to extract individual circuits from high capacity systems without having to demultiplex the whole system. Synchronous transmission systems can be seen as the latest stage in the evolution of the network transmission hierarchy. A standards effort has been involved in its development. The opportunity of defining this new set of standards has been used to address a number of other problems. This standards work culminated in CCITT (now ITU-T) three Recommendations covering the SDH which were published in 1989. In North America, ANSI published: SONET STANDARDS, A SUBSET OF THE SDH STANDARDS. In addition to the three original CCITT recommendations, further recommendations covering other of the SDH combined known as G.70X and published. The ITU-T recommendations define a number of basic transmission rates within the SDH. The first of these is 155.52 Mbit/s, normally referred to as STM-1 (where STM stands for Synchronous Transport Module). Higher transmission rates of STM-4, STM-16, STM-64 (622.08 Mbit/s, 2488.32 Mbit/s and 9953.28 Mbit/s respectively) are also defined, with further levels proposed for study. The recommendations also define a multiplexing structure whereby an STM-1 signal can carry a number of lower rate signals as payload, thus allowing existing PDH signals to be carried over a synchronous network.

Principles Of The SDH

Despite its obvious advantages over the PDH, SDH would have been unlikely to gain acceptance if its adoption had immediately made all existing PDH equipment obsolete. This is why CCITT according to G.70X packaged the plesiochronous signals into STM-1 frame. Fig.6 shows the relationship between the various SDH multiplexing elements that are defined by the ITU-T. SDH defines a number of containers, each corresponding to an existing plesiochronous rate. Information from a plesiochronous signal is mapped into the relevant container. The way in which this is achieved is similar to the bit stuffing procedure carried out in a conventional PDH MUX. Each container then has some control information known as the path overhead added to it

29

Container: Corresponds to an existing plesiochronous rate. Information from plesiochronous signal is mapped into relevant container. Path overhead: Control information that allows the network operator to achieve end to end path monitoring of things such as error rates Virtual Container: Container and path overhead together forms a virtual container. In a synchronous network, all equipment is synchronised to an overall network clock, but the timing of signals of virtual container may vary slightly in frequency and/or phase with this network clock and the delay associated with a transmission link may vary slightly with time. As a result, the location of virtual containers within an STM-1 frame may not be fixed. Associating a pointer with each VC accommodates these variations. VCs are always put into TUs/AUs and these structures also contain the above-mentioned pointer, which indicates position of the VCs beginning in relation to TU/AU, as appropriate. The pointer can be incremented or decremented as necessary to accommodate movements of VC.s position. TUs & AUs are each grouped to form TUGs & AUGs.

TU: - Tributory Units AU: - Administrative Unit TUG: - Tributory Unit Groups AUG: - Administrative Unit Groups

30

139264 Kbit/s
STM-N

xN

AUG

x1

AU-4

VC-4
x3

C-4

x3 AU-3 VC-3 x7 Pointer processing Multiplexing Aligning Mapping x4

TUG3
x7

x1

TU-3

VC-3
C-3 44736Kbit/s

TUG2

x1 TU-2 x3 VC-2 C-2 6312Kbit/s

TU-12

VC-12

C-12

2048Kbit/s

TU-11

VC-11 1544

C-11

1544Kbbs SONET Specific Options ETSI Specific Options

FIG.6: THE SDH MULTIPLEXING STRUCTURE

ITU-T Recommendation G.70X defines different combinations of virtual containers, which can be used to fill up the payload area of an STM-1 frame which can result in the nesting of the smaller VCs within larger ones. When the payload area of the STM-1 frame is full, some more control information bytes are added to the frame to form the section overhead. The section overhead consists of two parts, the multiplexer section overhead and the regenerator section overhead. It provides communication channels for functions such as O&M facilities, user channels, protection switching, section performance, frame alignment and a number of other functions. Multiplexer section overhead: - It is so called because it remains with the payload for the fiber section between two synchronous multiplexers. 31

Regenerator section overhead: - It remains with the payload for the fiber section between regenerators (i.e. digital repeaters) or between a regenerator and a synchronous multiplexer. When a higher transmissiom rate other than the 155.52Mbit/s of the STM-1 is required in a synchronous network, it is achieved by using a relatively straightforward byte-interleaved multiplexing scheme. In this way, rates of 622.08 Mbit/s (STM-4), 2488.32 Mbit/s (STM-16) and 9953.28 Mbit/s (STM-64) can be achieved.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

3 0123 0

Fig. shows how an STM-16 signal would be made up from STM-1 and STM-4 tributaries.

4 4 4 4
1 2

7 4567 45
0 1 2 34 56 7 89ABCDEF

B 89AB 89

F CDEF C

. .

1 6
0 1 2 34 56 7 89ABCDEF

16

32

5.5 ELEMENTS OF A SYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION

SYSTEM MULTIPLEXERS
Synchronous multiplexers, as defined by the ITU-T SDH recommendations, perform both multiplexing and line terminating functions, as shown in Fig.8. Thus a synchronous multiplexer replaces a bank of plesiochronous multiplexers and the associated line terminating equipment, while at the same time bringing new functionality. Main To Lower Order Multiplex Equipment

PDH MUX

Optical Line Terminating Units

1+1 Protected Optical Aggregate

Standby

Main/East No Lower Order Multiplex Required Protected Optical Aggregate via 1+1 Protected Alternate Routing
SDH MUX

Standby

FIG.8 : INTEGRATION OF OPTICS IN A SYNCHRONOUS MULTIPLEXER

33

Synchronous multiplexers can accept a wide range of tributaries and offer a number of possible output data rates shown in Fig.9. On the tributory side all current plesiochronous bit rates can be accomodated. On the aggregate, or line side, we have seen that standards define four transmission rates, STM-1 (155.52 Mbit/s), STM-4 (622.08 Mbit/s), STM-16 (2,448.32 Mbit/s), and STM-64 (9,953.28 Gbit/s).

Tributory Side
140 Mbit/s 45 Mbit/s 34 Mbit/s 6 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s 1.5 Mbit/s STM-Electrical /Optical Other interfaces STM-4 Electrical/Optical

Aggregate Side

Synchronous Optical Aggregates

FIG.9 : SYNCHRONOUS MULTIPLEXER

A single synchronous multiplexer can provide the wide range of access for a variety of needs (e.g. 1.5 Mbit/s, 2 Mbit/s, 6 Mbit/s etc.) by providing a multiplexer with a range of optional tributory interfaces. The higher rates of synchronous transmission may be provided by higher rate synchronous multiplexers to give aggregate rates of STM-4, STM-16 or STM-64. The synchronous optical interface of the synchronous multiplexer can be duplicated for protection which can be done in two ways i.e either traditional 1+1 protection can be provided, or the optical ports can operate in an East/West mode to allow the implementation of ring topologies. Synchronous rings can improve resilience and reduce both fiber requirements and network costs. Synchronous multiplexers can be used in a number of configurations, as follows: Point-to-point Add-drop Ring Hub

34

Point-To-Point Configuration
Optical Aggregates Tribs SDH MUX
FIG.10 : POINT TO POINT CONFIGURATION

Optical Aggregates

SDH MUX

Synchronous multiplexers can be used effectively in high capacity point-to-point applications where they are cost competetive with plesiochronous solutions. The equipment facilitates the provision of new services and provides an upgrade path as the network evolves.

Add-drop Configuration
Optical Aggregate

Add-drop traffic

Add-drop traffic

FIG : ADD-DROP CONFIGURATION

This configuration is almost similar to the point-to-point configuration, but for the fact that a number of multiplexers are used to provide connectivity between nodes along a route. The multiplexers are configured to add or drop channels at these nodes.

35

Ring Configuration

Fiber Ring

Tribs

Tribs

FIG.: SELF-HEALING RING CONFIGURATION

For areas of network requiring high survivability, synchronous multiplexers may be configured as a high capacity self-healing fiber ring. The ring strucutre is able to reconfigure without the intervention of external network management should equipment or cable failure occur, thereby maintaining continuity of service.

Hub Configuration
Optical Tribs

Electrical Tribs

FIG.13 : HUB CONFIGURATION

36

By using synchronous tributory interfaces, a terminal can be configured as a fiber hub for use in multi-site network applications. This eliminates the need for back-to-back fiber terminals.

In addition to its operational capabilities, a synchronous multiplexer offer other benefits also: Offers a Network Management Channel which may provide alarm and monitoring information for individual 1.5 Mbit/s or 2 Mbit/s tributaries within the an STM-1. More efficient management systems. Additional cost benefits

Plesiochronous LTE 140 Mbit/s Main OLTU OLTU Standby

34-140 8-34 2-8

Drop &Insert Station 140 Mbit/s Main OLTU Standby

34-140 8-34 2-8

Drop & Insert Station

LTE 140 Mbit/s Main OLTU Standby

34-140 8-34 2-8

OLTU 34-140 8-34 2-8

OLTU 34-140 8 -34 2-8

x1 x4 x16

34-140 8-34 2-8

1 2.64 OR

2 Mbit/s

2 Mbit/s

2 Mbit/s

2 Mbit/s

1 2 ..64

Monitoring of 140 Mbit/s Traffic

37

Synchronous 1.552 Mbit/s Alternative Routing Via Ring Topology

SDH Mux 2 Mbit/s Interface

SDH Mux 2 Mbit/s Interface

SDH Mux 2 Mbit/s Interface

SDH Mux 2 Mbit/s Interface

Management of 2 Mbit/s traffic

FIG.7 : SIMPLIFICATION OF DROP & INSERT USING SDH

38

5.6 BENEFITS OF SDH Network Simplification

The use of synchronous transmission equipment had brought the main benefit of network simplification to the network operators. A single synchronous can perform the function of an entire plesiochronous multiplexer mountain multiplexer. Fig.7 shows the reduction in the amount of equipment. The more efficient drop and insert of channels available with synchronous transmission systems, together with its powerful network management capabilities. Thus, the simplification & flexibility helps to generate new revenues.

Survivability
End-to-end monitoring and maintenance of network integrity. Enables the failure of links or even nodes to be identified immediately. Using self-healing ring architectures, automatically reconfigured network with traffic instantly re-routed until such a time as the faulty equipment has been repaired.

Software Control
Provision of network management channels within the SDH frame structure makes it fully controllable & not only performs traditional event management functions, but other functions, such as performance monitoring, configuration management, resource management, network security, inventory management, and network planning and design also. The possibility of remote provisioning and centralised maintenance will mean a great saving in time spent by maintenance personnel in travelling to remote sites, and of course expense savings also.

Bandwidth On Demand
In a synchronous network, it will be possible to allocate network capacity dynamically (bandwidth on demand). An example is Dial-Up Videoconferencing. Users will be able to gain access to the bandwidth required for a videoconferencing link just by dialling the appropriate number. Many other services like high-speed packet switched services, LAN interconnection, and High Definition TV (HDTV).

Future-Proof Networking
Synchronous transmission systems offers network operators a future-proof network solution, plus software upgradeability and extensions to existing equipment. Synchronous transmission systems have been selected as the bearer networks for the next generation of telecomm. Network - the broadband ISDN. The B-ISDN will enable all users to have access to the network at rates of the order of megabits per second. 39

 Equipment Standardisation
The standardisation of synchronous transmission systems mean that for the first time transmission equipment from different manufacturers can avoid the problems traditionally associated with being locked into a proprietary solution from a single vendor. The ability to achieve this so-called midfiber meet has come about as a result of standards, which define fiber-to-fiber interfaces at the physical (photonic) level. They determine the optical line rate, wavelength, power levels, pulse shapes and coding. Frame structures, overhead and payload mappings are also defined. The SDH also accommodate both the North American and European transmission hierarchies. Using plesiochronous transmission this was difficult due to the different transmission rates used on each side of the Atlantic.

Impact of Synchronous Heirarchies

In the short term, network operators will adopt synchronous transmission equipment for the improvement in various ways:

Reduction in operating costs it offers over plesiochronous transmission. Longer term vision of a flexible and efficient network, with full network management facilities. The way, in which networks are designed, operated and managed changes completely. It eliminates the network complexity, which currently restricts the growth of new services generated due to the PDH systems. Eventually a truly global telecommunications network will evolve where it will be possible to seamlessly transfer multimedia information almost anywhere at any time.

Thus, SDH will increase network operators profitability, helping them to compete effectively in the current environment of global telecommunications liberalisation, and the increased competetion it brings.

40

5.7 ITU-T SDH TERMS & DEFINITIONS

ITU-T Recommendation G.70X is now the main international standard relating to SDH. There follows an overview of some of the terms and definition as laid down in this recommendation.

STM-N Bit Rates

The following is a list of the STM-N bit rates that have been defined by the ITU-T: TABLE 1: STM-N Bit Rates STM-N STM-1 STM-4 STM-16 STM-64 Bit Rate 155,520 622,080 2,488,320 9,953,280

SDH Information Structures

A number of information structures, have been defined by the ITU-T. The definition of each of these is given below. Container C-n: (n=1 - 4) A container is the information structure, which forms the network synchronous information payload for a Virtual container. For each of defined Virtual Containers there is a corresponding container. Adaptation functions have been defined for many common network rates into a limited number of standard containers. Virtual Container VC-n: (n=1 4) A virtual container is the information structure used to support path layer connections in the SDH. It consists of information Payload and Path Overhead (POH) information fields organised in a block frame structure, which repeats every 125 or 500 microseconds. Alignment information to identify VC-n frame start is provided by the server network layer. 41

Two types of virtual containers have been identified: Lower order Virtual Container-n: VC-n (n=1,2,3). This element comprises a single Container-n (n=1,2,3) plus the lower Virtual container POH appropriate to that level. Higher order Virtual Container-n: VC-n (n=3,4). This element comprises either a single Container-n (n=3,4) or an assembly of Tributory Unit Groups (TUG-2s or TUG-3s), together with Virtual Container POH appropriate to that level.

Tributory Unit TU-n: (n=1 3) A Tributory Unit is an information structure, which provides adaptation between the lower order path and the higher order path layer. It consists of an information payload (the lower order Virtual Container) and a Tributory Unit pointer which indicates the offset of the payload frame start relative to the higher order Virtual Container frame start. The TU-n (n=1,2,3) consists of a VC-n together with a Tributory Unit Pointer. Tributory Unit Group TUG: (n =2,3) One or more Tributory Units, occcupying fixed, defined positions in a higher order VC-n payload is termed a Tributory Unit Group (TUG). TUGs are defined in such a way that mixed capacity payloads made up of different size Tributory Units can be constructed to increase flexibility of the transport network. A TUG-2 consists of a homogenous assembly of identical TU-1s or a TU-2. A TUG-3 consists of a homogenous assembly of TUG-2s or a TU-3. Administration Unit AU-n (n=3,4) An administration Unit is the information structure, which provides adaptation between the higher order path layer and the multiplex section layer. It consists of an information payload (the higher order Virtual Container) and an Administrative unit pointer, which indicates the offset of the payload frame start relative to the multiplex section frame start. Two Administrative Units are defined. The AU-4 consists of a VC-4 plus an Administrative Unit pointer, which indicates the phase alignment of the VC-4 with respect to the STM-N frame. The AU-3 consists of a VC-3 plus an Administrative Unit pointer, which indicates the phase alignment of the VC-3 with respect to the STM-N frame. In each case the Administrative Unit pointer location is fixed with respect to the STM-N frame. Administrative Unit Group: 42

One or more Administrative Units occupying fixed, defined positions in an STM payload is termed an Administrative Unit Group (AUG). An AUG consists of a homogenous assembly of AU-3s or an AU-4.

Synchronous Transport Module STM-N: (n=1,4,16,64) A STM is the information structure used to support section layer connections in the SDH. It consists of information payload and Section Overhead (SOH) information fields organised in a block structure, which repeats every 125 microseconds. The information is suitably conditioned for serial transmission on the selected media at a rate, which is synchronised to the network. A basic STM is defined at 155,520 Kbit/s. This is termed STM-1. Higher capacity STMs are formed at rates equivalent to N times multiples of this basic rate. STM capabilities for N=4, N=16 and N=64 are defined-higher order values are under consideration. The STM-1 comprises a single Administrative Unit Group (AUG) together with the SOH. The STM-N contains N AUGs together with SOH (Section Overhead).

43

5.8 THE FUTURE

SDH equipment is being deployed in parts of all of the major networks worldwide. As the older PDH equipment comes to the end of its life and as new services are introduced, SDH equipment will be deployment on a much wider scale.

Private Circuits
The dramatic increase in the requirements for private circuits, and the associated capacity increase over the trunk network, has been accompanied by growing demands for: A high quality of service. Rapid provisioning and reallocation of private circuits. High availability of the circuit provided. Greater bandwidths. Higher rate services (N x 2 Mbit/s) Flexible routing ability for circuit protection Since the introduction of 64Kbit/s and 2 Mbit/s digital private circuits (Kilostream and Megastream resp.) in UK, the amount of leased line traffic carried over the network has increased dramatically. With the need by business for greater bandwidths and the introduction of sophisticated data applications, demand is already emerging for higher rate services (N x 2 Mbit/s). A transmission network based on SDH meet these requirements with capacity, flexibility and reliability in a cost-effective manner. Using SDH its possible to provide reallocation of circuits under user control, via signalling directly from the end user to the network management system.

Personal communications
One of the major service thrusts in the telecommunications industry in the 1990s is personal communications. SDH transmission systems are essential for the implementation of such services. Telephone numbers is assigned to telephone line but not to an individual. As a result, it was difficult to reach some individuals due to necessity of trying different numbers corresponding to their home, office, or car etc. due to complexity & inflexibility of current networks. With changes in numbering in UK, its possible now to allocate personal numbers to individuals. Using SDH because of its simplicity, flexibility, intelligence & sophisticated signalling system, telephone number is assigned to an individual as a personal number & can be contacted anywhere. People will simply register their location with the network (perhaps using a smart card, or through voice recognition), and the network will automatically route their calls to them.

44

Asynchronous Transfer Mode

ATM is a fast packet switching technique using short, fixed length packets called cells. In principle, its similar to other packet switching techniques but not in detail of its operation. Each ATM cell is made up of 53 octets (octet is of same size as byte) in which, 5 octets make up cell header and 48 octets make up the information payload. The cell header is the virtual path used in routing a cell through the network. The virtual path defines the connections through which the cell is routed to reach its destination. Routing of an ATM cell can be achieved by transporting it within an SDH signal to an ATM switch, where it is assigned to a suitable STM-N signal for transport to a users interface. ATM is a form of Time Division Multiplexing (TDM). It differs from synchronous multiplexing in that channel separation multiplexing. It differs from synchronous multiplexing in that channel separation is not dependent on reference to a clock. Fig.31 compares asynchronous and synchronous transfer modes.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode

Payload (Information) Header

C2

B1

A2

C1

A1

Applicable bandwidth for each device

Synchronous Transfer Mode

Equal bandwidth for each device C3 B3 Frame 3 A3 C2 B2 A2 C1 B1 A1 Frame 1

Frame 2

45

FIG.31 : COMPARISON OF ATM & STM

46

6. DESIGNING AN OPTICAL FIBER LINK

To design such an optical link whose basic features have already been studied as above, we must find out the estimated length of OFC required for effective transmission of data between any two station located in a pipeline project. For the same purpose we take certain typical figures for optical communication from DADRI PANIPAT PIPELINE PROJECT being undertaken by EIL. 1. loss at 1550 nm : 0.22 dB/km 2. loss at 1310 nm : 0.38 dB/km 3. connector loss : 0.5 dB per connector(assuming 2 connectors) 4. splice loss : 0.1 dB per joint (assuming a splice after every 2 kms) 5. transmitter output : -5 dBm 6. receiver sensitivity : -34 dBm Using typical calculations for the above wavelengths of light, the approximate length of OFCs for which light can travel and can be detected properly, ic calculated as follows: At 1550 nm, 0.22x + 1 + 0.1 x/2 < -5+34 x < 103.7 km At 1310 nm, 0.38 x + 1 + 0.1 x/2 < -5+34 x < 65.11 km ( where x km is any length of OFC ) These distances are well in accordance with the location of ROVs located in the given project. Hence, we infer that no additional repeaters are required for effective communication between any two stations( Remote Operated Valves stations) in the above mentioned project. With the parameters used for calculation, the maximum distance for repeater less communication is 103 km for light of wavelength 1550 nm and approx. 65 km for light of wavelength 1310 nm.

47

7. Typical Telecom Projects Undertaken by EIL

During our industrial training at EIL, we were briefed about various telecommunication system projects undertaken by the company. Overview of one of the projects is described below, which broadly outlines the various telecom facilities required for the project and the integration with the existing telecom system ,if any. The telecom system for the Jamnagar - Loni pipeline consists of various telecom sub-systems e.g. Fiber optic system, electronic exchanges, video conferencing system etc..

7.1 Overview of Jamnagar Loni Pipeline Project

M/S GAIL ,proposed to lay a new pipeline for transportation of LPG from Jamnagar to Loni of length approx 1200Km. A dedicated Telecom system was installed along pipeline route to facilitate the operation, monitoring, control and maintenance of the pipeline. The telecommunication system connects all the attended &unattended stations & facilitate voice, data, and video communication. There are approx eighty-two numbers of telecom stations along the pipeline route. Annexure a pipeline section Break up detail diagram The telecommunication system comprises of the following: 1) An optical fibre based state of art Telecom system of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy as the main communication system with Network Management System. 2) A single hop 8 Mbps digital microwave system between loni &Desu terminal, which is integrated to the optical system. This enables communication with the existing communication with the existing HBJ & GREP telecom system of M/S Gail. 3) Earth stations at Jamnagar and Loni provides a back up communication link to facilitate maintaining essential communication in the event of failure of the optical communication link.SCPC earth stations for 64 Kbps circuits are provided for a. Voice channel b. Data channel 4) A satellite based mobile communication system is provided for voice communication amongst the mobile stations & other Telecom stations by interfacing through EPABX at Jamnagar & Loni. 5) Video conferencing system, electronic exchange ,telephone, facsimile equipment, test instruments etc.

48

7.2 Optical Fibre cable

The cable is of direct burial type and are laid at an approx depth of 1.4m form the ground level and crossess various roads, railways, canals, small rivers, marshy areas etc. TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS OF FIBRES General The fibre shall fulfill latest ITU-T RecommendationG-652 for single mode optical fibres. a) Number of fibres used 12 b) Type Single Mode GEOMETRICAL, OPTICAL&PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF OPTICAL FIBRES a) Mode field diameter : 9 m 10%for depressed cladding 10 m 10%for matched cladding b) Cladding diameter - 125 m+-2.4% c) Mode field concentricity error-less than 1 m d) Cladding no circularity -less than 2% e) Cut-Off wavelength -as per ITU-T recommendations f) Nominal overall thickness - 250 m

49

7.3 Optical Fibre Communication System

A SDH based optical fibre communication system provides connection between the stations
shown in diagram at Annexure B(attached with hard copy )

A Backbone Communication system on the main line between RPL (Jamnagar ) &IOCL (Loni) working on STM-16 as 1st Tier connects 20 stations. The system is provided with duplicated optical ports in hot standby configuration.

Unattended stations (other than STM-16 Unattended stations) &Madanpur Khader attended station on the main line are connected by STM-1 (1+0) system as 2nd Tier. Ajmer tap off & Sanagner tap of shall be STM-1. For the telecom system along the main line, six (6) fibres, of which four (4)fibres are used for STM-16 backbone system and two (2) fibres are used for STM-1 (1+0) system. It is also required that STM-1 stream in 2nd Tier should also be available through the STM-16 systems in 1st Tier i.e., in case if failure of optical linking 2nd tie, the signal should be available from the other side through the STM-1 systems also i.e. it should form STM 1 (63*E1 capability) automatic protected loops. The STM-1 protection (through STM-16sysem) is in form of multiple loops (one each between two adjacent STM-16 stations) so that failure in one of the STM-1loop shall not affect the traffic in the other STM-1 loops.

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7.4 SCPC SATTELITE COMUNICATION SYSTEM

The satellite communication system comprise of two earth stations at Jamnagar &Loni. Each earth station provides two no.64 Kbps circuits (one for voice voice &one for data) . These earth stations uses existing space segment of HBJ telecom sysem of M/s GAIL. The earth stations are able to work with INSAT & INTESAT series satellites.The present being used is INSAT 2DT.
Refer annexure G (attached with hard copy)

SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

The satellite communication system have hot standby (1+1) configuration & consist of two low capacity terminals (LCT) located at Jamnagar &Loni operating in conjunction with INSAT series SCPC tranponders.The operating frequency bands are as per ITU-R in normal C-band. Each LCT eat stations use 2duplex SCPC QPSK channels for voice &data communication of 64Kbps speed each between Jamnagar&Loni under SCPC configuration
GENERAL SPECIFICATION

a) Satellite longitude (INSAT 2D) b) POLARISATION c) Pilot frequency

55deg EAST Circular &/or linear 6131Mhz(uplink) 3906Mhz(Downlink) 4.5m dia Rx: 3.7-4.2Ghz Tx: 5.925-6.425 Ghz Linear & circular

TECHNICAL SECIFICATION OF 4.5 m ANTENNA

a) Effective aperture b) Operating frequency range c) Polarization

51

7.5 MOBILE COMMUNICATION

A satellite based mobile communication system is provided to interconnect various stations.The system have Fixed Terminals at Jamnagar & Loni & include all hardware (antennas,interconnecting wires etc)and Software for a fully functional system to cater to followinga) Voice connectivity from various attended stations to 17 mobile stations through Jamnagar &Loni .The mobile equipments are hand portable. It is possible through this system that each station is able to talk to any predefined stations of the network.
Refer annexure G (attached with hard copy)

Specifications a) Type of communication b) Mode of Operation c) Transmission rate -Voice communication (satellite based) -The system shall be able to support Data &Fax also. -Digital, Full Duplex -Not less than 2.4 kbps

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8. SCADA System
The pipelines which are used to carry petroleum products and gas from one location to other, go through diverse geographical terrain like mountains and deserts, making it difficult deploy manpower all along the pipelines for manually controlling the flow of products. What is required is a control system such that all the valves and pumps along the pipeline can be controlled from a centralised location. This is not possible without having a proper system for acquiring data related to the health of the pipelines, such as temperature, pressure and flow . This system is called SCADA. SCADA stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. It is used for supervisory monitoring & control of transportation of products in the pipeline and monitoring the pressure, flow, temperature, density etc. all along the pipeline. It is basically a telemetry sytem, ie, monitoring from a location far off from the actual site. By acquiring data reagarding valve open/close position, temperature and flow status, the SCADA system will monitor and control the pipeline facilities in a timely manner and provide centralised alarmand-event management and operation-and-management reports for all distributed pipeline facilities. The SCADA system also ensures proper pipeline shutdown by closing various pipeline facilities in an orderly manner in an emergency situation.

The SCADA system fulfills the following functional requirements Data acquisition Monitoring and control Alarm & event detection Human-machine interface Data archiving Report generation Trending Database configuration and error recovery The data acquisition for a SCADA system is done by monitoring the open/close status of the valves, pressure, temperature and flow at various sections along the pipeline, using pressure, temeprature sensors and other devices. This information is used for monitoring-and-control at the local control center and is also passed on to the main control center(SMCS),through fibre-optic cables which are laid along the pipeline and a WAN or LAN connectivity. This fibre optic cable is used for carrying signals related to not just SCADA but also for tele-conferencing, ethernet, analog and digital phones and CCTV cameras, which are essential for maintaining proper connectivity and coordination between the main stations and sub-stations. A VSAT link can also be provided between the SMCS and another main staion along the pipeline as a standby link.

53

The data acquired by the SCADA system is displayed at the SMCS workstations which have a HMI(Human Machine Interface). To control the flow of products along the pipeline, the operator will give out commands at the SCADA control panel on the HMI which will control the speed of motors, opening/closing of valves at the desired sections along the pipeline. One of the applications utilizing SCADA is Batch Tracking. Some of the pipelines are multiproduct pipelines, ie, they are used for transporting several different petroleum products, including gas, at the same time. To make sure that the different products are not mixed up, an application software is used which has a provision for keeping track of the various products passing through different sections along the length of the pipeline. A schedule is created which describes for each product type, volume to be transferred, batch density and destination. This information is displayed at all the pumping stations as well as the main refineries where the product is to be obtained. Viewing the information on the SCADA system, appropriate action can be taken by the operator for the various products.

Fig: capture of actual scada system running Leakage detection & location is provided by an application software in the SCADA system. A mathematical model of the pipeline is developed and using inputs such as the pipeline flow, pressure, temperature and density, the predicted profile is generated. The predicted values are compared with the telemetered values and a leak alarm is generated when weighted deviation exceeds predefined imbalance limits. The main components of a SCADA system are SCADA server at the SMCS, which maintains a database of all data acquired. Remote Terminal Unit(RTU),which transfers the data acquired from different sensors to the local control station and to the SMCS through a telecom center . HMI(human machine interface) at the SCADA workstaions. Application software(APPS) running on the workstations

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9. CONCLUDING REMARKS
To conclude my training report I wish to place on record my observations during my 6 weeks training. I personally feel that the purpose of Vocational Training is to expose students to industry and its working environment. It is here that we have learnt how theory is applied for practical purposes particularly for Project Applications. It is only the applications of theory that helps in visualizing practical in a better way. We have also learnt how professionals interact with each other, hold meetings, take decisions and work as a team. All that I have learned during my training has extended my mind and has become a part and parcel of my knowledge which would prove to be an asset for me.

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