F321 Structure Case Studies Case Studies in Bonding and Structure

(q) describe structures as: (i) giant ionic lattices, with strong ionic bonding, ie as in NaCl, (ii) giant covalent lattices, ie as in diamond and graphite, (iii) giant metallic lattices, (iv) simple molecular lattices, ie as in I2 and ice;

Diamond a typical giant covalent lattice In diamond each carbon atom is covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement. Since all four outer shell electrons in carbon are used for bonding there are no charge carriers in diamond, so it does not conduct electricity. The extremely high melting and boiling point of diamond, the extreme strength of the substance, and its lack of solubility in any solvents are all due to the very strong covalent bonds throughout the lattice. These must be broken, requiring a lot of energy, before the structure will melt, break or dissolve . Graphite an unusual giant covalent lattice In graphite each carbon atom is covalently bonded to thee others forming a hexagonal layer structure with 120 bond angles. Each layer has further layers above and below. The one remaining electron in the outer shell of each carbon atom is not used in bonding. This becomes delocalized and can move throughout the lattice carrying electrical charge, so graphite conducts electricity like a metal even though it is not a metal. Graphite is a soft substance. The layers are held one to another by weak Van der Waals forces, which means that the layers can easily slide over each other making graphite slippery and good for use as a lubricant. Pencils leave their marks on paper because the graphite 'lead' in the pencil leaves layers of graphite stuck to the paper.

F321 Structure Case Studies Graphite has a very high melting point (and boiling point) and is insoluble. To melt or dissolve graphite would require the layers to be broken down, and this means large numbers of very strong covalent bonds have to be broken requiring lots of energy. Sodium Chloride a typical giant ionic lattice Sodium chloride has a 3D structure in which sodium ions and chloride ions alternate. The electrostatic attraction between the ions is nondirectional so every sodium ion attracts chloride ions all around it above, below and on each side. Similarly each chloride ion attracts six sodium ions. The formula NaCl does not indicate that sodium and chloride ions "go around in pairs", but that there is a ratio of one sodium ion for every chloride ion in the lattice it is an empirical formula. Because the electrostatic attractions between the oppositely-charged ions run throughout the lattice, sodium chloride is hard and brittle. These attractions are strong, and must be overcome before the lattice can be broken down to form a liquid, which requires a lot of energy. Sodium chloride thus has a high melting and boiling point. Sodium chloride dissolves in polar solvents such as water. The energy needed to break down the lattice so the ions can be in solution is offset by the energy released when bonds are formed between the ions and the water molecules. Once in solution (or melted), the sodium and chloride ions are free to move around. They are charge carriers, so in these states sodium chloride is able to conduct electricity. When solid the ions are locked in place in the lattice and although they are charged, they are unable to move and carry the electrical charge. This means that solid sodium chloride does not conduct electricity.

F321 Structure Case Studies Iodine a simple molecular lattice Iodine has a simple molecular structure. Iodine atoms are bonded in pairs by covalent bonds, so the formula is I2. In the solid state, the weak intermolecular forces between the iodine molecules hold them together in a 3D lattice structure. This is a simple molecular lattice. There are no delocalized electrons in iodine, and no ions, so there are no charge carriers and iodine cannot conduct electricity. Iodine has the unusual property that when heated it goes directly from being solid to being a gas. This property is called sublimation. It does this at a low temperature (114C) because only weak intermolecular forces hold the iodine molecules together and these take little energy to overcome. Iodine vapour still consists of I2 molecules no bonds have been broken in turning iodine into a gas. Being non-polar iodine dissolves readily in most non-polar organic solvents such as hexane or trichloromethane. It is almost completely insoluble in water because to dissolve in water the hydrogen bonds between the water molecules have to be broken, and there are no new bonds formed between iodine and the water so the energy cannot be offset by any released energy. Ice another simple molecular lattice Ice consists water molecules held in a 3D lattice by a network of hydrogen bonds. The two lone pairs on the oxygen atom in each water molecule form hydrogen bonds to the hydrogen atoms of two other water molecules forming a 3D network of hydrogen bonds. The hydrogen bonds do not take anywhere as much energy to overcome as covalent bonds would, so the temperature required to break down the simple molecular lattice in ice is much lower than the temperature required to melt giant covalent lattices.