Full List of Priperties of Delta Function

Gauge Institute Journal, Volume 8, No.
1, February 2012
H. Vic Dannon
The Delta Function

H. Vic Dannon vic0@comcast.net September, 2010
Abstract
The Dirac Delta Function, the idealization of an
impulse in Radar circuits, is a Hyper-Real function which definition and analysis require Infinitesimal Calculus, and Infinite Hyper-reals. The controversy surrounding the Leibnitz Infinitesimals derailed the development of the Infinitesimal Calculus, and the Delta Function could not be defined and investigated properly. For instance, it is labeled a Generalized Function although it generalizes no function. Diracs intuitive definition by Deltas sampling property
x =
x =
(x )dx = 1 ,
that avoids specifying (0) , remains the main definition of the delta function, although the Delta Function is not Riemann integrable in the Calculus of Limits, integrable in Measure Theory. In fact, in the Calculus of Limits, only the Cauchy Principal Value and is not Lebesgue
Gauge Institute Journal, Volume 8, No. 1, February 2012
H. Vic Dannon
Integral of the Delta Function exists, and it equals zero. Only in Infinitesimal Calculus, can the Delta Function be defined, differentiated, and integrated. Infinitesimal Calculus allows us to resolve open problems such as What is (0) ? How is x (x ) defined at x = 0 ? How is the Delta Function the derivative of a Step Function? How do we integrate the Delta Function? What is (x 2 ) ? What is 2 (x ) ? What is (x 3 ) ? What is 3 (x ) ? The Delta Function enables us to define the Fourier Transform with minimal requirements on the transformed function.
Keywords: Infinitesimal, Infinite-Hyper-Real, Hyper-Real, Cardinal, Infinity. Non-Archimedean, Non-Standard Analysis, Calculus, Limit, Continuity, Derivative, Integral, 2000 Mathematics Subject Classification 26E35; 26E30; 26E15; 26E20; 26A06; 26A12; 03E10; 03E55; 03E17; 03H15; 46S20; 97I40; 97I30.
H. Vic Dannon
Contents
Introduction 1. Hyper-real Line 2. Delta Function Definition 3. Delta Function Plots 4. Delta Function Properties 5. Delta Sequence n (x ) =
n 1 2 cosh2 nx
6. Delta Sequence n (x ) = ne nx 7. Primitive of Delta Function 8. ( f (x )) 9. (x n ) 10. (x n (dx )n ) 11. Integral of (x )
[0, )
(x )
12. The Principal Value Derivative of Delta: The Dipole Function 13. 2nd Principal Value Derivative of Delta: the 4-Pole Function 14. Higher Principal Value Derivatives of Delta References
H. Vic Dannon
Introduction
0.1 Cauchy, Poisson, and Riemann
Cauchy (1816), and Poisson (1815) derived the Fourier Integral Theorem by using the sifting property of the Delta Function. By Fourier Integral Theorem
k = = ikx 1 ik f (x ) = e f ( )e d dk 2 k = = k = 1 ik ( x ) = f ( ) e dk d 2 k = = =
Denoting
1 eik( x )dk ( x ) , 2 k =
the Delta Function is the Fourier Transform of the constant function 1 , And Fourier Integral theorem states the sifting property for the Delta Function
=
k =
f (x ) =
f ( )( x ) . d
In the derivation of his Zeta Function, Riemann (1859) uses this sifting property repeatedly, without using a function notation for
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1 the integral 2
k =
k =
e ik ( x )dk that represents the Delta function
( x ) . The derivations are in [Dan4, p.84, p.90, p.97].

The derivations were not supplied by Riemann. Riemanns 1859 paper, as well as much of Riemanns published writings, outlines ideas, and states results without proof. In particular, the representation of Delta that follows from the Fourier Integral Theorem does not hold in the Calculus of Limits. Indeed,
= x e ik ( x ) = 1 ,
and the integral
1 2
diverges.
k =
k =
eik ( x )dk
Avoiding the singularity at = x does not recover the Theorem, because without the singularity the integral equals zero. Thus, the Fourier Integral Theorem cannot be written in the Calculus of Limits. In other words, the indeterminate nature of singularities in the Calculus of Limits does not allow the Fourier Integral Theorem to hold.
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0.2 Dirac
The Delta Function can be realized as a Radar transmission Pulse. A Radar Transmission has to be pulsed because a continuous wave train will not allow us to measure the time interval between transmission and reception, and determine the range of the target by r = 1 c . 2 Thus, a transmission lasts very short time. system converts into a receiver for Then, the Radar This
the reflected signal.
process of transmitting and receiving repeats thousands of time per second, in order to follow a moving target. The Radar pulse envelops a carrier wave of very short wavelength. Radar carrier waves went down from centimeters to micrometers of light wavelength. Since the illuminating power dissipation is proportional to
1 r2
, the
short electromagnetic wave-train has an electric field that seems nearly infinite, although the pulse power is finite. Dirac (1930) was familiar with Radar Pulses when he defined the Delta Function in [Dirac, p.71] through the sifting property,
x =
x =
(x )dx = 1 ,
and
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(x ) = 0 , for all x 0 .
Dirac definition left open the question of the nearly infinite amplitude at x = 0 . That is, (0) was left undefined. Then, the sifting property does not hold. Indeed, since (0) is infinite, the integration of (x ) has to skip the point x = 0 , and only the Cauchy Principal Value of the
x =
integral
x =
1 x =n x = lim (x )dx + (x )dx = 0 , n 1 x = x= n
(x )dx may exist. Then,
x =
in contradiction to
x =
(x )dx = 1 .
0.3 Laurent Schwartz

Laurent Schwartz presents his Delta Distribution as follows [Schwartz, p. 82]
0, x < 0 Let Y = . 1, x > 0

Then, for any (x ) infinitely differentiable, that
vanishes at , and at ,
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x =
x =
x =
Y '(x )(x )dx =
x = x = x =
Y (x ) '(x )dx
x =0
'(x )dx = (x ) x =0
= (0)
x =
=
Thus,
x =
(x )(x )dx
Y ' = .
Since Y (x ) is not defined at x = 0 , Y '(0) is not defined, and the conclusion Y ' = , avoids (0) . That is, Schwartz Definition is as incomplete as Diracs. Furthermore, the equality
x =
(0) =
x =
(x )(x )dx
is the definition of the Delta Function by its sifting property that does not hold. Since (0) is not defined, the integration has to skip the point
x = 0 , and the integral is the Cauchy Principal Value Integral
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1 x =n x = lim (x )(x )dx + (x )(x )dx = 0 n x = 1 x= n
Like the Dirac Delta, the Schwartz Delta avoids postulates the sifting property.
(0) , and
0.4 Delta Sequence

Attempts to get back to the singular Delta Function, replaced the Delta Function by a Delta Sequence of functions that converge to the Delta Function. For instance,
n (x ) = n
n, x [ 1 , 1 ] 2n 2n . 1 , 1 ](x ) = [ 0, otherwise 2n 2n
Then, the delta Function is defined as the limit
(x ) = lim n (x ) .
n
The sequential approach is reviewed in [Mikusinski], and is used in Mathematical Physics texts. However, the Delta Sequence contradicts Diracs definition. Indeed, as n , (0) = lim n (0) = lim n = .
n n
Then, the integration of (x ) has to skip the point x = 0 .
H. Vic Dannon
That is, only the Cauchy Principal Value of the integral

x =
x =
1 x =n x = lim (x )dx + (x )dx = 0 . n 1 x = x= n
(x )dx may exist. The Principal Value is
x =
That is, the sifting
x =
n (x )dx = 1 , is not preserved for the limit
of the Delta sequence, (x ) = lim n (x ) .

n
0.5 The Hyper-real Delta Function

The above attempts failed because the Delta Function is a hyperreal function. reals. By resolving the problem of the infinitesimals [Dan2], we obtained the Infinite Hyper-reals that are strictly smaller than , and can serve to supply the value of the Delta Function at the singularity. The attempts to get by with Calculus restricted to the real line, deprived Calculus of its full power. In Infinitesimal Calculus, [Dan3], we differentiate over a jump discontinuity of a step function, and obtain the Delta Function. We can integrate over a singularity, and obtain a finite value. A function from the hyper-reals into the hyper-
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Here, we present the Delta Function, and the properties of the Delta Function in Infinitesimal Calculus. In particular, we resolve open problems such as What is (0) ? How is x (x ) defined at x = 0 ? How is the Delta Function the derivative of a Step Function? How do we integrate the Delta Function? What is (x 2 ) ? What is 2 (x ) ? What is (x 3 ) ? What is 3 (x ) ?
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1. Hyper-real Line
Each real number can be represented by a Cauchy sequence of rational numbers, (r1, r2 , r3 ,...) so that rn . The constant sequence (, , ,...) is a constant hyper-real. In [Dan2] we established that, 1. Any totally ordered set of positive, monotonically decreasing to zero sequences (1, 2 , 3 ,...) constitutes a family of infinitesimal hyper-reals. 2. The infinitesimals are smaller than any real number, yet strictly greater than zero. 3. Their reciprocals
1 1 1 , , 1 2 3
,... are the infinite hyper-reals.
4. The infinite hyper-reals are greater than any real number, yet strictly smaller than infinity. 5. The infinite hyper-reals with negative signs are smaller than any real number, yet strictly greater than . 6. The sum of a real number with an infinitesimal is a non-constant hyper-real. 7. The Hyper-reals are the totality of constant hyper-reals, a family of infinitesimals, a family of infinitesimals with
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negative sign, a family of infinite hyper-reals, a family of infinite hyper-reals with negative sign, and non-constant hyper-reals. 8. The hyper-reals are totally ordered, and aligned along a line: the Hyper-real Line. 9. That line includes the real numbers separated by the nonconstant hyper-reals. Each real number is the center of an interval of hyper-reals, that includes no other real number. 10. In particular, zero is separated from any positive real
by the infinitesimals, and from any negative real by the infinitesimals with negative signs, dx . 11. Zero is not an infinitesimal, because zero is not strictly
greater than zero. 12. 13. We do not add infinity to the hyper-real line. The infinitesimals, the infinitesimals with negative
signs, the infinite hyper-reals, and the infinite hyper-reals with negative signs are semi-groups with respect to addition. Neither set includes zero. 14. The hyper-real line is embedded in
, and is not
homeomorphic to the real line. There is no bi-continuous one-one mapping from the hyper-real onto the real line.
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15.
In particular, there are no points on the real line that
can be assigned uniquely to the infinitesimal hyper-reals, or to the infinite hyper-reals, or to the non-constant hyperreals. 16. an 17. No neighbourhood of a hyper-real is homeomorphic to
n
ball. Therefore, the hyper-real line is not a manifold.
The hyper-real line is totally ordered like a line, but it
is not spanned by one element, and it is not one-dimensional.
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2. Delta Function Definition

2.1 Domain and Range
The Delta Function is a hyper-real function defined from the hyper-real line into the set of two hyper-reals
1 0, . dx
The hyper-real 0 is the sequence The infinite hyper-real
1 dx
0, 0, 0,... .
depends on our choice of dx . We will
usually choose the family of infinitesimals that is spanned by the sequences

1 n
1 n2
1 n3
, It is a semigroup with respect to
vector addition, and includes all the scalar multiples of the generating sequences that are non-zero. That is, the family includes infinitesimals with negative sign. Therefore,
1 dx
will mean the sequence n .
Alternatively, we may choose the family spanned by the sequences

1 2n
1 22n
1 23n
, Then,
1 dx
will mean the sequence 2n .
Once we determined the basic infinitesimal dx , we will use it in the Infinite Riemann Sum that defines an Integral in
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Infinitesimal Calculus.
2.2 The Delta Function is strictly smaller than

Proof: Since dx > 0 ,
1 < . dx
2.3 Definition of the Delta Function

We define,
(x ) 1 dx
dx , dx 2 2
(x ) ,
where
This means that
1, x dx , dx 2 2 . dx , dx (x ) = 2 2 0, otherwise
for x < 1 dx , (x ) = 0 2 at x = 1 dx , (x ) jumps from 0 to 2 for

1 , dx
1 . x dx , dx , (x ) = 2 2 dx (0) = 1 dx
1 to 0 . dx
at x = 0 ,
at x = 1 dx , (x ) drops from 2 for x > 1 dx , (x ) = 0 . 2
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1 1, x dx , dx 2 2 is the sequence 2.4 (x ) = dx 0, otherwise

where dx = in .
1 , x in , in in 2 2 0, otherwise
Namely, as a hyper-real function the value of Delta at the singularity is the infinite hyper-real
1 dx
which is a sequence, an
infinite vector with countably many components.
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3. Delta Function Plots

3.1 Delta Plot for dx =
1 n 1 If in = n , Delta is the infinite Hyper-Real number,
(x ) =
[1,1](x ), 2[ , ](x ), 3[ , ](x ),...

1 1 2 2 1 1 3 3
We plot in Maple the 10th component with
Similarly, we use
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to plot an the 100th component of Delta
3.2 Delta with dx =

(x ) = 2
We use
1 2n
is
1 1 8 8 1,1] 16 16
[ , ](x ), 4[ , ](x ), 8[
1 1 4 4
(x ),...
to plot the 4th component of Delta
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Similarly, we use
to plot the 6th component of Delta,
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4. Delta Function Properties

4.1
x (x ) = 0
Proof: x 0 (x ) = 0 x (x ) = 0 .
x = 0 x (x ) = 0(0) =
0 = 0 , since dx > 0 . dx
4.2
(x x 0 )
=
1 d (x x 0 )
1 dx
x
0
dx ,x + dx 2 0 2
(x )
x
0
dx ,x + dx 2 0 2
(x )
4.3
n (x ) =
1 (dx )n 1
dx , dx (x ) , 2 2
n = 2, 3,...
1 . dx
That is, n (0) spikes to
(dx )n
, which is greater than
4.4
(x , y ) (x )(y ) =
1 [dx ,dx ](x ) 1 [dy ,dy ](y ) 2 2 dx dy 2 2
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5. Delta Sequence n (x ) = n
1 2 cosh 2 nx
Depending on the choice of the infinitesimal dx = in , there are many Delta Sequences that lead to the Delta Function, (x ) .
5.1
Each
n (x ) = n
1 2 cosh2 nx
x =
has the sifting property is continuous peaks at x = 0 to n (0) =

x =
x =
n (x )dx = 1
n 2
x =
Proof:
tanh nx n 2 cosh2 nx dx = n 2n x = 1
=
x =
1 ( 1 (1) ) = 1 . 2
The sequence represents the hyper-real Delta Function
5.2 If in =
2 , n
(x ) =
2 cosh2 x 2 cosh2 2x 2 cosh2 3x
,...
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plots in Maple, the 50th component,
plots in Maple the 200th component,
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6. Delta Sequence n (x ) = nenx [0,) (x )

6.1
Each n (x ) = ne nx [0,)
x =
has the sifting property
x =
n (x )dx = 1
is continuous hyper-real function peaks at x = 0 to n (0) = n

x = x =
Proof:
x =
ne
nx
[0,)(x )dx =
x =0
ne
nx
e nx dx = n n
x =
= 1.
x =0
The sequence represents the hyper-real Delta Function
6.2 If in =
1 , (x ) = e x [0,), 2e 2x [0,), 3e3x [0,),... n
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7. Primitive of Delta Function

7.1
1, x < 0 (x ) is the derivative of g(x ) = 0, x = 0 1, x > 0
Proof:
At the jump over [dx , 0] , from 1 to 0 , for any dx ,

g(0) g(0 dx ) 0 (1) 1 = = dx dx dx
Therefore, the left derivative at x = 0 is
g '(0) =
1 . dx
At the jump over [0, dx ] , from 0 to 1 , for any dx ,

g(0 + dx ) g(0) 1 0 1 = = dx dx dx
Therefore, the right derivative at x = 0 is
g '(0+) =
1 . dx
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Since the right and left derivatives are equal, the derivative at
x = 0 is
g '(0) =
1 = (0) . dx
Since at x 0 , g '(x ) = 0 , we have,
g '(x ) =
1 dx dx , . dx 2 2
0, x 0 7.2 (x ) is the Principal Value derivative of h(x ) = 1, x > 0

Proof: For any dx ,
h(0) h(dx ) 0 = =0 dx dx
h '(0) = 0 .
h '(0+) = 1 . dx
h(dx ) h(0) 1 0 1 = = dx dx dx
Therefore, h(x ) has no derivative at x = 0 . But since
h(dx ) h( dx ) 2 2 dx
10 1 , = dx dx
The principal value derivative of h(x ) at x = 0 is

p.v.h '(0) = 1 . dx
1 dx dx , . dx 2 2
Since at x 0 , p.v.h '(x ) = 0 , we have, p.v.h '(x ) =
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8.
( f (x ))
8.1
Proof:
(ax ) = 1 (x ) a
(ax )adx = (ax )d (ax ) = 1 = (x )dx .
We divide both sides by adx , and put a , because the Deltas on both sides are positive.
8.2
If 1 is the only zero of f (x ) , and f '(1 ) 0 ,

( f (x )) = 1 (x 1 ) f '(1 )
Then,
Proof:
( f (x )) = ( f (x ) f (1 ) )
For x 1 = infinitesimal ,
= ( f '(1 )(x 1 ) )
By 8.1,
= 1 (x 1 ) . f '(1 )
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8.3
If 1, 2 are the only zeros of f (x ) , and f '(1 ), f '(2 ) 0 Then, ( f (x )) =

1 1 (x 1 ) + (x 2 ) f '(1 ) f '(2 )
Proof:
( f (x )) = ( f (x ) f (1 ) ) + ( f (x ) f (2 ) )
If x 1 = infinitesimal , f (x ) f (1 ) = f '(1 )(x 1 ) If x 2 = infinitesimal , f (x ) f (2 ) = f '(2 )(x 2 ) Either way,
( f (x )) = ( f '(1 )(x 1 ) ) + ( f '(2 )(x 2 ) )

= 1 1 (x 1 ) + (x 2 ) . f '(1 ) f '(2 )
8.4
(x 2 a 2 ) =
1 1 (x a ) + (x + a ) 2a 2a
8.5
( (x a )(x b) ) =
1 1 (x a ) + (x + a ) a b b a
8.6 If 1,...n are the only zeros of f (x ) , and f '(1 ),.., f '(n ) 0
Then, ( f (x )) =
1 1 (x 1 ) + ... + (x n ) f '(1 ) f '(n )
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8.7
If
1, 2 ,... are zeros of f (x ) , and f '(1 ), f '(2 ),... 0

1 1 (x 1 ) + (x n ) + ... f '(1 ) f '(n )
Then, ( f (x )) =
8.8
(sin x ) = ... + (x + 2) + (x + ) + (x ) + (x ) + (x 2) + ...
Proof: The zeros of sin x are ... 2, , 0, , 2,... and cos(n ) = 1 .
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9.
(x n )
9.1
Proof:
(x 2 ) =
1 (x ) , 2xdx xdx ,xdx

1 d (x 2 ) 1 2xdx
x >0
(x 2 ) =
d (x 2 ) d (x 2 ) , 2 2
(x )
d (x 2 ) d (x 2 ) , 2 2
(x ) ,
where to ensure d(x 2 ) > 0 , we must have
x > 0.
The amplitude and domain of the (x 2 ) spike depend on x . For instance,
9.2
1 2xdx
xdx ,xdx (x ) x =
xdx,xdx (x ) x =
1 2
= (x )
9.3
1 2xdx
dx 2
1 (dx )
2
(dx )2 (dx )2 , 2 2
(x )
2 (x )
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9.4
(x n ) =
1 d (x
n
d (x n ) d (x n ) (x ) , 2 2
1 nx n 1dx
n x n 1dx , n x n 1dx (x ) , 2 2
x >0
The amplitude and domain of the (x n ) spike depend on x . For instance,
9.5
1 nx n 1dx
n n 1dx , n x n 1dx 2 2
1 (x ) x =( 1 )n 1 n
= (x )
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10.
(x n (dx )n )
While x 2 (dx )2 is infinitesimally close to x 2 , 2 different from (x 2 ) .
( x 2 (dx )2 ) is 2
10.1 Proof:
( x 2 (dx )2 ) = 2
1 1 (x dx ) + (x + dx ) 2 2 dx dx
By 8.4, since dx > 0 .
10.1 has two positive spikes. For instance, 10.2
1 1 1 1 dx (x dx ) + (x + dx ) ( dx ) + ( ) = 2 2 2 dx dx dx dx 2 x =0
= 1 (dx )
[dx ,0](x ) + 2
1 (dx )2
[0,dx ](x ) .
Similarly, ( x 3 (dx )3 ) has three positive spikes. 10.3 ( x 3 (dx )3 ) = Proof:
( (x dx ) + ( x e 3(dx )
1
2
i 23
dx + x e
) (
2i 23
dx
)) .
x 3 (dx )3 has the three zeros
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x1 = dx , x 2 = e 3 dx ,
2
i 2
and
2
x3 = e
2i 2
3
dx .
Since f '(x ) = 3x 2 , and since x 2 = x 3 = (dx )2 , by 6.6 we obtain

( x 3 (dx )3 ) = 1 3(dx )2
(x dx ) + x e 3 dx + x e
i 2
) (
2i 23
dx
)) .
( x n (dx )n ) has n positive spikes.

10.4 ( x n (dx )n ) =
1 n(dx )n 1
( (x dx ) + ( x e dx ) + ... + ( x e
2 n
(n 1)2n
dx
))
Proof: x n (dx )n has the n zeros
x1 = dx , x 2 = e n dx ,, xn = e
Since f '(x ) = nx n 1 , and since x1 by 6.6 we obtain
( x n (dx )n ) = 1 n(dx )n 1
n 1
i 2
(n 1)i 2
n
dx .
= ... = x n
n 1
= (dx )n 1 ,
( (x dx ) + ( x e dx ) + ... + ( x e
2 n
(n 1)2n
dx
)) .
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11. Integral of (x )
11.1 Integral of a Hyper-real Function
Let f (x ) be a hyper-real function on the interval [a, b ] .
f (x ) may take infinite hyper-real values, and need not be

bounded. At each
a x b,
there is a rectangle with base [x dx , x + dx ] , height f (x ) , and area 2 2
f (x )dx .
We form the Integration Sum of all the areas for the x s that start at x = a , and end at x = b ,
x [a ,b ]
f (x )dx .
If for any infinitesimal dx , the Integration Sum has the same hyper-real value, then f (x ) is integrable over the interval [a,b ] . Then, we call the Integration Sum the integral of f (x ) from x = a , to x = b , and denote it by
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x =b
x =a
f (x )dx .
If the hyper-real is infinite, then it is the integral over [a, b ] , If the hyper-real is finite,
x =b
x =a
f (x )dx = real part of the hyper-real .
11.2 The countability of the Integration Sum

In [Dan1], we established the equality of all positive infinities: We proved that the number of the Natural Numbers,
Card , equals the number of Real Numbers, Card
= 2Card , and
we have
Card
= (Card )2 = .... = 2Card
= 22
Card
= ... .
In particular, we demonstrated that the real numbers may be well-ordered. Consequently, there are countably many real numbers in the interval [a, b ] , and the Integration Sum has countably many terms. While we do not sequence the real numbers in the interval, the summation takes place over countably many f (x )dx .
The Lower Integral is the Integration Sum where f (x ) is replaced
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by its lowest value on each interval [x dx , x + dx ] 2 2
11.3
x [a ,b ]
dx inf dx f (t ) dx x t x +
2 2
The Upper Integral is the Integration Sum where f (x ) is replaced by its largest value on each interval [x dx , x + dx ] 2 2
11.4
x dxsupx +dx f (t )dx 2 t 2 x [a ,b ]
If the integral is a finite hyper-real, we have
11.5 A hyper-real function has a finite integral if and only if its

upper integral and its lower integral are finite, and differ by an infinitesimal.
x =
11.6
x =
(x )dx = 1 .
Proof: The only term in the integration Sum is
1 dx = 1 . dx
Both the upper integral, and the lower integral are equal to
1 dx = 1 . dx
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12. The Principal Value Derivative of Delta: the Dipole Function

We have seen in 2.3 that at x = for
1 dx , (x ) jumps from 0 to , dx 2
1 1 . In particular, (0) = x dx , dx , (x ) = 2 2 dx dx
dx 1 , (x ) drops from to 0 . 2 dx
at x =
Here, we show in 12.1, that (x ) has no derivative at x = 1 dx , but the 2 Principal Value Derivative over the jump at x = 1 dx , is a 2 Positive Impulse Function. in 12.2, that (x ) has no derivative at
x = 1 dx , but the 2
Principal Value Derivative over the jump at x = 1 dx , is a 2 Negative Impulse Function.
We sum up 12.1, and 12.2. in 12.3.
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Namely, (x ) has no derivative at x = 0 , but the Principal Value Derivative over the two jumps is a Dipole Function. That Dipole function is a positive Impulse Function followed by a negative Impulse function. Both the positive, and the negative impulses have jumps far greater than the jump of the generating delta function.
12.1 The Principal Value Derivative of Delta at x = 1 dx 2

(x ) has no derivative at x =
dx . 2
The Principal Value Derivative of (x ) at x = 1 dx , is the Positive 2 Impulse function Proof:

1 (dx )2
[dx , 0] .
The left derivative of (x ) at x = 1 dx is 2
( dx ) (dx ) 2
dx + dx 2
1 dx
0
dx 2
2 (dx )2
The right derivative of (x ) at x = 1 dx is 2
(0) ( dx ) 2
0 ( dx ) 2
1 dx
1 dx dx 2
= 0.
Since the left and right derivatives are unequal, derivative at x = 1 dx . 2
(x ) has no
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The Principal Value Derivative at x = 1 dx is 2
(0) (dx ) = 0 (dx )
1 dx
0 dx
1
1 (dx )
2
It is the Positive Impulse Function
(dx )
[dx , 0] .
12.2 The Principal Value Derivative of Delta at x =

(x ) has no derivative at x = 1 dx . 2
dx 2
The Principal Value Derivative of (x ) at x = 1 dx , is the Negative 2 Impulse Function Proof:

1 (dx )2 [0, dx ].
The Left Derivative of (x ) at x = 1 dx is 2
(dx ) (0) 2
dx 2
1 dx
1 dx dx 2
0 = 0. dx
The Right Derivative of (x ) at x = 1 dx is 2
(dx ) (dx ) 2
dx dx 2
1 0 dx dx 2
2 (dx )2
Since the Left and Right Derivatives are unequal, derivative at x = 1 dx . 2
(x ) has no
40
H. Vic Dannon
The Principal Value Derivative at x = 1 dx is 2

1 0 dx 1 (dx ) (0) = = . 2 dx ) dx (dx )
It is the Negative Impulse Function
1 (dx )
2
[0, dx ].
12.3 The Principal Value Derivative of Delta at x = 0

(x ) has no derivative at x = 0 .
The Principal Value Derivative of (x ) , p.v.D(x ) is the Dipole Function
Dipole(x ) = 1 (dx )
2
[dx , 0]
1 (dx )
2
[0, dx ] .
Proof:
The Left Derivative of (x ) at x = 0 is
(0) (dx ) = dx
1 dx
0 dx
1 (dx )2
The Right Derivative of (x ) at x = 0 is

1 0 dx 1 (dx ) (0) = = . dx dx (dx )2
Since the left and right derivatives are unequal, derivative at x = 0 . The Principal Value Derivative of (x ) is
(x ) has no
41
H. Vic Dannon
(x + dx ) (x dx ) 2 2
dx
It is the Dipole Function
1
1 1 (x + dx ) (x dx ) . 2 2 dx dx
1 (dx )2 [0, dx ] .
(dx )2
[dx , 0]
If dx =
1 n
, this is the sequence

1 1 Dipole(x ) = n 2[ n , 0] n 2[0, n ] .
Then, a Maple plot of the 10th component of Dipole(x ) is
42
H. Vic Dannon
13. The 2nd Principal Value Derivative of Delta: the 4-Pole Function
The 2nd Principal Value Derivative of (x ) is the 4-pole Function
13.1 (p.v.D)2(x ) =
=
1 (dx )2 1 (dx )
3
( (x + dx ) 2(x ) + (x dx ) )
{ [ 3dx , dx ] 2[ dx , dx ] + [dx , 3dx ]} . 2 2 2 2 2 2
Proof: (p.v.D) (x ) =
= 1
Dipole(x + dx ) Dipole(x dx ) 2 2 dx
(dx )2 1 (dx )
3
( (x + dx ) 2(x ) + (x dx ) )
{ [ 3dx , dx ] 2[ dx , dx ] + [dx , 3dx ]} . 2 2 2 2 2 2
The 4-pole Function has four Impulse Functions a Positive Impulse

1 (dx )2
(x + dx ) centered at x = dx ,
43
H. Vic Dannon
two Negative Impulses 2 a Positive Impulse

1 (dx )2
1 (dx )2
(x ) centered at x = 0 ,
(x dx ) centered at x = dx .
If dx =
1 n
4 pole(x ) = n 3[ 23 , 21 ] 2n 3[ 21 , 21 ] + n 3[ 21 , 23 ] . n n n n n n
Then, a Maple plot of a component of 4 pole(x ) is
The x axis units are
1 n
. The y axis units are n 3 .
44
H. Vic Dannon
14. Higher Principal Value Derivatives of Delta

14.1 The 3rd Principal Value Derivative of (x ) , (p.v.D)3(x ) is the 8-pole Function
8pole(x ) = 1 (dx )4
( [2dx, dx ] 3[dx, 0] + 3[0, dx ] [dx, 2dx ]) .
If dx =
1 n
2 1 1 1 1 2 8pole(x ) = n 4 [ n , n ] 3n 4 [ n , 0] + 3n 4 [0, n ] n 4 [ n , n ] .
Then, a Maple plot of a component of 8pole(x ) is
1 n
45
H. Vic Dannon
14.2 The 4th Principal Value Derivative of (x ) , (p.v.D)4(x ) is the 16-pole Function
16pole(x ) = 1 (dx )
5
( [ 5dx , 3dx ] 4[ 3dx , dx ] + 2 2 2 2

+ 6[ dx , dx ] 4[dx , 3dx ] + [ 3dx , 5dx ] ) . 2 2 2 2 2 2
If dx =
1 n
16pole(x ) = ( n 5[ 25 , 23 ] 4n 5[ 23 , 1 ] + n n n 2 + 6n 5[ 21 , 21 ] 4n 5[ 21 , 23 ] + n 5[ 23 , 25 ] ) . n n n n n n
Then, a Maple plot of a component of 16pole(x ) is
1 n
46
H. Vic Dannon
Using the Binomial coefficients, 14.3 The kth Principal Value Derivative of (x ) , (p.v.D)k (x ) is
2 pole(x ) =
k
2k 1 pole(x + dx ) 2k 1 pole(x + dx ) 2 2 dx
[ (k +1)dx , (k 1)dx ] k [ (k 1)dx , (k 3)dx ] + 1 2 2 2 2 k +1 (dx ) 1
k (k 1)dx (k 3)dx (k 1)dx (k +1)dx + [ 2 , 2 ] + ... + (1)k [ 2 , 2 ] . 2
If dx =
1 n
k +1
(k +1) (k 1) [ 2n , 2n ]
k +1
n (n 1)dx (n 3)dx [ 2 , 2 ] + 1
k + + n k +1 [ k21 , k2n3 ] + ... + (1)k n k +1[ k21 , k2n1 ] ) 2 n n
47
H. Vic Dannon
References
[Dan1] Dannon, H. Vic, Well-Ordering of the Reals, Equality of all Infinities, and the Continuum Hypothesis in Gauge Institute Journal of math and
Physics, Vol.6 No 2, May 2010; [Dan2] Dannon, H. Vic, Infinitesimals in Gauge Institute Journal of math and Physics, Vol.6 No 4, November 2010; [Dan3] Dannon, H. Vic, Infinitesimal Calculus in Gauge Institute Journal of Math and Physics, Vol.7 No 1, February 2011; [Dan4] Dannon, H. Vic, Riemanns Zeta Function: the Riemann Hypothesis Origin, the Factorization Error, and the Count of the Primes, in Gauge Institute Journal of Math and Physics, Vol.5 No 4, November 2009; [Dirac] Dirac, P. A. M. The Principles of Quantum Mechanics, Second Edition, Oxford Univ press, 1935. [Hen] Henle, James M., and Kleinberg Eugene M., Infinitesimal Calculus, MIT Press 1979. [Hosk] Hoskins, R. F., Standard and Nonstandard Analysis, Ellis Horwood, 1990. [Keis] Keisler, H. Jerome, Elementary calculus, An Infinitesimal Approach, Second Edition, Prindle, Weber, and Schmidt, 1986, pp. 905-912 [Laug] Laugwitz, Detlef, Curt Schmiedens approach to infinitesimals-an eyeopener to the historiography of analysis Technische Universitat Darmstadt, Preprint Nr. 2053, August 1999 [Mikusinski] Mikusinski, J. and Sikorski, R., The elementary theory of distributions, Rosprawy Matematyczne XII, Warszawa 1957.
48
H. Vic Dannon
[Rand] Randolph, John, Basic Real and Abstract Analysis, Academic Press, 1968. [Riemann] Riemann, Bernhard, On the Representation of a Function by a Trigonometric Series. (1) In Collected Papers, Bernhard Riemann, translated from
the 1892 edition by Roger Baker, Charles Christenson, and Henry Orde, Paper XII, Part 5, Conditions for the existence of a definite integral, pages 231-232, Part 6, Special Cases, pages 232-234. Kendrick press, 2004 (2) In God Created the Integers Edited by Stephen Hawking,
Part 5, and Part 6, pages 836-840, Running Press, 2005. [Schwartz] Schwartz, Laurent, Mathematics for the Physical Sciences, Addison-Wesley, 1966. [Temp] Temple, George, 100 Years of Mathematics, Springer-Verlag, 1981. pp. 19-24.
49

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Gauge Institute Journal, Volume 8, No.

The Delta Function

The Dirac Delta Function, the idealization of an

Gauge Institute Journal, Volume 8, No. 1, February 2012

Gauge Institute Journal, Volume 8, No. 1, February 2012

6. Delta Sequence n (x ) = ne nx 7. Primitive of Delta Function 8. ( f (x )) 9. (x n ) 10. (x n (dx )n ) 11. Integral of (x )

Gauge Institute Journal, Volume 8, No. 1, February 2012

Gauge Institute Journal, Volume 8, No. 1, February 2012

e ik ( x )dk that represents the Delta function

( x ) . The derivations are in [Dan4, p.84, p.90, p.97].

Gauge Institute Journal, Volume 8, No. 1, February 2012

the reflected signal.

Gauge Institute Journal, Volume 8, No. 1, February 2012

(x )dx may exist. Then,

0.3 Laurent Schwartz

0, x < 0 Let Y = . 1, x > 0

Gauge Institute Journal, Volume 8, No. 1, February 2012

Y '(x )(x )dx =

Gauge Institute Journal, Volume 8, No. 1, February 2012

1 x =n x = lim (x )(x )dx + (x )(x )dx = 0 n x = 1 x= n

0.4 Delta Sequence

Then, the delta Function is defined as the limit

Then, the integration of (x ) has to skip the point x = 0 .

Gauge Institute Journal, Volume 8, No. 1, February 2012

That is, only the Cauchy Principal Value of the integral

(x )dx may exist. The Principal Value is

That is, the sifting

n (x )dx = 1 , is not preserved for the limit

of the Delta sequence, (x ) = lim n (x ) .

0.5 The Hyper-real Delta Function

Gauge Institute Journal, Volume 8, No. 1, February 2012

Gauge Institute Journal, Volume 8, No. 1, February 2012

,... are the infinite hyper-reals.

Gauge Institute Journal, Volume 8, No. 1, February 2012

Gauge Institute Journal, Volume 8, No. 1, February 2012

In particular, there are no points on the real line that

ball. Therefore, the hyper-real line is not a manifold.

The hyper-real line is totally ordered like a line, but it

is not spanned by one element, and it is not one-dimensional.

Gauge Institute Journal, Volume 8, No. 1, February 2012

2. Delta Function Definition

depends on our choice of dx . We will

usually choose the family of infinitesimals that is spanned by the sequences

, It is a semigroup with respect to

will mean the sequence n .

Alternatively, we may choose the family spanned by the sequences

will mean the sequence 2n .

Gauge Institute Journal, Volume 8, No. 1, February 2012

2.2 The Delta Function is strictly smaller than

2.3 Definition of the Delta Function

This means that

for x < 1 dx , (x ) = 0 2 at x = 1 dx , (x ) jumps from 0 to 2 for

at x = 1 dx , (x ) drops from 2 for x > 1 dx , (x ) = 0 . 2

Gauge Institute Journal, Volume 8, No. 1, February 2012

1 1, x dx , dx 2 2 is the sequence 2.4 (x ) = dx 0, otherwise

infinite vector with countably many components.

Gauge Institute Journal, Volume 8, No. 1, February 2012

3. Delta Function Plots

[1,1](x ), 2[ , ](x ), 3[ , ](x ),...

We plot in Maple the 10th component with

Gauge Institute Journal, Volume 8, No. 1, February 2012

to plot an the 100th component of Delta

3.2 Delta with dx =