ECEG-4405-Applied Energy Conversion

Instructor : zelalem Girma Course Title : Applied Energy conversion

AMU

Course Description Introduces basic background, terminology, and fundamentals of energy conversion. Discusses current and emerging technologies for production of thermal, mechanical, and electrical energy. Topics include fossil and nuclear fuels, solar energy, wind energy, fuel cells, and energy storage. Course Objectives After this course you should be able to: 1. compare competing energy conversion technologies on an economic and efficiency basis; 3. be familiar with thermodynamic power cycles and the associated processes and fuels; 4. be familiar with the basic principles of nuclear energy, solar energy, and wind energy conversion , hydro energy; 5. be familiar with the basic principles of energy storage;

Course out line Course : Applied energy conversion Chapter 1. Introduction to Energy o energy, energy classification, o units ,energy conversion, o conversion efficiency Chapter 2. Introduction to Fuels { Stored Chemical Energy} Chapter 3. Thermal-to-Mechanical Energy ConversionElectrical Sources of Thermal Energy & Conversion o steam power plant o nuclear energy, nuclear power production o solar thermal energy conversion o Geothermal Energy chapter 4 Electromagnetic-to-Electrical Energy Conversion introduction to photovoltaic chapter 5. Mechanical-to-Mechanical Energy Conversion- Electrical introduction to hydro power introduction to wind energy chapter 6. Chemical-to-Electrical Energy Conversion introduction to fuel cells chapter 7 Energy Storage technology flow batteries compressed gas, flywheels
1

ECEG-4405-Applied Energy Conversion

storage hydro power lead acid battery and etc

AMU

Chapter one Introduction to Energy

Energy is the capacity to do work. A plenty of energy is needed to sustain industrial growth and agricultural production. Energy is important because it provides the ability to do work. Work is done when one or more forces move an object over a distance. The objects being moved can be very small, such as molecules, atoms, electrons, or protons, or they can be much larger objects. When forces act on objects and do work, energy is converted from one form to another. In later periods we will learn how forces act on objects to do work. All forces can be related to one or more of the four fundamental forces of nature. As energy is converted from one form into another, the Law of Conservation of Energy requires that no energy can be lost. The total amount of energy put into a conversion process must equal the total amount of energy out. However, during each energy conversion some energy is converted into a form other than the form you desire. Energy converted into an undesirable form is called wasted energy. Many energy conversion processes require multiple steps, such as the steps involved when coal is converted into electrical energy. Each step in the process converts some energy into a form other than that needed for the next step. Because of this wasted energy, the amount of electrical energy obtained is less than the amount of energy in the coal burned to produce the electricity. The energy wasted at each step makes the overall process less efficient than the efficiency of any step. OUR FIRST ENERGY SOURCES For most of the history of humankind wood was the mainstay of life for shelter, for transportation on land and on water, and as a source of energy to burn for heat and light. Besides using wood and their own muscles, people took advantage of the energy that the sun, wind, running water, hot springs and even animals could provide to do work, to travel, and for recreation. Ancient civilizations advanced the use of energy resources. Around 3,500 B.C. (about 5,500 years ago) Egyptians made the earliest known sailboats, harnessing the power of the wind to travel faster and further, while increasing
2

ECEG-4405-Applied Energy Conversion

AMU

trade with neighboring lands. By 500 B.C. Greeks were building what we now call passive solar homes to take better advantage of the suns light and warmth. And by 85 B.C. Romans were enjoying baths heated with water from geothermal hot springs. Around the same time, the Greeks made advances in use of running water. They developed waterwheels to grind grain, a task previously done by hand or with animal power. And by 640 A.D., in what is now Iran, the Persians had also found a new way to grind grain, using mills with large wooden blades to capture wind power. Europeans adopted the idea and used modified versions of these windmills throughout medieval times. Next to wood, wind ranked as a prime source of energy Energy and Environment Energy is a prime mover of economic growth and is vital to sustain the economy. Energy consumption is an indicator of economic growth of a nation Economic growth depends, among other factors, on the long term availability of resources that are affordable, accessible and their use do not pollute the environment. Industrialization contributes to economic growth and requires energy. Major energy intensive industries consumed 68% of the total energy available in 2005. A similar trend continues in the subsequent years also. Energy consumption is strongly related to environment cleanliness, when fossil fuel is the main source of energy. Fossil fuels are natural substances made deep within the earth from the remaims of ancient plants and animals.

ECEG-4405-Applied Energy Conversion

AMU

Energy resources

Classification of energy resources is given in the following flow sheet:

ECEG-4405-Applied Energy Conversion

AMU

Fossil fuels are formed by anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms. The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuel is typically millions of years. Fosil fuel which contain high percentage of carbon, include, coal, petroleum and natural gas. CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY It is broadly classified into 1. Conventional energy: is in practice for long duration of time and well established technology is available to tap and use them. e.g. Coal, oil, natural gas, hydro power, nuclear power etc. 2. Non-conventional energy: source can be used with advantage for power generation as well as other applications in a large number of locations and situations. These energy sources cannot be easily stored and used conveniently. e.g. Solar, wind, tidal and geothermal etc. Based upon nature, energy sources are classified as 1. Renewable energy sources are inexhaustible and are renewed by nature itself. Solar, wind, tidal, hydro and biomass are few examples.

ECEG-4405-Applied Energy Conversion

AMU

2. Non-renewable energy sources are exhaustible within a definite period of time depending upon its usage. Fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) and nuclear fuels are few examples.

Types of Non-Renewable sources of energy Coal : Coal is formed by the prolonged action of geological forces on the plant and vegetal matter accumulated below the earth crust. The process is called COALIFICATION. Coalification is both time and force dependent. Coalification brings following changes to the accumulated plant: The formation of peat beds involves a combination of woody growth in wet, swampy places with favourable biochemical conditions. As coalification proceeds in the sequence given anove, both physical and chemical changes occur. The chemical changes are given below: Volatile matter decreases from about 70% for wood to 5% or less for anthracite coal. Increase in carbon from about 30% for wood and peat to 90-95% for anthracite coal.

Petroleum :

Petroleum is formed in the earth's crust from the accumulated vegetal and animal matter metamorphic processes similar to coalification. From crude petroleum; gasoline, lubricating oil, fuel oils etc. are obtained.

Natural gas : It is used directly Renewable sources of energy Geothermal: energy obtained by tapping the heat of the earth below its surface. Hot underground water or steam is used to produce electricity. Biogas: produced from wastes of paper and sugar industries, animal and so on. CH4 is the product. Bio fuel: Biodiesel, ethanol etc. are derived from plants.
6

ECEG-4405-Applied Energy Conversion

AMU

Solid Biomass: Wood fuel, biogenic portion of municipal waste, certain plants. Biomass may be used in a number of ways to produce energy. The common methods are gasification, combustion, fermentation and anaerobic digestion. India is very rich in biomass Hydro-thermal: Energy in water in the form of KE, temperature difference Solar Energy: Energy collected from sunlight. It can be used in many ways: Generate electricity using photovoltaic cells. Generate electricity using concentrating solar power. Photovoltaic cells have a low efficiency factor.

Current energy problems Heavy use of fossil fuels and thus: Rising energy costs Unsustainable situation due to limited reserves Environmental impacts (pollution, climate change?, ...) International conflicts due to US dependence on foreign

Sources The goal for this portion of the course is to understand the language of energy and energy conversion. To accomplish this we will address the following questions: What is energy? What are the units of energy? How do we compare forms of energies? How is energy converted from one form to another? How do we calculate efficiency of energy conversion?

ECEG-4405-Applied Energy Conversion

AMU

Energy is the capacity to do work to move something, heat it up, or change it in some way. When work is being done, energy is always converting. For example, when you run, your body converts chemical energy from food youve eaten into the energy of your actions mechanical energy and heat. Often there are several energy conversions, in essence, an energy chain. A steam-driven power plant has a series of energy conversions in an energy chain that goes like this: Heat energy (to make steam from water) is converted to mechanical energy (the spinning of the turbine blades); and then its converted again in the generator to electrical energy. We can convert energy from one form to another (e.g., mechanical-toelectrical), but the total energy is always constant. Total energy is not the same as usable energy, which leads to the concept of conversion efficiency. Types of Energy There are two types of energy (transitional & stored) and six forms of energy (mechanical, thermal, electrical, chemical, electromagnetic, and nuclear) Transitional and stored energy are distinguished by whether or not an energy flux crosses a real or imaginary surface. This is typically the energy we associate with work and power. For example, current flow is a form of electrical energy and would represent a transitional type. In contrast voltage, which is electrical potential expressed in volts, is a type of stored energy. 1. Transitional: energy in motion, energy which crosses system boundaries. electrical current work heat electromagnetic radiation 2. Stored: energy which has a mass, a position in a force field, etc. electrical potential (voltage) storage mechanisms: capacitor, inductor, superconductor, . . . gravitational potential (potential energy in engineering thermodynamics) storage mechanisms: water tower, hydraulic dam, raised weight, . . . inertial potential (kinetic energy in engineering thermodynamics) storage mechanisms: flywheel, fluid inertia, mass in motion, . . . fluid compression (flow energy or boundary work in thermodynamics) storage mechanisms: gas cylinder, propane tank, piston-cylinder, . . . chemical potential: (internal energy, enthalpy in thermodynamics) storage mechanisms: batteries, coal, petroleum, hydrogen, glucose, . . . thermal: (sensible & latent heat) storage mechanisms: mass, phase-change material

ECEG-4405-Applied Energy Conversion

AMU

Forms of Energy Energy exists in many different forms. Examples of these are: light energy, heat energy, mechanical energy, gravitational energy, electrical energy, sound energy, chemical energy, nuclear or atomic energy and so on. These forms of energy can be transferred and transformed between one another. This is of immense benefit to us. For a source of energy to end up as electricity it may undergo many transformations before it can power the light bulb in your home. Each form of energy is quantified using different units. These units may be of energy, or of power, or both. The difference in units arose because the concepts of work, heat, and electricity predate the concept of energy that unified these transitional forms. The choice of units is often dictated by convenience of calculation. For example, a common unit of electromagnetic energy is electronvolt (eV). When using silicon- based solar cells to convert light into electricity, it takes a bit more than 1 eV photon to move an electron across the band gap between the valance and conduction bands. This energy could also be expressed in Joules (unit of energy), but instead of a number close to 1 eV we would be using a number close to 21019 J.
1. Mechanical Energy : Transitional mechanical energy is work. Stored

mechanical energy includes potential energy, which a position in a force field such as an elevated mass in a gravitational field. Other stored mechanical energies are kinetic (position in an inertial field), compressed gases, elastic strain, and magnetic potential. Mechanical energy is expressed as both energy and power 2. Electrical Energy: [A, V], [Wh, kWh], [We , kWe , MWe ] Transitional electrical energy occurs due to electron flow, which is expressed as current with units of Amperes. Stored electrical energy includes electrical potential in an electrostatic field and electrical potential in an inductive field, i.e. magnetic field. Electrical energy is often expressed in terms of power [We , kWe , MWe ] and power-time [Wh, kWh]. The latter is an expression for energy. 3. Nuclear Energy: There is no known transitional nuclear energy. Stored energy is in the form of atomic mass; Nuclear energy is converted to other forms by particle interaction with or within an atomic nucleus. Nuclear energy is expressed a variety of units, but the most common for power generation is MeV/reaction. There are three nuclear reactions that will be discussed. Radioactive decay: an unstable nucleus decays to a more stable nucleus releasing electromagnetic energy and particles. Fission: a heavy-mass nucleus absorbs a neutron and then splits into two or more lighter-mass nuclei with a release of electromagnetic energy and particles.
9

ECEG-4405-Applied Energy Conversion

AMU

Fusion: two light-mass nuclei combine to form a stable, heavier-mass nuclei with a release of electromagnetic energy 4. Electromagnetic: [J, eV, MeV] Transitional electromagnetic energy is radiation waves that travel at the speed of light. Visible, Infrared (IR) and ultraviolet(UV) light are all transitional electromagnetic energy. There is no known stored electromagnetic energy. Electromagnetic energy is expressed in terms of electron volts [eV] or mega- electron volts [MeV. Charge electromagnetic: [J, eV, MeV] Transitional electromagnetic energy is radiation waves that travel at the speed of light. Visible, Infrared (IR) and ultraviolet (UV) light are all transitional electromagnetic energy. There is no known stored electromagnetic energy. The most energetic wavelengths are short (high frequency). Gamma: most energetic; emanates from atomic nuclei X-ray: next most energetic; produced by excitation of orbital electrons Thermal (IR to UV): visible spectrum of light; produced by atomic vibrations micro- & millimeter waves: radar and microwaves; produced by electrical discharge.
5. Chemical: There is no known transitional chemical energy. Stored

energy is in the form of chemical potential and is typically expressed in units of energy per volume (molar) or energy per mass. Conversion of chemical energy is the most important to society because this includes chemical conversion to thermal energy (combustion) and chemical conversion from electromagnetic energy (photosynthesis). If energy is released during conversion of chemical energy the process is considered exothermic, while endothermic indicates energy is absorbed during the conversion process. 6. Thermal: All forms of energy can be completely converted (100%) into thermal energy, but the reverse is not true. For example, all stored mechanical energy in a moving automobile can be converted to thermal energy by friction via the brakes. Transitional thermal energy is heat and is generally expressed as energy.Stored thermal energy is sensible and latent heat and is expressed in units of energy per mass [Btu/lbm, kJ/kg] Forms of Energy Although there are many ways to classify energy, we will discuss eleven forms of energy. The first three forms of energy are related to the energy of motion associated with moving objects, atoms, and molecules.

10

ECEG-4405-Applied Energy Conversion

AMU

Mechanical Energy of Motion: Moving objects exhibit mechanical energy of motion, also called kinetic energy. A ball thrown through the air or a car travelling down a road has mechanical energy of motion. Thermal Energy: Energy of motion occurs within an object as its atoms and molecules vibrate randomly. Thermal energy is the unorganized energy of motion of vibrating objects too small to see. The faster the atoms and molecules in a substance vibrate, the more thermal energy the substance has and thehigher its temperature. Sound Energy: When atoms and molecules vibrate in an organized manner, their vibrations may travel as a wave. Sound is the transmission of vibrations through a solid, liquid, or gas by vibrating atoms or molecules. When sound waves reach our eardrums, the energy in the sound waves causes our eardrums to vibrate. Our brains interpret the vibrations as sounds.

Matter contains positive and negative charges. Forms of energy that result from the forces between these charges are called electromagnetic energy. We can distinguish three forms of electromagnetic energy. Electrical Energy: Electrical energy results from the forces between charged particles. These electrical forces exist between charged particles at rest and in motion. Magnetic Energy: Charges moving within some types of materials produce magnetic forces. These magnetic forces are in addition to the electrical forces between moving charges. Magnetic materials are called magnets and attract or repel one another due to their magnetic forces. A coil of wire with charges moving through it acts like a magnet and is called an electromagnet. Radiant Energy: While vibrations of matter produce thermal and sound energy, radiant energy results from vibrations of charges. Radiant energy is another name for waves of electromagnetic energy. For example, the suns energy is transported to Earth as waves of radiant energy. Radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, light waves, X-rays and cosmic rays are all waves of radiant energy. Stored energy, which can be used to do work, is called potential energy. We consider five types of potential energy. Gravitational Potential Energy: When a rock is raised above the Earth and released, the gravitational attraction between the rock and the Earth causes the rock to fall to the ground. A raised object has gravitational potential energy.

Strain Potential Energy: If we stretch or compress a spring and release it, the spring moves back toward its original length. The
11

ECEG-4405-Applied Energy Conversion

AMU

stretched or compressed spring has strain potential energy because it has the potential to move. Chemical Potential Energy: Chemical potential energy exists because atoms and molecules can take in or give off energy when their chemical bonds are formed or broken. Electrical Potential Energy: Electrical potential energy is stored when positive and negative electric charges are separated. The amount of stored energy depends on the number of separated charges and the distance they are separated. Nuclear Energy: In nuclear reactions, energy is given off or taken in by atomic nuclei. Energy is available from the nuclei of atoms that are radioactive and undergo nuclear changes

Measures of Energy - Units & Equivalences

1. British thermal unit [Btu]: energy required to raise the temperature of

1 lbm of water at 68 o F by 1 oF. 1 Btu= 1055 J 1 Btu/s = 1.055 kW 1 Btu/hr = 0.2930711 W 2. Joule [J]: equivalent of 1 N of force exerted over a distance of 1 m. 1 J _ 0.2388 cal (IT) 1 J = 1 N.m = 6.2421018 eV 1 J/s = 1 W 1 kWh = 3.6 106 J 3. calorie [cal]: energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 oC. This is the International Table (IT) definition used by engineers and 1 cal = 4.1868J

12

ECEG-4405-Applied Energy Conversion

1 ft in 1 minute. 1 hp =746 W 1 hp.hr = 2.68 106 J = 0.746 kWh 1lbm= 0.454 kg

AMU

4. horsepower [hp]: power of a typical horse able to raise 33,000 lbm by

Energy Conversions Often the form of energy most readily available is not the most useful form. Coal can be burned to provide heat, but converting the chemical energy stored in coal into electrical energy requires a series of intermediate steps. In each step of the conversion process, some energy is wasted. The following examples of energy conversions preview some of them.
1. Electrical Energy- Mechanical Energy of Motion

The model electric train illustrates the conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy of motion. Electrical energy, which operates the train, is generated at a power plant. The electric motor in the trains engine transforms that electrical energy into mechanical energy of motion. Since electrical energy is delivered to the train at a nearly constant rate, the train slows down as it climbs an incline because energy is required to lift the train up as well as to move it forward. As the train climbs the incline, some of its mechanical energy of motion is converted into gravitational potential energy. 2. Mechanical Energy of Motion Electrical Energy Although we cannot easily store large amounts of electrical energy, electricity can be continuously transferred to us from a generating plant, example hydro power plant.
3. Thermal Energy Radiant Energy

The lanterns gas flame has a high temperature but gives off very little visible light. To convert its thermal energy into visible radiant energy, the lantern has a mantle of knitted fabric soaked with heavy metal oxides.
4. Electrical Energy Thermal Energy The conversion of electrical energy into thermal energy is the most common energy conversion in our household appliances. Many appliances, such as toasters, hair dryers, and electric heaters, convert electrical energy into useful thermal energy. Appliances designed for purposes other than providing heat waste energy by converting some of their electrical energy into undesirable thermal energy, giving the warmth you feel when you touch an operating television or computer. 5. Thermal Energy Mechanical Energy of Motion Appliances, such as toasters and hair dryers, contain thermostats to regulate their temperature. Some thermostats illustrate the conversion of thermal energy into mechanical energy of motion. A bimetallic strip consists of two 13

ECEG-4405-Applied Energy Conversion

AMU

layers of different metals, which react differently when they are heated. The metal in one layer of the strip expands more when heated than does the metal in the other layer, causing the strip to bend. When a bimetallic strip is heated to a critical temperature, the strip bends until it opens a switch, which interrupts the flow of electric current and turns off the appliance.
6. Electrical Energy Radiant Energy Example light bulb 7. Radiant Energy Electrical Energy

Solar cells convert radiant energy from the sun into electrical energy.
8. Mechanical Energy of MotionThermal Energy Mechanical energy of motion is converted into thermal energy when surfaces rub together, producing friction between the objects. 9. Magnetic Energy Gravitational Energy If two magnets are placed on top of one another with their like poles facing, the magnets repel each other. We can feel this force when we do work to push the top, floating magnet closer to the bottom magnet. When we release the floating magnet, some magnetic energy is converted into mechanical energy of motion and gravitational potential energy as the magnet moves upward and float 10. Chemical Potential Energy Electrical Energy Perhaps the most common energy storage device is the battery. Batteries store chemical potential energy, which is converted into electrical energy when the battery operates. 11. Chemical Potential Energy Thermal Energy When substances burn, their stored chemical energy is converted into thermal energy and into visible and invisible radiant energy. Burning natural gas, coal, and petroleum products is one of our most economically important energy conversion processes. 12. Radiant Energy Chemical Potential Energy Plants convert radiant energy from the sun into stored chemical energy through the process of photosynthesis. Nuclear energy produced in the Suns core radiates away from the Sun in all directions. Some of this radiant energy strikes the Earth and is absorbed by plants. Plant cells use radiant energy to produce chemical energy in the form of carbohydrates. When we consume plants, our bodies convert their stored chemical energy into energy stored in our bodies.

Role of Energy Conservation Energy conservation can and must play an important role in future energy use and the consequent impact on the environment. It is clear that in order to meet the ever growing energy needs of the world, we
14

ECEG-4405-Applied Energy Conversion

AMU

will need to use all of the available resources including fossil fuels, nuclear and RE sources for the next 2040 years. However, we will need to convert these energy resources more efficiently. It is also clear that renewable resources will have to continue to increase their share of the total energy consumption. There are many new developments in the conversion technologies for solar, wind, biomass, and other RE resources. In addition, there are newer and improved technologies for the conversion of fossil fuel and nuclear resources. This lecture note provides a wealth of information about the latest technologies for the direct and indirect conversion of energy resources into other forms such as thermal, mechanical, and electrical energy.

15

ECEG-4405-Applied Energy Conversion

AMU

Efficiency of Energy Conversion The efficiency of energy conversion is based on the notion of useful work. That is, some of the energy being converted is not converted into the desired form. Most often, the undesired conversion is to low-grade thermal energy. The general definition of efficiency can be expressed as the ratio of useful energy output to energy input. The National Energy Strategy reflects a National commitment to greater efficiency in every element of energy production and use. Greater energy efficiency can reduce energy costs to consumers, enhance environmental quality, maintain and enhance our standard of living, increase our freedom and energy security, and promote a strong economy. To make further progress toward a sustainable energy future, Administration policy encourages investments in energy efficiency and fuel flexibility in key economic sectors. By focusing on market barriers that inhibit economic investments in efficient technologies and practices, these programs help market forces continually improve the efficiency of our homes, our transportation systems, our offices, and our factories. In all energy conversions, some energy is wasted. However, some energy conversion processes require a large amount of energy in to obtain a small amount of energy out. Such conversion processes are inefficient. Reducing energy costs requires efficient energy conversions, which waste the least energy. For example, an incandescent light bulb converts electrical energy into radiant energy in the forms of visible light and infrared radiation. While the visible light is useful, the infrared radiation is wasted. The wasted infrared radiation can be felt as heat when you hold your hand near the bulb. Part of this infrared radiation goes into increasing the thermal energy of the light bulb glass, which is very hot if touched. Fluorescent lights are more efficient than incandescent bulbs because they produce the same amount of visible light but much less infrared radiation.

16

ECEG-4405-Applied Energy Conversion

AMU

The efficiency of an energy conversion process equals the ratio of the amount of energy of the desired type produced per total amount of energy put into the conversion process. Efficiency = Useful Energy Out/ Total Energy In Since every energy conversion process wastes some energy, the efficiency ratio for any energy conversion process is less than one the useful energy out is always less than the total energy put in. Example 2.1 illustrates the calculation of energy efficiency using joules of energy, the usual unit of energy measurement

In the above definition, the word useful is the key. If a conversion system involves multiple devices and/or several stages, the quantity of "useful" energy can be very different for different devices and/or at different stages. For example, a typical coal-fired power plant will have steam boilers (85% ECE) that drives stream turbines (45% ECE) which are connected to electric generators (95% ECE). The overall system efficiency actually is: 36%. Therefore, the efficiency of the system is always lower than any one of the efficiencies of the individual components of the system.

17

ECEG-4405-Applied Energy Conversion

AMU

18

ECEG-4405-Applied Energy Conversion

AMU

Energy storage. Energy can be stored in many forms. Chemical potential energy is stored in fuels such as coal, wood, and food, or in the chemicals in batteries and fuel cells. Phosphorescent materials store some of the energy they absorb from visible light. After a time delay, they convert this energy back into visible light. Often energy storage involves energy conversions. Winding a music box stores the mechanical energy of motion of our arms motion as strain potential energy in the music box spring. Gravitational potential energy is stored by raising an object to a higher level. Unfortunately, electrical energy cannot easily be stored in large amounts. For this reason, generating plants must produce and transmit electrical energy as consumers require it. As you have learnt in previous courses , it is possible to store electrical potential energy in devices called capacitors. For example, cameras use capacitors to store electrical potential energy and then release the energy quickly to produce a flash. But capacitors are not practical for storing large amounts of electrical energy. Chemical, thermal, mechanical and nuclear are the primary methods of storing large amounts of energy. Chemical energy is stored in petroleum, biomass, and chemical compounds and elements. Thermal energy is stored in all mass as sensible and latent heat. There are several important considerations when storing energy. 1. the ability to reconvert the stored energy, 2. the rate at which the stored energy may be converted, and 3. the rate at which stored energy decays. The ability, or inability, to convert stored energy limits the forms of energy that may be utilized in each technology. For example, automobiles rely upon the chemical energy stored in gasoline or diesel fuel. Approximately 7500 gallons of gasoline are required over the lifetime of an automobile, which corresponds to 21,142 kg of gasoline . If the nuclear energy stored as mass were used instead of chemical energy, then only 0.1 g of gasoline would be required, but the stored nuclear energy in gasoline cannot be converted to other forms in any simple manner. The rate at which energy can be converted to another form is an important consideration when coupling various technologies. For example, flywheels may be used to store mechanical energy (kinetic), but the rate at which work can be converted to kinetic energy and the subsequent discharge rate are limited by the inertia of the flywheel. Generally, a relatively long time is required to fully charge a flywheel and the rate of discharge is equally long. In contrast, capacitors can charge and discharge relatively rapidly, but the energy storage capability is significantly less than a flywheel. Finally, energy cannot be stored
19

ECEG-4405-Applied Energy Conversion

AMU

indefinitely. Biomass contains substantial stored chemical energy, yet this will decompose to a less useful material with time. Similarly, flywheels will lose energy due to friction. The rate of self-discharge is an important consideration in coupling energy storage technologies with energy.

20