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,.DIGiTAL DATA

PROCESSING I N

RADIO

ASTRONOMY"

Trlesis subniitied to the

Universiiy of Auckland

for the ciegree of

Doctor oi" Phi'losophy

by

Mark David Apperley

Department

of Ejectrical

Engineering

August

1971.

ACKNOl^JLEDGEI{ENTS

The work desc'ribed

in this thesis

was

carried out at the School of

Technical assistance

Engineering, University of Auck'land, under the superv'ision of Mr B. Egan, Senior Lecturer, Department
was provided by Mr
Uni

of Electrical Eng'ineering.
was

P. E. Do'ig. The project

ttee.

financially supported by the

versi

ty Grants

Cor,lmi

CONTENTS
Page

No.
INTRODUCTION

I
THE
II'ITERFEROMETER

CHAPTER

1:

AS

RADIO

TELESCOPE

6
7

1.1

1.2 1.3

t.4
1..5

Partial Coherence Properties of the Receiving

Correlation or l4ultiplying Interferometers The Incident Radiation and the Analytic Signal The Spatial Frequency Concept The Mutual Coherence Function and the Theory of
System

9 11 L2

15

1.6 L.7 1.8 1.9

1.10
CHAPTER

The General Response Relationship The Special Case of an Incoherent Source Source Position l,leasurement with the Co*elation

t7
19 24

Interferometer

source Diameter Measurement and Aperture synthesis Confusion in Interferometry

2:

25 29
31 31

THE SENSITIVITY OF

CORRELATION INTERFEROMETERS

2.r
2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.L0
CHAPTER

Antenna Noise Tenperature Equiva'lent Noise Bandwidth

32 34 37
39 42 47

of a square Law Detector to a l,loise Input Characteristics of a Synchronous Detector Characteristics of an Ana'logue Multiplier The sensitivity of a phase-Switched Interferometer The Sensitivity of a Direct Multiplication Interferometer
The Response

Lfmitations and

Assumptions

48 50
52 56

Comparison With 0ther Results The Effect of Repeated Observations

3:

THE

INTERFEROI,IETER

IN AN EQUATORIAL SYSTEM OF

COORDINATES

3.1

3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6

3.7

The Equatorial Coordinate System The Measurement of Time

56 57

Solar and Sidereal Time Intervals Right Ascension and Sidereal Time The Right Ascens.ion of the Sun The Output of an Interferometer in Terms of the Equatoria'l Coordinates of a Source Coordinates of the Interferometer pole

58
59
61 61

66

Page

No.
CHAPTER

4:

THE SPECIFICATION OF
The

DATA PROCESSING

SYSTEM

68
6B

4.L 4.2 4.3 4.4

CHAPTER

University of Auckland Radio Telescope The Function of a Data processing System The specific Requirements of the 200MHz Interferometer A General Description of the Data Acquisition system

79
BO

B4

5:

FILTERING AND SAMPLING THE INTERFEROMETER OUTPUT The 0utput Spectrum of a correlation Interferometer Analogue Fi ltering Techniques

89
B9
93

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6

5.7

ng and Frequency A'l i as i ng Di gi ta1 Fi I teri ng Techni ques General Fi'lteri ng Considerations The Dynamic Range rf a Quantizer The Effect of Aperture Time on the Dynamic Range of a Quantizer
Sampl i

98

L02
110
111

113

CHAPTER

6:

THE DESIGN AND

CONVERTER

DEVELOPMENT

OF

AN

ANALOGUE-TO-DIGITAL 116
116

6.1

The

6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9

CHAPTER

specification of an Anarogue-to-Digitai converter

A survey of Analogue-to-Digital convension l4ethods The Digital-to-Analogue Decoder sign Determination and vortage comparison circuits
The Programming Logic The Input Amplifier The Digftal Output and Display Mechanical Details of the Analogue-to-Digital converter The Performance of the Analogue-to-Digita] converter
7:

120

L25
130
133

14s 150

152
155

7.r
7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9
7

THE GENEMTION OF SOLAR AND SIDEREAL TIME COORDINATES 157 Resolution, Stability and Accuracy Requirements of the 157
Coordi nates

of Solar and sidereal Time Intervals The Development of a Standard Frequency Oscilrator The Solar/Sidereal Digital Clock
The Generation

1s8
159 168 169

The Solar and Sidereal Frequency Dividers Time Keeping and Dispiay Circuits

t72
174
180 184
1BB

.70

Clock Control Circuits Control of the Agquisition process Physical Characterist.ics of the Solar/Sidereal Ctock The Performance of the Solar/Sidereal Digital Clock

t,

Page

No.
CHAPTER

B:

THE PAPER TAPE

Requirements Grouping

RECORDING sYsTEM

190

8.1

of the Multiplexing

System

8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8

CHAPTER

of the Data into Eight_Bit Bytes The Development of the Digital Multiplexer Phys'ical characteristics of the Digita'l Multiplexer The Requirements of the Tape punch Unit The Development of a punch Control Unit
The Tape punch power Supply Tape Punch Mechanical Details

190

192
194

202
205
207
21,L

2L4
?Tg

9: A

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

OF THE DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM

9.1

9.2 9.3
CHAPTER

Acquisjtion System The Operation of the Acquisition System Physical characteristics of the Acquisition
The Complete
10:

2t9
221

system

22s
228 228 233

THE DATA ANALYSIS

SYSTEM

10.1

Storage Requirements

L0.2 10.3

10.4
CHAPTER 11:

Analysis Requirements 0utput Requirements A General Description of the Analysis

THE ANALYSIS SYSTEM
INPUT/OUTPUT

235
System
237

239 239 25L 254

11.1

7L.2
11.3

The Paper Tape Storage process The Numerical Data 0utput

11.4
CHAPTER

The Storage of Data from punched Cards The Graphical 0utput program

254
259 259 265

L2: THE COMPUTER

The

ANALYSiS

OF THE

INTERFEROMETER DATA

L2.L L2.2

Rejection

(a)

of Data Marred by Extraordinary Noise By Consideration of-Collateral Daia Foints

The The The

t2.3
12.4
CHAPTER

Rejection of Data Marred by Extraordfnary Noise (b) By Consideration oisequential Data points Averaging of Several Collateral Sets of Data

Digital Filter
RESULTS

268
27L

SOME OBSERVATIONAL

275

13 .1

13.2
13

Acquisition and Storage of the The Analysis of the Data

The
Concl usi ons

Data

275

276 289

.3

Page

No.
APPENDIX

1:

DATA A.CQUISITI0N SysTEM spEclFICATT0N

The Analogue-to-Digital Converter The Solarlsidereal Digital Clock

?9t
291
2s2 293

41.

.4L,2 A1.3

The Paper Tape Punch

Con,trol

4i,.4
APPENDIX

294 ags
295
.

2z

DATA PROOESSING sysrEM 0PERATI0N INsrRUcrIONs

. A2,L
42.2 42,3
APPENDIX

Stanting the Data Acquisition System Recorrding Data w,ith the Acquisition Sy.stem
Processing the Recorded,Data 3:

300 302
SI,JITCH

THE DESIGN

0F A 200MHz PHASE REVERSING USING GERMANIUM SI.IITCHING DIODES

ANTENNA

306

APPENDIX 4: AFPENDIX

THE EACKFIRE

311 FILTERS

5:

THE ANALYSIS OF SOME LOI,I-PASS

The

3t7
317 32A 323 327 336

45.1

45.2 45.3 45.4 45.5

APPENDIX

Ideal Low-Poss Filter The Ideal Integrating Low-pass Filter The Simple (first Order) nC Fitter
The General Second 0rder N Isolated RC Filters
6:

Fitter
TIME

THE OALCULATION OF LOCAL SIDEREAL

AFPENDIX APPENDIX AFPENDIX

7: 8: 9:

DATA PR0cEssINrG sysrEN cOMpurER PROGRAM LISTINGS

34V

LOGIC CIRCUIT

SYMB0LS

SOME ADDITIONAL CIRCUIT DETAILS

381

1.

IiITRODUCTIOiI
in raciio astronomy at ihe University of Aucklanci School of Engineering has been in progress for a nerioC of six years. The program tvas init'iated prinrarily to provide a variety of topics for posi-graduate research 'in the Departrnent of ilecirical Eng'ineering, and at the same tinre to develop a useful radio te'lescope installation. In'itial vrork tvas concentraied on the development of antenna arrays (Ljnt,1968) and low noise receivers at, a frequency of 42l1Hz, ut'i1is'ing both phase-switched and correlation interferomerer prinResearch

ciples (Irving, L966; Yamall, i968; Saunders, 1968). At the beginning of 1969, the
Department moved from

its

into the centre of.Auckland city. As no alternative field the te1escope was also moved, but space limitations meant that the city site was inadequate for any usefu'l observations at 42F1Hz. It became clear that to utilise the site more ful'ly a higher observation frequency would be necessary, and a frequency of 200t'1Hz rrlas clrosen, as this was the upper linit of most of the ava'ilable'laboratory equipment, yi stj'11 rvithin the range of semiconducror cievices. In view of the inadequacies of the site, it lvas obvious tirat the perfonnance of the system could be s1gnificantly improved by process'ing the output in a digita'l computer.
The concept

former cc*iriry sire site was available,

of digital data processing in radio astronomy is by no means novel; since ear'ly in the development of radio telescopes d'igital data reductiorr techn'iques have been used extensjvely in this field (Heeschen, 1961; Kraus et al, 1966; Hobbs and Haddock,1967). It is on'ly through the use of such processing that the powerful technique of aperture synthesis (Ryle et al, 1965) has been
devel oped.

of a digital computer in a sirnpie observation program is in the combination of a number of observations, a task vrhich can be perfornred manually but is both tedious and time consuming. Holever the availabi'lity of digital computing facilities opens possibilit'ies for other forms of processing,
The most obvious use

such as

filtering the data digitally

manipulations of

(Cooper, 1970) and the complex mathematical source extractfon (Kraus et al,1966; von Hoerner, 1967).

Radio telescope digital data systems have genera'l1y been designed to repiace analogue recording equipment (l4cLaughiin, 1962; Drake, 1960) although for large telescopes, modern trends are towards on-line computers integrated with the

2.

perform both data acquisition and pointing contro'|. (Cole and Shimmins, 1971; Beard et al, 1967). A recent review of data processing in radio astronomy (Clark,1970) states that the design of a data processing system for a radio te'lescope is 'a matter of simp'ly deciding what you want, and sitting down and building the system to produce it'. Because the design of such systems has generaliy been directed along these lines, the small quantity of literature available on the subject tends to be descriptive, and no general methods of approach have been established.

telescope

to

This thesis describes the design and development of a general data processing system for the University of Auckland radio telescope. The present te'lescope operates at a frequency of 200MHz in a phase-swi:tched interferometer configuration, but the design of the data system has been kept sufficiently f'lexible to cope with most future alterations and extensions proposed for the telescope.

for the digita] processing of experimental data can be divided into three stages: reduction, storage, and analysis. In a radio telescope the
Any system

by the antenna-receiver system, which usually produces a slow1y fluctuating output. The time variation of this output contains information concerning the position, shape and brightness of radio sources in the antenna beam. This output is digitised and stored in a computer for analysis. In the combination of a number of observations from different days, it is most convenient to record the data on a machine-readable medium, a temporary storage process, to be later stored in a digital computer for analysis. The system developed uses punched paper tape for this intermediate storage medium because it is compatible with the available computer.

reduction

is performed

feature of the system described is the recording of local sidereal time as a coordinate to the interferometer data. Because the bulk of the information contained fn the interferometer output is in its time variation, much of this information is lost if a time reference is not avai'lable. For a constant dec'lination angle, a radio source which is fixed with respect to the stars will be observed once every siderea'l day, and hence sidereal time is the most useful coordinate to use.
The unique

The contents

of the thesis

may be convenient'ly

divided into three sections.

(a)

The development of the generai theory of interferometric radio scopes and the establishment of the requirements of the data processing system.

tele-

J.

(b)

The design arrd developmeni of tlie acqu'is'ition portion of the system, that part of ihe system rvhich records tire output of the interferometer on compuier readable punched paper tape.

(c)
In

A discuss'ion of the computer programs developed processing operations required of the system.

to

perform the basic

Chapters 1-4 the

relationship betr,reen the output of a radio'interferometer

and the radiation inciCent on its antennas is developed, anci it is shown hovt the output can be used to produce an innge of the radio sources present in the antenna beanr. The sensitivity I irilitations of such an instrument are d'iscussed and it is demonstrated that the sensitiv'ity can be inrproved by conbining the results of several independent observa'ujons of a source. The input-outpu'u relationships are appl ied to a source 'in the nornral astronornical coord'inate

system, and the relationship betvreen the time variation of the interferome'uer output and the coordinates of a source is establjshed. In the light of t,hese relationshjps, the Univers'ity of Auckland telescope is examined and tlte requirements of a digitai data processing sysiem are cieveloped.

of the acquisition portion of the system is covered in detail in Chapters 5-8. The effect on the performance of the system of d'igitising the interferometer output is examined, together with the filtering required of the data. The results of this investigation are applied to the design of the analogue-to-d'igital converter for the system. A digital clock, described in Chapter 7, produces coord'inates in both solar and sidereal time, and can be programmed to automaticaliy control the operation of the acquisition system. A digital mult'iplexer is described which controls the format and punching of botlt the coordinates and the digitised data on to paper tape. An overall descript'ion of the acquisition system and its operation is given'in Chapter 9.
The design The computer programs, l.rhich form an development, are described in Chapters puting system is described and the requirements of the softl.Jare established. Chapter 11 gives details of the programs developed to control the storage of the data from the paper tape, a process which is essential'ly automatic and self checking. Details of some ana'lysis programs developed to combine and filter the

integral part of the system, and their 10-12. The University of Auckland com-

Cata, are given

Some

in Chapter 12.

observational resu'lts obtained with the systenr are discussed in Chapter 13, and these are evaluated in lighr of the performance expected of ihe
system.

4.
REFERENCES

3EARD, i-4.,1'10Ri140T0,

lvl., and HEDGES, P. (tg0Z): "The Computer". Proc. LR.E.E. Aust. on the Culgoora Radio tleiiograph, ?8 pp. 345-352.

CLARK,

8.G., (1970): "Infornration-Processing Systems in Rad'io Astronomy and Astronomy". Ann. Rev. Astron. Ap., B pp. i15-138.
and SHIMllIilS, A.J. (197i): "A Tirne and Frequency System for Use at the Aus-ura]ian f,lational Radio Astronomy 0bservatory". Proc. I.R.E.E.

C0LE,

D.J.,

Aust., 31 pp. t2-t6

COOPER,

B.F.C. (tgZO): "Post Detector Filtering in Radiometry". Proc. I.R.E.E. Aust.,31 pp.41-48

DRAKE,

F.D. (1960): "Radio-Astronomy Radiometers and Their Calibration". In "Te1escopes", Kuiper, G.P., and Middlehurst, B.M. eds., (Un'iversity

of
HEESCHEN,

Chicago Press, Chicago).

D.S. (1961): "Observations of radio sources at four frequencies". Ap. J. 133 pp. 322-334.

H0BBS, R.l^J., and HADDOCK,

Components

of

"Measurements Radio Sources at a Wave'length

F.T. (tg0Z):

of the Lineariy Polarised of 3.75 cm". Ap. J., 147

pp. 908-911.
IRVillG,

J.R. (1966): "A Total

Auckl and
.

Power

Radiometer". M.E. Thesis, University of

KMUS, J.D.

, DIXON, R.S. ,

and FISHER,

R.0. (1966): "A

New

Study

of the M31 Region at

1415

l4c/s". Ap. J.,

High-Sensitivity I44 pp. 559-567.

LIM, ,1.C. (1968): "Non-Uniformiy Spaced Arrays of Directional E'lements". Ph.D. Thesis, University of Auckland.
McLAUGHLIT'I,

J.C. (1962): "A Data Digitising

Tel escope"

M. Sc

Thesi

and Processing System 0hi o State Un'iversi ty.

for a Radio

RYLE,

M.,

"observations of Radio Galaxies with the One Mile Telescope at Cambridge". Nature,207
ELSMoRE,

8., and NEVILLE, A.C. (1965):

pp. I0?4-L027.
SAUNDERS,

"A Design Study of the Correlation Radioneter". 14.E. Thesis, University of Auckland.
A.l'1.

(i968):

5.

VOi\i

HOERNEF.,

S.

(1967)

"Least Squares

Fit of a Gaussian to

Radio Sources".

Ap.
YARRALL,

J.,

147

pp. 467-470.

J.l'.l. (196S): "A 12i,1lz Rad jonrerer Using Metal 0xide Fielcj-Effecr Transistors and Integrated Circu'its,'. M.E. Thesis, University of
Auckl and.

6.
CIIAPT:R

The Interferorileter as a Raciio Telescope

The output

of a corelatibn interferorneter is a conrplex function of

the

propert'ies of ilte jncident r aCiaijon anC the receiv'ing systen. This cirapter develops a relationshjp betleen this ourput anC the inc'ideni field'in ierms of tlte properties of the receiving system. A general relationship is establ'ished for the response of a tlo elenrent correlation jnterfenometer to an incident part'ia'l1y coherent fie1d, rnrith no restrictions on the bandr.ridth of

the receiving systern or the antenna propert'ies. It is shorvn hol^l a'knowledge of this relationship can be used to determine the position, size and f1ux ciensity of a source in the more particular case of an incoherent field, and how it can be used to develop the princip'les of aperture synthesis.

of a radio telescope is to measure the intensity and distribution of rad'iatlon received fronr various parts of the sky. The basic radjo teiescope consists of three principal elernents - an antenna system, a receiver,
The function and a measuring dev'ice. The antenna systen collects radio waves incicient upon it from a particular direction, having a particular polarisation, and within a

particular frequency range. The energy collected by the antenna is delivered to the input of the rece'iven, l.rhich amp'lifies and detects those components within its pass-band, and the resultant fluctuat'ion of the measuring device is an indication of the power incldent on the antenna.

limiting factors of any radio ielescope are its sensitiv'ity and its resolution. Most celestial radio sources are relat'ive1y weal< (flux density -10-2u V!/nt/Hz) and of smal'l anguiar size (.10 diameter). The sensitivity of a teiescope is limited by the fact that the rad'iation received from celestial
The two

incoherent and thus 'indistinguishab'le from the background radiation received by the antenna, and noise originating in the receiver itself. The resolution is'limited in that a telescope cannot resolve a profile which is naffower than its beamrvidth. As.the beamvlidth of an antenna in any plane is related to its aperture dimension in that p'lane, and'independent of its collecting area, resolution can be increased by spacing two antennas some distance apart in an interferometer.

objects

is

7.
1

.1

Correl at j on

or

I'lul

t'iplyi ng i n-uerfero,rreiers

radio interferometer consists of -urvo antennas at the ends of a long transmission 1ine, r.''ith a receiver connecied io the midpo'int in such a llunner that jts input voltage is proportional to the sum of the voltages at the tt'ro aniennas. For a source moving jn the plane of the baseline, ihe recepiion pat'uern contajns a "fringe" co;:rnonent caused by the interference of waves arrivjng at the tws ends of the baseline, modulated by a cornponent varying more slotvly r,'tith position, anci corresponding to the radiation pattern of a single
antenna. The phase-switched interferometer (Ryle, 1952) has the advantage that it, discriminates against background radiat'ion received by tlre antennas. The tlvo antenna vo'itages are effective'ly nrultiplied together, so that the output of the

The basic additive

receiver

proportjona'l to the product of the two antenna voltages. A b'lock diagram of this system 'is shown in Figure 1.1.

is

yt.r j

PHASE

ILOW-PAS5 I FtLl i.n

FiSrure

1.1: The phase-slitched

interferometer

Multiplication is achieved by alternately adding the turo antenna voltages in phase and in antiphase, measuring the poh,er in each case, and averaging this power. If the instantaneous voltage at antenna 1 is vr and that at antenna 2 is vz, then when these voltages are added in phase, the available power from the
combination, and the output from the square law detector is proportional to (vr+vz)2. Sim'ilanly in the antiphase case the ouiput from the square law detector is proportional to (vr -vr)'. The output of the synchronous detector-1ow pass fi'lter combination is the time average of the difference of these two voltages*

*Yhi,s

is

established

in C?npter

2.

'1 a

Vo0
=

((ur+vz)2 -1v,-v,))

( urt*urt*2v1v2-vf-v2

2+2v

1v

z)

(+v'v)
where

the angular brackets Cenote the

l'i

ma

average:
c/+\ .ut | \ L,' .l+

(tttl)

1l LII

r+T

lr i-r

Later versions of this system use a direct analogue multipf ic.ation techn'ique and have been ca1'led correlation interferometers (Saunders, i968). A block d'iagram of such a system is shown in Figure 1.2.

MULTIPLIER

OUTPUT

Figure

1.2:

The

correlation interferometer

can be seen that the output of this system is also the time average of the product of the instantaneous antenna voltages. Both of these systems ni11 hereafter be referred to as correlation'interferometers, of the phase switched and direct multiplication types

It

that the output voltages of the two antennas contain a correiated component vsr cduSed by radiation from a celestial source, and an uncorrelated component vu caused by the diffuse background radiation, then the output of a correlation interferometer will.be given by
Assuming

Voo

(ur.ur)
(vq1+vur ) . (vcz+vu'))

(u., vcz+vc r vu r*vu, v. r+vu, vu.)

(.,u.') + (.,uu')* (u,v..)* (uu,urr)

, It
sf
t'he time averoge

.9.

is taken over a sufficiently

long period, the products

the uncsrrelated conrponents wi'll average to zero

i.e.,
(1.1)

rlll- u, =
vt

(il.ro"r)

a noise fluctuation superir,nposed on v6 which will llimit the sItsitivt'W of the telesco,pe. The' sensitivity of a direct mult{ptrieation interferorneter will be greater than that of the phase-strttched varierty, a.s the noise voltage anisin9 ln the receiver of the latter will gtve csrrelate.d. voltaEes when refert^ed; back to the antennas. In addition, ':ln the phase-sl+{'tched interferometer, obs,ervatlons of (vr+vr) and (vr-vz) ane made alternately, so that the observation time is effectively ha'lved.
1,2
.The electric field of the r.adiatisn'incident on the earth l^e"presented by E(g"rn,,[rt], where {,0 fi and n are the cosines of

will intnoduce

The averaging period 2T wil'l a'lways be finite (fo'r jnstance sbservatisns of and v2 are lirnited to a finite intenval), and t,he unco,rrelated produ,ct terms

at tirne t

can be

direction with

respect to,a Cartesiansystem general complex.

of eoor^drinates,

(see,Fi,gure 1.3) and whel.e E

is

i:n,

m: n:

color cos/3 CoEf

Figyre, f

.S:

The coor.dinete syste.nr

The followlng ass.umBtions can be rnade ahout the dis,trnibu,tion radiating sourcgs:

of

the

1n tu.

1. 2. 3.

The scurces are isolated froin the receiving antennas ('i

.e., the vJave-

fronts are pianar).

The sources are in time. The

stat'isti cal j n naiure and are stati stical 1y stationary

spatial distribution of the sources is one dinensjonal and the fielcjs tltemselves are scalar. The angular djstribution of the electric field of the incident radiation can thus be represenied by E(.0,t)The s'ignals from any one direction are not necessarily independent of the s i gnal s f rom a ny other d'i recti on .

4.

'its

'

If E(L,t)'is to be considered as a stationary random process in iinre, then temporai Fourier transform does not exist.* As the temporal transform is
to the follorving analysis,
_

necessary

a truncated function associated

.

difficulty is yrith E(t,t) as follows.

-ulris

circumvented by defining

-?,. Let E'([,t) be the real field quantity, then define EI(g,t), version as

its truncated

rf(l,t)=Er(g,t) , ltlsT
=Q
The

I
)

, ltltt

tt'21

analytic signal Er(g,t) associated with the truncated function

is

then

rrtu,rl=rf{t,t)+irri(s,t)
part
where the imaginary part,Ei(g,t) is the Hi'lbert transform** (Beran and Parrent, 1964;'D.un. and parrent, Lg6Z).

(1.3)

of the real

* **

The known

?(t) or r(t)
The

sufficient condition for the existence of the Fourier transform is that f(t) be square integrable (Beran and parrent, 1964).

Hilbert transform

i(t)

or a time function

x(t) is defined by

*rtl = * o{-gp-.o.
J
I

_6

where

pf

Oenotes

the Cauchy principal value (Beran and Parrent,1964; Drane

and

Parrent, 1962; Wozencraft, 1961).

11.

The Fourier

transfo* Ertl,f) ot
^'f* Er{r,,r) =
fJ _o

E(.q,,t) can then be defined

as

rr(r,t1E-jznft61

(1,4)

1.3

The Spatial Freguency ConceBt

In the case of monoehromatjc radlation tlre lncldent field

E(&,t) '= E(t)ei:?rft '

can be

writtel as

..

Considering a wave po:lari,sed in the plane of inc,idence (th,e XZ; plane) thdn I from Figure 1,.4 the hori,zontal ,compsnent sf the eleetrie field at a point distance x from the origin is
AI

E'(x) = E(1,)cost"j2nft.j?n

-')t

E(k)

Fiqure
Not'ing

1.4: Arr incident wave in the xz olane

and

tha,t d = *.sing.e x.0

cos = ,ffi,

thn
The

E'(x) = r(r,).Jznft
= E(e-,t)

trc

"ihrn'xl

, ,E:6E'..j2rlx/f
component)

total e'lectriE field at x (horizontal

is this quantity

E'(x) integrated over all e. If the radiation is. restricted to a snall area of sky near th,e zentth, as in the case of a hfghly directiona'l antenna, theh 4,2<{1 and the,'horizontal conponeht.,of the ,electric field on the grou,n'd is

L2.

e(x/r,t) = lE('q"t)
)

r-

uilnnx/xo!,
of E(L,t)
,

(1.5a)

But

this

has the fornr

of

the Fourier transform

e(u,t) =

f*
)

| E([,t)

"iZruLdL

(1.sb)

vthich is known as the spatial frequency spectrum of E(g,t). Comparing equations 1.5a and 1.5b it can be seen that if the spat'ial frequency u is interpreted.as wl ^i,1,, then the spatial frequency spectrum is the horizontal component of the

electric field on the ground.

By nreasuring

this quantity for ait values of x,

then E(.e,,t), the angular source distribution over a small monochromatic source can be obtained by Fourier transformation.

of Partia'l Coherence Radiation fields encountered in radio astronomy are statjstical in nature and can usual'ly be descrjbed in terms of Gaussian random processes. The statistical description of these fields forms the theory of partial coherence
The Mutual Coherence Function and the Theory (Beran and Parrent, 1964; Ko, 1.967; Hagfors and Moran, L970).
The mutua'l coherence funct'ion can be defined

I.4

in terms of the time

average

of the product of the compiex analytic signals from two different directions at two different times (Beran and Parrent, 1964)
Lim tIo a L\I,Lr/ezrLl-\ - T * _

+ | Er(er ,i)Ei(g.,t-t) .dt

J

.f@

=
nhere the angular brackets
novr

<r(tr,t)E*(.sr,t-r))
denote the

(1.6)

infinite time average

(r'D
and the superscript

Lim
l'+@

Tl

1l r+Tf (t).dt
)

-T

* denotes the

comp'lex conjugate.

(.(,,r) is identica] to the autocorrelation function of the radiation from direction .Q,.
1,1= Lz=L, then f

If

'l3.

(1.7a)

the temporal coherence function by some authors (Kon 1967; Hagfors and Moran, 1970) because it is related to coherence in the time domain only. Beran and Parrent (i964) call jt the self-coherence funct,ion. The tempora'l power spectrum can be obtained from this temporal coherence function using the hliener-[.,hinchin theorem (Helstron, 1960)
named

This has been

P(.t,,f;

l* I rt.q',t)e-J tTtr'tdr
J

(t.zu)

l,Jhen

power

t=0, the temporal coherence funct'ion is proportional to the incident from direction .Q, i.e., I([,0) is the brightness distribution of a source,

r(r,o)

= (t(t,t) .r*(l,t)) = (lE(r,t) l)

(t.41

The compiex degree of coherence mutual coherence function

f*(Lr,L",r) is defined as the normalised

(1.e)

f*(.cr,,tz,t) = f([r,Lz,r)/

and it can be seen direct'ly from the Schwarz inequa'lity (Kenney and Keepi ng, 1963) that

0 s I r, (f.r ,1,2, r)

l-<1

The extreme values of 1 and 0 correspond to the cases of complete coherence and complete 'incoherence respectively. In all other cases the radiation from the two directions.Q,l and 9a is said to be partial'ly coherent.

that a non nuli field for vrhich lfN gt,Lz,r)l = O for al1 pa'irs of directions and all tinre delays cannot exist in free space i.e., if ltf,f l = 0 for all pairs of points on a continuous
has been shown (Beran and Parrent,1964)

It

surface, then the surface does not radiate. Holever a completely incoherent source can be dfined in a manner consistent with this resu'lt. An incoherent source is a source for which the mutual coherence function is given by

I(.cr,0z,r) = f(Ll,r).d(!,r-.q,2)

(1.

io)

14.

Defining

i1en,nr,f) = rllrn- *r[+t*-,rl,iftnr,rl]

then it,cdn be sholvn that f (0r ,0z rr) .
Refenring

(1 .11 )

r(f"l,[z,f] is the ternporal frerqr.l,e,r,rcy spectrum of

filnction (equation 1.6) transform relationships for E, (eQuation l.4) then
the, nrutua:l coheren,ce

to the definritionr of

dnd subslituting the For,rrier

r(,.er,ra,r) = rtl**

'trT\&zttzt= *r[r.[.0r, [rr..f;r{rn,f, 1oiznr,t.Eftcr,f")e-Jz*rz(t-t} J ) J -d, r@ -p^.

ltl

lrrr\ (r.ra)

As

lim |^iZnt(fro\ T'*'- | ."-"-\'r-'2tdt

)
rl

= 6(fr-fz)

6(x)'ts the Di'rac de'lta fu,nction at x ='0, then tlre ti:nrc integration yields a delta fu'nction, and one of the frequency integrrations can be pe,rfo'rnnred to give
where

r(sr n&a,r) = ,tlt-

*rfarr*, ,f)ai(r,, ,11eJznf"df .

J

Combining

thls with

eQU,dtion

1'Xl yields

r(x1 ,sa,r) =

l^

26

itrr,ge,f)ei2trf.df.
distribution or temporal

(r.ts)

L.

If

$1=g2=g then

i(g,f) is the brightness

power"

speet!'um

of the source as shown by equation 1.7'b

,trf the s:patlal frequeney spec:trum of t-he mutua1 csherence fu,nction y(ur,uzrr) is defined as the mutual cohere,nce f,unction, expressed in ter.ms spatial f'requency spectrum of the incident radiation i..,

the

15.

f*
Y(ur

nuzrt)

rtlt*

hl er(ur , t)ef (uz ,t-r)dt

l
(1. t+)

= (e(u1,t)e*(u2,t-n))
then usirrg the Fourier transfonn re1 ationships between equation 1.14 becomes
.y(u1

e(u,t)

and

E(s,t),

,ua,r) = Tll**

h[r.
+6,

iJ

[on, [ou..E([r,r)e.jz?rurc,
-S

.E*({,0,r-t)e-jzn vz;z'

'.

ro9

= |'r(.0r
I

n3r,r)ei2rn(91u1-&2u2)dgr,dgz

(1.1s)

1Letting
u=Ll1

-us

the,n fronr equati on

1 . 10

for a compiletely incoherent

source

Y(u,t)

|'*rro,"tdznur'6*
J rOO

(t..10tr

fon a cornpletely incohenent source the se'lf-cohe,rence function and its spatial frequenry spectrnum are a Fourierr transforrn pair.

i'e.,

1.5

Properties

qf the Receiving

S.vstem

A cot'nelation int.erferometer system can be represented by two antennas Ar and As, the outputs of whlch are passed through fi'lters into a multipiier, whicln produces the cross-col"relation product of the tvlo antenna voltages. terms sf their vroltage radiatisn p-atterns e(g,t) which are the Forur:ier trarrcfonns of their aperture field illuminations g(x,f), (Bracewell, 1965), For an- an enna pointed in direction &o, the response to an input angular spectrum tCg,tl is
The antennas can be def"ined

in

Af*^

v(,so,f) =

| r(*,r).G(t-r,o,f)dt

(1.rr)*

Noting that range

this integrral differs from the convolution of E(g,f)

.[,

ana f;(x,,'t)
b'l

*This integnal can.be evaluated as finct'ions of

arie defirpd only in the visi

lsl.t

16.

only in the siEn of (r,={,o), define

G0,,t) = 6(-s,r)
so that equat'io,n 1.1,7 can be l:dwritten v(fl,o,f), =
^r@*A

(t. tg)

as

or
AAA

I E(s,f).G(&o-{,,t}as
(1,tr9)

r6

V(so'f) = E([o,f)*e!l(e0,fl
wltere

*^
L.

represents convolution

is

defined by

in the g-domain. Fn L.

Bracewell (1g6s) convolution

f(x)*s(xy = [*t,",.s,(x-u] aul IJ '-*

For the p:urposes of this- analysisn the R.F. and I.F. amplifiers of the rsceitving systern can be considered to merely define the fr equency resplnse of

the sJstem. They can be pepresented by a tilter of tl"ansfer function The outpurof these stages, ilott) is retated to rlle input fi(f), ny 6r

[(f).
(1.20)

fro(t) = ili{r).fi(f}
Vs(t) = R(t)*rVi(t)

As sliown in section 1,.1 the output of the, system is the time average of, t-he pnoduct of the tuo filter outputs, or in generall

R(r) = r'l.t*

hl vrr(t).vrf (t-r).at
)

( 1 .21)

where the tnrncated

analytic signal has bee,n,fntroduced to ensure t-he exisrtence of the convolution integral tn the t-domain. Equation 1..21, can alss be written

R[r) =' (v.

tt).vf(t-t])
brrackets.

'

(1.21a)

wlthin the previous definiffon of the angular

A time delay

r has been l'ntroduced into the pro'duct of equation l.2L because

Irlr(t)

anise f,rom an incident fleXd Er(*,t). Different path lengths fnom the source to the rnultiplier' (geometrlc and instrumental) will shift the
and

Vry

L7"

time reference

of

one in,put voltage with respec't

to the other

1.6

T.he Qe re,[-a] F{esponse

Relationship

the two a:ntennars are polnted in directions ca, a.nd 4ss, then fr:om equat't'on 1.19r the antenrna output voltages for an inc'ident field ET(l,,t) will
be*

If

3*(ou,
and

,f)

(ru,,f)

V21(soe,f) = Er(goe,f)*uS(tsz,f) output fronr the multiplier

i,or,,f).r^A

}
is
g,iven
by-

(r.aey

Frorn equation 1.2!, 1,69

R'(t) = Ttl** hl'irrr&s1,t)'vrr1($oa,t-r)dt

J,

where
and

,t/g1(*n"t) = A(t)*rVr(*,u,t)
gtivern by equation

Vt(,co,t) ls

!;.22. Thus from equationd 1,?0 and 1.?2

.G(cn-.r,,f)dg

ilcr{su,r) = nrfl fircr,f)

'-and by Fourier trans-for^mation

vrr(lo,t) = | itul I rrCl,rl.6(uo-u,f).d!,.ei,2nft.dr

r^r"

LJ*

Nroting

tlrat fr(t) is a function of

f,r"equency onrly,,

this

equat:ion may be

written

as

ff^,\^.:D-j& vrr(lo,t) = l.otl..al.n1r1.er(l,t).6(r,o-*lgjzntt

(1.23)

J-*

*Although the tlruncated analytie function is not necessary for the equotion 1.,22) the tru:ncated version of V(["f) is requined when it as the i'nput to the multiplier.

validity of

ls considered

18.

frorn which

Va*

and Vg2+ can be obtained

urrr(&o*r) = .or,.| .ou,.A-, (rr1 .ir{lr,f, ),L (ror-&r1."i2nfrt

,-6

fr*AA
rd

r*
vr'f
(eou

r*

nt-t)

=l .or, | .orr.frltt").i;{nu,rn).Af Lc oz-tuzl.u-jZri'fz(t-t)

JI *..o

in

Substitu ing these vo;ltages into equation tr.Zl the orutput R(t) is obtained terr'ns of the incident radiation E(.g,t) and the paRameters of the syg tem.

R(r) = rll*-

lrf "rl"r, [ir,lilou, [r,., ''l*

L i"" l- l*

.fi, (f, ) .fi!(r,1

.ir{*, ,r, } -tf ({.2 ,ra)

t)'.jzrrfrt.*-iZr'rfa(t-t)
[l.eq)

'6, k"r-&r ,fr ) .Gj(r.or- f.z,f

As the on,ly time f,uncti;ons in equation 1.24 afe the two exponentiall the time integration san be perfonned to yie:Id

terms,
(1.25)

f*uturttt1
)

-fe)ujzn f zr dt= 6.(fr -f zr 21slznf

ie

I'n additi,on,

as
rqt

I
tI

Fr

(xr ) .d(x, -xc)dxr = Fr (xz)

(t.ao)

-q

then equatign 1,24 can be reduoed to

R(r) = ttl% *tl .otl .oo, | .ou..i,

1-'*

','f- f f -'l* 1* l*

(t).i*(t)
$.a7}

.1{r, ,r) ,Ef trr,f

where integrati'on,

.A (&oe-4r,t)

.Gi(gog-&s,f}ei2nft

to ttrne has hee,n car"ried out as i,n (t.ZS), integration with respect to f1 cnrried out as in (1.26) and fz replaced by f.
wilh
pgs:pct

.10
LJ.

^ ET(.q,,f),

The

only terms concerned in the I imit (T-l-) are the analytic functions so that equation 1.27 can be rervritten as
t6r@e@F-

f f f . l-r.,* 1t-^ R(r) = l .arl .ot, .a.c..Ar (f).Ai(f).

) o-@ ) )
l
:

rlrl*'_ iifrrtt,,f).Ei(12,t)l-J 'rLrL

r-t,f
)
.

L.

tl

.d, (so, -!,,r) .Gj(% and from equation

sj2rft
may be replaced by

1.li
o6

the term insjde the outer brackets

r(gr,92,f) i.e.,
Itl^ . ^'4t*R(t) = l.dfl.d&1 l.d.q,2.Ar(f) .AI(f) .r(er,e,z,f).G,(ror-r,f) .etru.rr-e.,f).sJanrt ))) _6
(
e@ ,6

I .28)

Equation 1.28

is the general equation relating the output of a correlation

interferometer to the mutual coherence function of a polychromatic partia'lly coherent source, in terms of the antenna patterns and filter responses. This relationship is now examined in the particular case of a completely incoherent
s0urce.

L.7 The Special Case of an Incoherent Source

In radio astronomy sources are general'ly assumed to be incoherent, implying that the radiation from one point is statistical1y independent of the radiation from any other point. The mutual coherence function of an incoherent source is
given by equation 1.10

l(It,9,z,r) = f (gr,t).6(l,r-.gz)
Substituting this mutual coherence function into equation L.?8, one of the .Q, integrations can be performed as (1.26) to yield

R(t) = | .url .od, (r) .iii(r) .i(s,t) ))

The

r-

f@

.9., ({,o,

-s,r) .qi (Loz-L,f) . ei 2nft (1.2e)

following assumptions can be made about the receiving system.

The power patterns of the two antennas are identical (with respect to their own phase centres) and the antennas are pointed in the same

1.

direction ([el,ot=[oz)

2A,

?.

The fi'lter respons:es are identica'l (this is implicit phase-switched intenferometer) and are non-zero oinly of frequeRcies Af centred on fo"
equatrron L.Zg becornes

in the case ofa fr a small range

tlith these assumptions

R(t)

J.rrl .at.i(r,,rl. lorr"-*,r)l:lntrl l?"izf.' -@

?o-*f1,

t*

ffo+aq
(1.30)

At this stage-it is ne:cessary to examine he time de:lay r in equati,on 1,.30 and to relate it to tJre f,actors frorn which it arises. The delay can be dttributed to two cduss (f) tne geometric delay caused by t-he dif,fer.ence in pathr Iengths from the source to the two antennas, and (2) the instrunrcntal del'ay caused b.y differ^ent cable:lengths to the receriver, Bhd phase differences in the
two ch,annels.

the base]fne'is defined so that D is the length in met-res measured f,rom A,r to Ae 0n the x axis, then referring to Figurr"e 1.5,'it c-an be Seen that the geometric delay tg is given by
T,g =
D:g

If

- $ s'ino

c whene

is the veloci'ty of light.

.

Figure

1.5:

The cause

of the geometric delay ts.

?T,

The instrumental delay

ri

s.an be

attributed to an additional angle

0i,

where

ri = B sinoi
Letting:
then
and

.0,i

= sin01

,i = $ni
T = Tg*ri

'
then the direction are equal and opposite.

Sq-r)
and

(1.31)

f,i is

for

whicJr

the geometric delay

instrumenta'! del ays

trf the fi'tter passband Af do not vary slgni:ficantly over

ls sufficiently srnall ffrat i(*,f) and 0{*o-o,f) its range, then equati.on 1.30 can be rewritten
r. Af

n(t(.si-sl,ro) =

L4

ft,u,ro,.lG(uo-r,ro) l'lli(r.+r)l'..jen1ro*r)BLet-&).dr.dg

whi,ch can

b.e

expnessed
t@

R(D,ri,eorfu) =

| i(s,t.) .Fqn,..e,i-r,[o-s,fo),dt,
J

(x,le1

-!(t

il{0,*i -!,,ils-L",fo)

is ca,lled the conrplex power pattern and is gtven by

fT-

.af

F(0,.r,,i-s,&6-$,fg,)

', re iznfli1-*)., = l6tt-c,ro) '*iz'ft.t*r-o) l' 'e J orlA(r*ro) 1'

(1.33)

where )tn = three tenns

A

"/fn.

The complex power pattern- can be expressed as the product l^

le
12

of

F(0,&i-g,,te-.s,f6) =

t-.--l

(no-t,fo) .r10,*1-r,rfo).ts(D,Bi-t,fe,af) (l.ssa)

|

where these are the antenna power pattern, the interfe-rence or fringe pattern and the bandwidth pattern pespeeti$ely. The'clllaracteristics of these three

22..

terms al'e shown

in Figure

1.6,

(a)

^2 The antenna potler pattel-n lo(n-.eu,

fo)l is shown for

-j2nu.C6u

a uniformly

i1'luminatedL

aperture

of length L.
g(s,fo) =

r*
J;

l. T

(b,)

T,he,

fr-inge pattern

z"tltt
F{0'&1-.9,,fsi = *i
has

-r')

a real cornfonent

"orfz,ofout-o{,

(c)

The bandwldth pa,ttern B(0,$,i-l',fs,af) l:s sh.own

for a rectangu:lar

passband

of width

Af i.e.,

B,(Drs,fo,Af)

Jaf
-

t+i it"& I e *'df J

pattern (,Figune 1.6a) 'liLmfts the field sf view to that s,f the antennas sf th,er system. Fsr a uniforntly illulninated apertlre of length L it has nulls at &. rtro/1, The fnlr'rge pattern (Eigure,1.6b) deter,mines the nesolution of the instrument, and as.the bas,eline is usually longer than the aperture sf one of the antennas, the fringe funetion varies more rapidly with 4, t,han the pog1er pattern (D>L) . The bandwtdth pattern ('Ftgur 1.6c) al's,o limiu's the field s:f view but usually lt is much wi:der than the power pattern and can be a:ssumed constant over its extent, i,e.1 L.fs>)D.Af,. This assumPtion
The'antenna power

l6t l-ro, rol;2

l-to
(q)

F( D,1;-1, fe)

B( D.

ti-1, fo,a,f

1 = ti (c)

Figure 1.6:

The components

of the complex

power pattern.

24. reduces

to

af<<fo for short base'lines,

and on'ly

in the case of very-long-

baseline interferometry

is the bandwidth

pattern usuaily significant.

1,8

Source position lrleasureine,nt w.ith the. g:o,t"relatipn Ihterfro{ne,tgr

The brlEhtness distribution of, represented by a delta function

a point source in direction

t,

can

be
.

'i.e.

t(&,r) = d(s-osrfs)
Subst:ittlting this into equatio,n 1.32, P R(D,si'r,6,fo) = [ e(l-rs,to)i(0"!,i-[,.co-.c,fo)dr.
)

(1.34) i

= P(Dr,Si-&g,CI6-[5 rfg)

.af

= [6tuo-ur)

-ztfuri-rs')

'I

f-,^
lA(ro+t)

u SznSl,i-ss)

.df

(1.38)

I nf,
com-

the fitnge factor var:ies more napidly vuith n than the other two ponents, th:en the dominant term in the output will be R(D;ti.,f6) =

If

coszoT3sj-*u)

(1.s01

time, i.e.,

For cellestial sources gr(=sin-lgs) varies approximately linearty wfth

R(e1 =

cosenf*i-sings) J Ao- |

(t,e7a)

which can also'be wr:itten as

R(t) = coreh\si-sin(eu+dt))

(t.lzu1

In Chapter 3 it is shown that the ter"'m 0r+ot contains the necessarJ pos.ition informatiorn for a source, and equatjon 1.3I fs applled ts the convenilonal astronomical coordinate systm to establish the coondinates of, the source at s,

25.

1.9

Source Diameter l4easurement and Aperture S.vnthesis

the antenna beamwidth is smal1, then the integrand in equation 1.32 exists for only a sma'|1 range of .Q, centred on 9o. The maximum of the banclwidth pattern B(D,11-[,f0, f) can be made to lie in the same direction as that of the antenna power pattern by adjusting the instrumenta'l deiay ti so that Si=[0,
such a way ana the source i.e.,

If

Define

g'in

([o)

that it is the angie between the pointing direction

g = 0o-0'
where
.Q,

= sin0

is the coordinate of the source. If range of g' is of interest and

the antenna beamwidth

is

narow only a small

sing = sin0ocos0'-cosOosin0'

i
'1

sin0o-sing'cos0o (1.38)

..

9.o-9,

= .{,'cosgo
D on

If u is defined as the projection of the baseline

to the pointing direction 0er rnoSUred in
wavelengths,

to the

p'lane normal

i,e.,

,
equation 1.38,

Dcosoo

tro '
= .q,'u9
D

then from

Lg-L,

(t.sg)
F(0,L1-.Q,,fe) was usualiy l,i=&o then for sma]'l

In section 1.7 it

was shown

that the fringe factor

the dominant term in the interferometer output, a nd excursions about the pointing angle

jf

rR(D,so,fo) =
I I

2"9{ so-r)
.

I ifo,fo1.u-"tro'
-@

dl,

and by making the subst'itution for.Q,e-.Q, from equation 1.39

it

can be shown that

26.
(Srvenson and

Mathur, 1968; Swenson, 1969)

(u

,fo)

r-

^ I r(!,,f.,)eu'"'od.c

i)*tto

(1
,r\ = y[U,Tg/

.40)

under these conditions the output of the interferometer is the Fourier transform of the brightness distributl'on of the source. The brightness distribution can be obtained from th'is spatial frequency spectrum by Fourier inversion. This is the basis of aperture synthesis. if observations are made. with a number of different baselinesn sufficient conrponents of the spatial frequency spectrum can be measured to permit reconstruction of the source. Bracevlell (1958) has. shown that a source of angular extent A.Q, can be completely resolved by sampiing

i.e.,

its

spatia'l frequency spectrum at intervais of u = I/L!,.

If the smallest detail to be measured is of extent A[*.in then the highest

spatiai frequency which must be sampled is Uru* = t/Agmin (Swenson, 1969). The number of different baselines required to perform a one d'imensional analysis of a source of extent A.Q, with resolut'ion At*in is ALlA0rrn.

1.91

Source Diameter Measurement

the required range of baselines is available, and the phase of R(u) can be measured as well as its magnitude, then the brightness distribution f(g'fo) of a source can be obtained by Fourier inversion (after equation 1.40). If only a iimited range of baselines is avai'lab'le, and the phase of R(u) cannot be determined, the diameter of a source can stil'l be estimated from the interferometer output.
Assume

If

that the brightness distribution is

Gaussian

in

shape,

i.e.,
(i.41)

i(s,r.) = io .-n(uAs the transform equation 1.40,

e'd\"

of e-tx' is e-*st, then substituting equation 1.41 into

27.

fo
R,(u,fo)

-z/
o'l

= | ioe-n(l-n
J

/o2. ui2nuldg

= o,.ei?!r&su,fi .n-r'(ou)2
Equat'ion 1..42 eontains both the phase and ampilitude informatlon

(1.4A)

of 'the

intenferometer outp-ut, The fringe visibili'ty sr the visibillty function, Vofu,fo) is defined as the ratio of fringe arnplitude to the total flux neceived from, the sourre. The csmplex visibiltty V(u,fe) is the norrnalized value of R(u,fo) "
R(urfo)

V(u,fo) -

[-^
J

| r(s,fo).de
u

r
=
i,9,,
where

r."ie"sou.it.a-n{s-u)

o.i.
"jftr[ou
,'rr(ou)
2

v(u, fo) ,= .iarr[ou.vo(u,fr)

Vo(u

,fo) = .-n(o'u)

0.4s)

trf tfire uwidthn!0f, a Gaussian dist,ribution is dEfined as the distance- b'etween the psints where the arraplitude is l/e of its maximumi va'lue, the hal:f-width directions of the source of eguation 1.41. are
s-lo
From equation 1.43

+d
{,TT

fr
so that the extremities

-g-

J n Vo(u,fs)
are defined
by

sf the

28.

!,-.Q,,.,

"

t - / -1n Vq(u,fo) Ttu{

1-

(1

.44)

Equation 1.44 suggests that for any observed fringe visibil'ity Vs(u,fo), provided that u t's known, the extremities of the equivalent Gaussian source can be found. This is strictiy correct, but for small sources (o small) and short baselines (u smal'l) then vo(u,fo)-1, and the width obtajned from equation 1.44 wil'l be zero. Sinrilarly if a broad source is observed with a

long baseline, the fringe visib'ility vriil be very c'lose to zero, and difficu]t to measure. Assuming that the best results will be obtained vrhen the fringe visibi'lity is approximately .5, then the basel'ine should be chosen so that

u-ff,
where A.0 is the width

of the source.

1.gZ Aperture

Synthesis

has been shown that the output of an interferometer of basel'ine length D metres is a sample of the spatial frequency spectrum i(u,to) of the brightness distribution f(L,fo) of the source under observati'on, corresponding to u = Dcgs0o i.e., the spatial frequency of the projection of the baseline, A6 measureil in wave'lengths, on to the plane tangent to the ce'lest'ial sphere at the

It

location of the source. If a number of different interferometers are availabie w'ith differing baselines, then a number of different samp'les of y(u,fo) may be taken and a detailed picture of the brightness distribution of the source obtained by Fourierinversion.'In this way the equivalent reso'lution of a very large fil'led aperture te]escope can be achieved (Sr,renson and Mathur, 1968) . If a synthesis'interferometer consists of one fixed element and one mobile e'lement, then the time required to map a g'iven area of sky is proportional to the number of different positions of the rnoveable element. The physical synthesised telescope would require the same time to map the same area of sky, as its beam would be narrower than that of the interferometer elements, and only a small area of sky could be studied at any one time.
A more recent extension of this principle, termed 'supersynthesis' (Ryle et al, 1965), takes advantage of the fact that the projection of a fixed baseline onto a plane tangent to the celestial sphere changes in length and

orientation with the rotation of the earth. If a source is tracked by the antennas of a fixed interferometer over a period of LZ hours, d large variation

29.

can be sitown that the locus of the project'ion of the baseline D on the ce1estial sphere describes an ellipse in the spatial frequency p'lane as the eartir rotates (Srvenson and l"lathur, 1968; Swenson, 1969). Using an east-west baseline and making repeated observations with a number of Cjfferent baseline spacings D, it is possible to synthesis a large equivalent elliptica'l aerial, the major anci minor axes of which are D* and Drsin6, rvhere D6 is the maxinrum baseline'length, and 6 is the declinat'ion of the area of sky under observaiion.

of the spatial

frequency being sampled by the system

will occur. It

In combining observat'ions made with a synthesis telescope, it'is usual to assign different weights to the fringe amplitudes obtained with different baselines, corresponding to different spaiia'l frequency components, in order to
control the synthesised beam shape and the side-lobe'level (Swenson,1969). This is analogous to weighting the aperture illumination of a physicai antenna, except that the weighting is done after the observat'ions, enab'l'ing various weighting funct'ions to be used with a single set of observations.

1.10

Confusion

In Interferometry

The resolving povrer of an interferometer can be v'iewed in ttrlo different ways. An interferometer possesses a primary resolving power, that of the individual antenna elements, and a secondaryresolving power, that of the fringe pattern, which is determined by the baseline length. The secondary resolving pouer can

be realized only in the study of sources which are sufficiently spaced to be isolated by the primary beam. If more than one source is present in the prinnry beam, fringes from adjacent sources become superimposed on one another so that the results are not easiiy understood. A source can be considered isolated by the primary beam of the interferometer, however, in two spec'iai cases even if it is not the only source present. These two cases are when the source is much brighter than adjacent objects, or when its anguiar extent is such that it is the on'ly source in the primary beam for which the fringe visibility Vo(u,fo) (equation 1.43) is not very sma11.

REFERENCES

BERAN,

M.J., and

PARRENT,
1,

G.B. (1964): "Theory of Partiai Coherence".

New Jersey).

(Prenti ce-flal
BRACE!,JELL,

R.N. (tgSA):

"Radio Interferometry

of Discrete Sources". Proc.

I.R.E.,46

pp. 97-105.

30.
DRAOEI'IELL,

R.N. (1965): "The Fourier Transform and its Applications". (McGrar^r-Hi11 , Nevr York).
and PARRENT, G.B.

DRANE,

C.J.,

(1962): "0n the Mapping of Extended Sources with Nonlinear corre'lation Antennas". Trans I.R.E., Ap-10 pp.126-130.

HAGF0RS,

T.,

and M0RAN, J.M. (1970): "Detection and Estimation Practices in Radio and Radar Astronomy". Proc, I.E.E.E., 58 pp. 743-259,
(pergamon

HELSTROM,

C.l,l. (1960): "statistical Theory of signal Detection". press, London) .

and KEEPING,

KENNEY,

J.F.,

E.s. (1963):.

"Mathematics

of statistics,, (part II).

(Van Nostrand, New Jersey).

K0, H.C. (tgOZ): "Coherence Theory of Radio Astronomica] Measurements". Trans I.E.E.E., AP-15 pp. 10-20
RYLE,

M.

(i952):

"A New Radio Interferonieter and its Application to the Observation of weak Radio sources", proc.Roy.soc. (London), zl1A

pp. 351-375.
RYLE'

M., ELSM0RE, B., and NEVILLE, A.C. (i965): "Observations of Radio Galaxies

Itith the One Mile

SAUNDERS,

Telescope

at

Cambridge". Nature, 207 -pp. 1024-1027.

M.E.

A.M. (1968) : "A Des'ign Study of the Corre'lation Radiometer", Thesis, University of Auckland.

SWENS0N,

G.W.

(1969): "synthetic Aperture Radjo Telescopes". Ann. Rev. Astron.

Ap.,
SWENSON'

pp. 353-374.

G.l'l., and MATHUR, N.C. (1968): "The Interferometer in Radio Astronomy". Proc. I.E.E.E., !g pp. ?It4-2t30 J.M. (1961): "sequential Reception of Time-Variant Dispersive Transmissions". In "Lectures on Communication System Theory", Baghdady, E.J., d. (McGraw-Hill, New york).

W0ZENCMFT,

J1.
CIIAPTER
2

1 it was shovrn horv in the absence of extraneous noise the output of a correlation interferometer can be used to reconstruct a source brightness distribution' The characteristic problem in radio astnonomy however, is the detection of a weak signal rvhich produces an increase in antenna power of several orders of magnitude less than the power pr^oduced by the diffuse background radiation and noise generated in the receiver. The sensitiv.ity lim.it, or,minimum detectable signal' has been extensively discussed 'in the literature (Go'ldstein, 1955; Goldstejn et al, IIST; Galejs, 1.957; Robinson, 1964; Tiuri, 1964; christiansen anci Hogbom,1969) and although there is agreement on the order of magnitude of this'limit there is much argument as to the relative minimum detectable signals of the various types of te'lescopes. it is the purpose of this chapter to establish a relationship between the signal-to-noise ratio at the output of both phase-sw'itched and direct multiplication interferometers and the parameters of the systems.
Chapter

In

Both types of interferometer have been mentioned in Chapter 1 and block diagrams are shown in Figures 2a and b. In order to ana'lyse the responses of these systems to an input which is of the form of noise, it is necessary to establish the input-output relationships of their various elements.

2.1

Antenna Noise Temperature An antenna' as

by the antenna. The noise power ie66)

far as the rest of the system is concerned, appears as a noise generator and can (electrically) be repiaced by a matched resistance R at a temperature Tu so that the generated noise power is equal to that received

is given by the Nyquist relationship

(Kraus,

l,l(f) = k.T6 watts/Hz

vrhere

(2.1)

k is Boltzmann's constant. It can be shown (Dicke, 1946) that this is the same power that would be received by the antenna if it were enclosed fn a black body at a temperature Tu, and Tu is thus referred to as the equivalent antenna temperature. The temperature Ts is related to the f'lux density of the incident radiation and the effective area of the antenna.

32.

TPUT

FILTER

OUTPUT

Figure

2.1: (a) (b)

The phase-switched interferometer The direct multiplication interferometer

2.2

Equiva]ent Noise Bandwidth

The predetection amplifier'of a radiotelescope usually contains a conversion dovln to some 'lower intermediate frequency. The statistical properties of the noise are not changed if the processes are'linear, and the overa'll amp'lifier can be represented by a power gain G(f), where G(f) is usually non-zero only over a smali range of frequency centred on fe. If the input to the amplifier is a noise spectrum l.l(f), the effective noise bandwidth of the amplifier, Bp, is

defined as the width of a filter with a rectangular characteristic and a gafn G(fo) which wou'ld produce the same total power output, assuming the input spectrum hl(f) is constant over the region of interest (van der Ziel, 1955)
't

.9. ,

Bru

= GTtoT'J G(r).dr
o

rl l*

(2.2)

33.

that the ampl:ifier has a gain G(fs) = GH and an equivalent nsise bandllidth of fu = Bg, the total powr output of the amplifier is given by
Assuming

r*

'ln =

c(r).r,r(rJdr
.J

.o

=
whe're Hg

86.Gp.t^J'g

(2. za)*

is

tt're spectral intensl'ty

of the nol.se (assumed constant)r.

The low-pass
h'as

filterr

can be d,escribed

in a similar

manner.

a trans;f-e,R f,unrction GL(f), its eguivalent noi,se bandwiidth ts61 can be defined a,s the width of'a rectanEu,lar filter of p.owe.r gain GL(O) whlch would give t,he same totaT p'ower output,, assu[ring a white noise input.

If .the fiiter.

BUn- 1 =

tilo)

rGL(r)'dr lr/rr
.|o

(2.3)

of an ideal integrator of intEgration period (see ehapter 5)' the equivalent in,tegration 1/2t ierliod 11 of d l;oil pass filter is defined as

'As the nofse ba'ndwid,th

is
P'! It,

Plf t

(2.3a)
whene

Br* ls given b,y equation the input to a low

pass

2..3

If

power outp-u,t

will

be given by

filter is a noise spectrurn [(f)r

th,e

total

Po=G(o)

| tr(f).df Jo
.
[,0

IBLN

-)

= G(0).B1p.t.J;(f)

. (,2.3b)
r'''r

f ;t'P

r.]'

* Throughout this analysis it is assumed that ail

positive frequencies

power

is attributed to

34.

if

l.JL(f)

is constan, ou.t. the range of frequ,ensies of inter^est. sf a Squ,are Law Detector" tp. a No.ise Inpu!
of a sguare law detector
Vottt = o,ViR"
.

2.3

TFF Bes'ponse

The characteristjcs

ca*-.be-describ-ed by (varn der

Zjel,

1.9551 Ricen 1945)

hli't'h a noise in,put tt111(t) the output

Vo(t) of such a detector

will

be

Voft)
The autoco,ryelatfo'n functi;on

=o,Vpe(t)r

..
by

Y(r) of the orutput vo'ltage is then given

y(t)

= (vr{t) "vo(t+rD

+'(rlnu(t).vpa(t+r))
whe,re

(2.4)

the angularn brackets repnesent, the time

average

flim 1 | f(t) (rrtl) - t'*'L h = 'dt .|

J

can he shown (Goldstein, 1955; Rieer 194.5) a function so,uared is given b1l

It

that ttre autocsrnelation of

(xo(t).xu
t,lhere and

(t+r)) = E.a+spe(1), I

V(r) = Stt),x1t+r)) i vq = 4'(t)) )

I

(a.s)

. By substitutlng this relatlonship into equntlon 2.4

v(t)
vthere Vs

ou

[ttr"'*av'(.)]

(2.5)

the total po$Jer in the lnput noise and U(r) is the autocomelation functi'on of the lnBut noise. If the input is a rectangular spectrum of,' intensity trll and bandw'idth Bli, rfo is given: by
tpo

is

= tJi.Bi

(2,7)

35.

Accordling to the }lliener-Khinchin uheorem the autocofrelation function arrd the power densitjr spectrum of a random funqtiorn atpe a Fourief transfOrm pair

(Helstrom' 1960i Lee, 1,960). The output power specfifurn l^Jo(fl of, a square law deteeto,r can be found from V(t) (equation 2.6) bV

we(f) = {'

I uo

rv(r).cos2nft.dt

(2.8)

The

factor of 4 arises in thfs equation because

(l) v(r) is an even,

function (Lee, 1960) and hence the cssine transform can be used which involves taklng twice the iintegral from Or*n un6 (Z) if all powerr is to be,assigned to the posit'ive half of the spectrum, then this"inte,gral must be dor,r,bled again.

substjtuting (t) frsrn equation.z.I into taken in two halves.

l^Ir

eguatio.n

2.g, the integral cai

be

(f) = oj],,

*, .eosZnft.dr
Jo

zofu.su . a [*".uarft-dr

1..n
where

Ilh

(f) = 2ct2{oa .6(f)

(3.9)

6(f)

.is

Dirac de'lta fun,etion at f=0.

The seesnd half,

of the integral is
|oo
I

given by

W.z(f) =

4 | euzgz(t).cosznfr.dr
I
o

(2.10)

R,euensing

functlon

sf

the Wiener-Kh.lrrchin relatfsn:ship {equation 2.9) the autocorre'lation nandom fijnction cah be fsund fnom lts por,fer spctrufir"

$(r) = I }.|(f).cosznfr.df
t
o

a f,actor of tllo in front of the cosine transf,orm integnal resrults from the fact that lrl(f) is the one-sided Bowen spectrum. }{(f) is
The ,absence of,

3'6.

des,cribed by a rectangular spec trum of' fl"equency fo,

intensity l,li and bandw'idth Bi centred

on

U(t)

[u*ut l{i .cosZ.nfr.df

J

o^-ry,

= hliBicos2rrf6t
Thus

l'tit"gff] I nBit )

(2.11 )

S"(r) = l'lizBJt
and

bandwidths Bi<<fe, cosz(Znfet) can be replaced by (van der Ziel 1955).

for

its

average value

i.e.,

"

vu(r)

-foi'ni't+tr]
2

1a.rra)

Substituting this vailue of U"(t) tnto erquation 2.10, tca(f)

=

r 4lro'
Jo

.cosZnft,dt

= 2s2l'.|izB1?,2

.cosZnft.dt

i .e.

t,lz

(f)

Zcr2hli

u(gt

-f ) for

O<fsBt

2.L2\t

Adding together bh(f') from equation 2,.9 and l,le(fl frorn equation 2.12r and not'ing from eg,uation 2.7 that 1116 = I'li,Ei, the output spectrum t'loF} of a square 'law detector for a nsise input is obtained.

hto(f) = 2o,st,'t,iuBitd(t) +
Care must be taken

Zoewiz(ei-t)

(2.13)

in the intepreLation of this eq,uation as both lilr(f) and Wa(f) hdve been defined for positive frequencies only, tr{hen ['lr(f) is

3V.

integrated'over the pass-band of,a low-pass filter to obtain a d.c. power,, the integral of the de'lta function wr'lJ be llz and not 1.. This is not always appreciated an-d has led to errors in some ana'lyses (Robinson, 1964).

2.4

Characterristics
The output Of

of a S:vnc.hro.nous

Detectpr

a synchrOnous of phase-se-nsitive detector is the average value of the product of the input, signa and,i ref,erence si.gnal (frneguenc.y fr), the average being takeh ove-r one cycie of the reference signal. For aR lnput Vs(t) and a ref.er'nce signal F(t), the output tlrill b:e

.vo(t)

= (rtt).\rs(t)>

as in the limit the long term average of a perfodr'c function tends to the ave:rage it|a'lue ovsr one cyc'le. If the referEnce signal is a square wave df frequency fs and peak-to-peak arnplitude f6, Vo(t} is given by
_q' ?x

rlo(t)=Hl .,'
]
o

r^s

s.rls(t)dt- ffi

r'B.vs(tldt I JTr
[d5

(2r14)

(a)

The Response

to a sinuso'ida'l input at frequency f5

wl,rere

Consider the case

vs(t)

= Vsin(ost+Q)

=
Ft'om equation ?.1,4 the

Vsi rurrst, cos$+Veosog

t. si n$

output

!,riil

be
zn

vo(t) = #*

tT"

,uttnr,r5tcoss)Bdt#

t*
.|Jt:tnorstcoss,)Bdt

.Ju

as the cosine tenns

wlll
TI

vanisrh

in the inteErail.

.e.,

\ro(t) = 99=

I Jo

eVst nurstcosQdt

?E- .Veos,6

(2.15)

38.

The ourtput

is

thus B tirnes the qean modulus of the ip-phas component of

the signal.

(b)

The response
Vanr

to a nams-ly band nsise input, centred on fs.

centre fsaSB) nray be repnesentEd by

der

Ziel (1955) has shor+n that any namo:u, band of notse at

and

f,reguency

fo

of wi,dth ts (narnow

band

inplies

X(t) = Xq(tlcosurot -

Xs(t)sinr,r6t

=R(r)cos[*r.o(r)]
where'R('t), Xc(t), }{s(t}and is also shown that

(2'16)

0(t) alne al:l slowly

=

fluetuat,ing quantf,ri.r.

It

* <-) = 4}
where

(x.) = (*r) = f-*trl.oo

Jo

(a.r6a)

l{(f) is the poh,er spectrum ot X(t) .

a noise input to the
s3rnchronous dietector

Assuming

sf the form
.

llN(t)

=Vc(t)cosost-Vt(t)sinost,
o:ver one cyole

if

Vs(t) can be assumed constant

of the l^efenence signal,

from.

..

eguation 2.15

vo(r) = +vs(t)'
CombinlnE equations 2.16 and

(2,17)

Z.Ll,
=
[,u"]'

(uu'rdi
and the autoesrrelation funct:ion

( vr'tt))
,is 'given bJ
(2. L8)

of the output, vp(r)

vo(r) = l[+J'
Van

(r'r(t).vs(r+t))

der Zie:l (1955) has alrso shown that fora symmetricarl band sf noise as defl'ned \y eqqafion 2.16,

!1.

?o

(vs(t).vs(t+t))
and
wPt

#*

(vn,lt).vn(t+r))

(z.rg)

if'VN(t) :is a,rectangular

then from equation
2.1,1.

band

of noise of width

B and sp:ectral intensity

{(t) = (v*tt).vp(t+r))
=
C,ombin,inE

tlp8cos2*r"ffi

(2.20)

the output in

equations 2,19, e.19,, and Z.Z:A,, the'autocorrelation functio,n of. terms of the bandwidth and intensity of the input noisel is obtained.

vs(t) =
tJsln-g

[*J"ou tW]

the Wiener-Khinchin relationship (equation 2.8) the output pouer spectnum l,lo(t') can norr, be determined.
r,ro(f) =
+

[-p*]'r.ron [u*H*]."s2rrftdr jo.'

/(lo

=#ru, l,
,n

t#]cos2nrt.dt
R

=ggzWp for

0<fs

= 0 otherwise.
2

{z.zl)
'I Otl:lr.,r I tDF

.5

Cha,rgeteri srtJ e g . of bn Anal ogue

,;l

Mu

ti

pl i er

',. ff ll"'

In the direct multip-:licatlon correl,ation rinterferometer, the analogu,e

multiplicati,on and low-pass filtering are usuall.y perfo,r"rned togethern the output of the mult'iplier being the time'average of the p,roducts of the output voltages from the t-l*o channels, i.,e.,

vo(t) = r.
The voltages:
assumed

( v, (t) .vr(t) >

\tr(t)

and

Va(t)

that they e&ch will

consist wholly of no.ise, and tt can be contain a correlated component S(t) arlsing from

will

40.

the signalr:drd fft uncorrelated compo:nent H(t) arising from background and receiver noise. trf the csrreJated cornponent in Vr(t) is delayed by an iinterval 0 from that in Va(t), then
vr

(r)

s(t) + rtr (t)

'l

and
The

vr(t)=s(t+o)+l,le(t)
'wlll
vo(r)
ba analysed,
,=

-J,

tz.zz,1

multiplicat'ion a'lone

i,e,,

llr(t),vz(t)

and the averaging

will

not be considered.

The autocorrelat,ion function

Ye(r) of Vs(t)
,vr

is given by
Q.?3\

v.q(d
where

= (v1(t).vz(t)

(t+t).ve(t+r):)

Vr(t)

and Va(t) ane given by equatisn 2.22.

Equation 2.23 can be expanded, noti'ng

that

if

X(t) and Y(t) are

indeperndent

(xf rl.y(t) ,x(t+r) ,v(t+t)) = {N(t).N(t+t) } . ( *(t},Y(t+r) )

an'd

also (Xttt.V(t+t) )
vr{r)

= 0 for al'l

t.

i.e.,"

) . ( t(t).s(t*r) ) (*r(r}.N2(t+r) ) (stt1.,s(t+t) ) + (n, ft).nl(t+t) ) . ( n.r(t).mz('t+t) ) +

(r,r, 1t1.tl, (t+t)

In

th.e case whers 0 = 0

= ds.(t).s*(t+t)) + (l*tr(t).,ur(t+r) ) . (s(t).:S(ttr) > + (ruu(t}.Nr(t+1) ) . (s(t).s(t+r)) * (n,(t).N11t*r) ), (nrtt).nr(ttt) )

vqr(t)
6

z. ?4a)

Definlns Ss(r)

(s:1t).s(t+t)

41.

and Ss(r)
and notinu

(nf tt.n1t+")

t'o'r'llil::,;;:'il'=

(sr'), * a (s44srt+ty )a
then equation 2.24.a
becornes

vo(t) = Vsu(0) + 2us2(.) + {s(r).hlr(t) + {,s(r) fur(r) * gN,(r).u,nr(r)

(2.24b1

ttr0 two ampiifiers (see Figure'2.Ib) have identi,cal rectanEular pass-bands of width B and celltre frequenqy fon then if the signal intensity at theirinputs is lilr and the background'and amplifien hoise }J,tr1 is equal in both channels, from equation 2.11

Assum'ing thrat

il5(t) = WsB coszrfrr

and
{111r(t)=

lffi
)

(2.2s)

tXlr(t) = W,mBcoszrfr" l[+#]

Su,bstituting the,se into equation 2 .24b,

vu(t) = r,tszB'+Bacoszarfo.[W=]'[?*r'*r*rwll*l{nr] ft.?ac)

Applyi:nE the lllienet-Khinchi'n tlleory (equatton 2.8} the ffrst tenn in equation 2,?4c gives rise to a d.c. power term (ldr) and the second gives rise to a low frequency noise te,rnr (Wr). ,|*

t^lr(f) = 4l tlf*tescos21fr.dt
I

=
and

2}IseB26(f)

(Z.Z6,a\

w, (t)

r*
=
a

I ,o

B2cosz2rrf.'

[+#F]'(r*rr*rrrwp+r{q2)cos2nfr.dr

If

E<<fo therr cos'Znfsr can be replaced by

its

dvar&g value

i.e.,

42.

r,J2(f) =

B2(zuts2+zwsur.1+!,hz) g

'i

.zI t+:+E]cos2rfr.dr no'

Jot
0<f<B

l*,

(2ur2+2l,Jsi'JN+l'Jll'z)

(B-f) for

(2.26b)

The output of an analogue multjp'lier addi ng together t'h (f ) and Hz (f ) .

for noise inputs can be obtained by

(B-f),
0<f<B

wo(f) =

2lrls2B2.6(r)+(zt'tr2+2wsl,lp+w1l')

(?.26c)

to have rectanguiar spectrums of vridth'8, each conta'ining uncorrelated noise of iniensiiy l,Jp and correlated noise of intensity llr. Care must be taken in the interpretation of the delta function, as mentioned for equation 2.13.
The inputs are assumed

2.6

The

Sensitivity of a Phase-Svritched Interferometer

Consider a system
and phase

of the form of Figure 2.1a,

and assume

that the

cables

reversing switch between the antennas and the receiver are lossless. The antennas are not necessari'ly identical , and a factor K. is defined by urh'ich the effective aneas of antennas A and B are related.
AeB

= Ka, AeA

Q.Z7\

For a source at an angle 0 from the vertical there path lengths to the two antennas of

will

be a difference in

x = dsinO
Assuming narrow band operation, then this path difference phase difference 0 'in the vol tages at the two antennas

will

cause

.A where ),

2ndsi n0

(2,28)

is the wavelength at the-centre

frequency

of the operating

band.

Let the antenna\ temperatures caused by sky background be Tn and T6, then a source at angle 0 to the vertical w'ill cause increments in these temperatures of AT4 and ATg respect'ive1y. The trvo antenna noise powers kT4 and kTg are uncoffelated since the relative phase of s'ignals received at the two antennas wi1l vary with angle. If the source at angle 0 is small in extent, then kAJ4

43.

and kATg

will

be c-omelatd a,nd from equatipn Z.Z7

r,rmG
and the voltage

= Ka,r@
at

(2.?e)

at

A lags behind the voltage

B by an angle S (equat"ion Z.Zgl.

Let the nesultarlt anterllna tem,perature, referred to the Junction C be the interf'erometer tempenatune T1, thcn when the antenna voltages are added in ph,ase,
T1

is given by

T1

(+) = |,'(rg+rr+ATg+ars) *,fEqaTB

(2.30a)

as whb'n two por+ens Pl d"nd Pa are aCded toEetlrer ttre tota'tr power fu

ii

given by

.FT=$.{rr*n.*zc{'ffi.)
where

c is the eorrelation coeff,icient.

1L t.'-r\-ua,,rr,J I .'-, '

,11 'r 't1

,l

,, t'-'l

the antenna outputs are added in antiphage, the resulting {nterferoneter ternperature Tf i,s given by,
ldhen
T1

(-) - |

{r6*re+AryaTe) -,/-^fifFB'-

(e,gou)

If

aT<<T, thre systen ternperature Trru can be defined

Try, = TR+
where

(Tg+Ts)

(2.31)

'

T* is the noise temper:attrre of the receiver referr.ed to the junction C. The effective input noise terirperature T6 to'the receiver is, frori equ:ations
2.30 and 2.31,

TE=Tsyu*@.
From equation

(2.321

2.2ar the output of the high freque.ncy anrplifie,r (assuming a rectaltg,tllar pass-,band,) is a rectangular band of ngise, o^f wtdth 811 and intens'ity !16 where
ufH

= q6m,

watts/t1z
.

(2r.33)

H,hen

this rroise is applied to the input of.a

egUatfon 2.13 the output spectrum

v{ill be

square law detectsr, from

44.

hls(f) = 2otutp12Bg26(f) + 2o2Wga(B.H-f),

The

g*<f<Ep

(2 .34)

first teru in eguation 2.34 gives ris,e to a d.e. power.tetm

PDc

cral'l*zBrz

corirbining

represents

this with equations z.32 and z,3g it ,a f''luetuating d,c. voltage

VDC

can be seen

that this

powr

= oBgGpk (Tuy,
p:ower

,fZETTe)

i,e.., thene f s an Bverage d'c,.

of
(2.35a )

(tn,e) = crzBg2G11, kt.rryr,

uith a Suprerimposed square-wave at the switching frequency
nagnitude
Vpp

f, wiill peak-to-peak
(e.3sb)
(see

ZoBgGg

k
a

/Tnq

The sco-hd term Fi,gure 2,2).

in equation p.34 is

triangular spectrum of noise

an?{sn

Figure

?';q: The output noi Ee speetrrrrn from the squaFe law detector.

intensity l^I1p where

For frequencies f<<BH t,his c;an be eronsidered as, a flat,speetrurn of

WLF

EazNHaE$t .

amplifted by the low frequenc'1t ampl,ifier and fed into the sy,nchronous detector. Ideally' in o,rder to preserve the infornratfon in the square-wave, this amplifier

It is this nolse which togethop with the square-wdve of equation Z.3Bb is

45.

sltould be wide-band, extending up'uo about ten tintes the switching frequency. llolvever an amplifier o1'this type is easjly saturated by the wide-band noise input and usualiy, w'ith a slighi loss in sens'it'ivity, a narrovr band anplifier centred on the srvitching frequency is used. Another systenr (Frater, 1965)
uses a synchronous integrator to produce a comb filter response, '.,vhich ampiifies the odd ltarmonies in the square!,/ave rvh'ile rnaintaining a narrolv pass-band.

It is assumed for this anaiysis thai the amplifier js narror.r-band, with a

rectangu'lar pass-band of bandvridth Bv and power gain Gy, cenired on the svtitching frequenc} fr. The square-wave input wi'll produce a sine wave outpui of peak ampiiiude

Vpk=*/q-"uHGHk

(2.36a)

.4 as ihe fundamental component of a square \{ave is; t'imes the ampi'itude of the square wave, the square wave input being given by equation 2.35b. The noi se 'input (equation 2.34, Figure 2.2) wilt result in an output rectangular noi se band of width Bu and intensity
WN

ZsttJHtBHGv

(2.36b)

provided

that

fs..BH.

2.15, the output from the synchronous detector correspond'ing to the sine wave input of equation 2.36a will be
From equation

vo=T IneBsGsk/qa-Tf
tvhere X

cosX

If

betleen the sine X can be adjusted to be zero, then

is the phase difference

wave

and

the switching

signa'l

vo=F /q,.oGsBp1k/'m
From equation 2.21.,

(z.tt)

the output frorn the synchronous detector correspondi ng to the noise band of equation 2.35b is a rectangular band of noise extendi ng from 0 to By/? hertz with intens.ity
H,,r

F.2o2tt;12Bpcu

- l6a2}z ,, 2. ^ rlH DHrrv -T

46;

Substituting for"

ldg from e,quation 2.33

r,,n =

this

becornes

S
o

crBpGrzkzTgz

and as AT<<T, then

Tgdr'ur i.e.
w,u

*ts GyBgc6zkrTuyru

(z.sa)

that the'lsw-paS,s filter has a p@wer gain G1 and a nofse bandwidth BL = UT1 (equation 2.3) tfre total output noise from the interferometer is
Assumirng P*, ,

t n =9LJot ' ,r" GuBpGp2keTsys'.Ti

{2.39a)

and the

outptt d.c. signal voiltoge is from equation. Z.3i

Vs

"F

RA

/frE.oGilBsk

Fffi

(2.3,9b)

the I'nstrunent can detect is limited by the nsise fluctu'ations at the outpnt (equation 2.39a). A csnve'nient and standand defr'nrition for the mininrum d,etegtable signal is one which pnoduces a steady output equa'l in magnitude to the F.rn.s. fluctuations of the output. From eqqations 2.39a and b this condition is that

The minimurn incrernent Jn antenna ternperatur"e rvhich

ffi;ryL
i''
n

ocHBHk[,^qErB

],,n

ryry.GHkr,y,
(z'4oa)

r-'l it

['rysJrrn=#'#
From egu,ati on
2

.29

can be, seen that

I,Tm

KuATncosS

so that the minimurn detectable ternperature at antenna A fnom a'sourc.e ang'le 0 is given by

at

an

(ATn)min=fu-h

tr

(2.40b)

47.

For identical antennas Ku =

and

for ^-nO

(AT)mi

=-_ T 2/2

7 ,S,Y!vDHrL

(2.aoc)

This 'is the mininium increment in temperaiure at eiiher anienna which wjl'l produce an output deflection equa'l to the r.m.s. no'ise flucluations.

?..7

The

Sensitjvity of a Direct

l"iul

tipl ication interferometer

Cons'ider an'interferometer of ihe type shorvn in Figure ?.Ib. To ob-uain a result comparable vlith equation 2.40c it w'ill be assumed that the aniennas are identical, the cables loss-less, and thai there is a po'int source vertical'ly

the antenna system. If the two ampf ifiers are identical , each tl'itlt a rectanguiar pass-band of w'idth Bp and gain Gg, centred on fo, and each wiih a noise temperature referred to the input of Tp, then the output of each will be a rectangu'lar noise band of width Bp and intensity
above
1,J1

=GHt(Tn+Tp+AT)

(?.41)

vrhere T6

is the antenna temperature caused by the diffuse background radiation and AT is the increment in antenna tempenature caused by the po'int source. As
in the case of the phase-srvitched'interferometer the background radiation will produce uncorrelated voltages at the tvro antennas because of the variation in
phase

difference with djrection, and if the two amplifiers are independent, the noise temperatures Tp will also be uncorrelated, The noise power of equation 2.41 can be split in to two components for each of ihe outputs, |^l5 which is a corre'lated noise present in both outputs, and l,J1 which is uncorrelated. l,l5=GgkAT
t,JN=GHkTry,
where

(2.42)

Try, = T4 + Tp

can be seen that the output of the multiplier wi1'l be a tniangular noise spectrum plus a d.c. component, the overall power spectrum I,Jo(f) being given by
From equation 2.?6c

it

l^lo(f) = 2l,ls2BH26(f

) + (2!^Js2+2tlsl.JN+l^lN2)(gH-f ),

0<f<Bp

(2.a3a)
as

If

AT<<

Tsys, then l'Jr<<lhr, and equation 2.43a can be written

lito(f) =

Zl,Js2BH26(f) + wp2(Bg-f)

(2.43b)

48.
Tiri

s snectrglp

is filtered
'

by

noise bandurjdtlr E; (=1/2TL)

whi ch

a 1or.r-pass f i l t.er vri ih a povrer resulis in a dc power output

=
lJr2Bp2G;

gai

G1.

and

p^^
ul..

Q.aaa)

and

a lolv frequency noise power

P11

(assunring B1<<8")

of
(2.44b)

I'l,12BnGr.

.,L

t'ituti ng for lJp and !i, from equati on 2.42, def i ni t'ion of the minimum detectable signal
Su bs

and us'ing the prev i ous

k6 T)mln BH = k

,rr,

IT
(2.45)

i.e .,

(lr)*.,- = 1- ]'rerrrrtr
n /FL

This gives the minimum increment in antenna temperature for a direct multiplication interferometer which will produce an output deflection equal to the r .m. s . noi se fl uctuati ons .

2.8 Ljnitations and Assumptions

In order to arrive at the sensitivity relationships of equations 2.40c and
2,45, the follovring assumptions have been made.

i.

jnput signal spectrums are flat over the.region of intenesi. In cases, if the bandrvjdth Bg<<fo (i.e., narro'rr band operation), this assumption if valid.
The

most

2.

Any conversion processes associated rvith the high frequency amp'lifiers are finear, so that the statistical properties of the noise are preserved.

This merely places a requirement on the amplifier design.

3.

The high frequency amplifiers in boi,h cases have rectangular pass-bands, and the bandwidth is small compared r,rith the centre frequency. Saunders

(tg6e) has analysed the d'irect rnultiplication interferometer for a singletuned band-pass amplifier and a rectangular band-pass amplifier, and has shown that there is litt'le difference in the results obtained. As more sophisticated amplifiers ulill come closer to a rectangular characteristic

,h A9

than the single-tuned amplifier, this assumption r,v'i11 normally have little bearing on the result. The narrow bandwidth requirement has already been specified (1).
A

has been assumed that ihere'is no phase difference betleen the correlateci signals at the two aniennas, and that no phase difference is introduced by the system. In the case of a phase-sr.t'itcheci int,erfer^onteter this implies that the mininrum detectable ter,tDerature has been calculated for the case where the response of the system is at, a maximum (see equat'ions 2.40b and 2 .40c) . For the di rect mul ti p'l i cati on i nterfenometer the correl ation
between

it

is

the tlo correlated signals wili be greatest when the phase difference zero, so here a'lso the sensitivity corresponding to the maximum response

has been calculated.

In the case of the phase-slvjtched interferometer ii has been assumed that the bandwidth of the lolv frequency anp'lifjer is less than one-fjfch of the
sr.ritching frequency, anci rectangular in shape. It has also been assumed that any phase difference betr.reen the outout signal waveform and the reference square wave can be cancelled. Saunders' (1968) anaiys'is would suggest that little error arises from the rec'uangular band assumption. The narrow band assumption is valid in this case, because only the fundamental component of the signal waveform has been cons'idered. Typically' bandw'idths of these amplifiers are only a fel per cent of the suritching frequency (L'im, 1968). It has been suggested (eoidste'in et al , 1957; Rob'inson, 1954; Christiansen and Hogbom,1969) that an increase in sens'itivity af tr/2/2 (-1i%) will be obta'ined if all harmonics present in the square wave are fed into the synchronous cietector. This factor can be obtained djrectly by analysing the response of the detector to a square wave, but it must be remembered that the calcu'lated response to noise is val'id only in the narow band case. Simple phase shift circuits can be used to cancel any phase difference between the signal and reference waveforms (Lim, i968).

6. in the case of the direc'u multiplication'interferometer it has been assuneci that the arnp'lifiers are iclentical , and that noise generated in the tvto
if i ers i s 'inclependent. Tne condi t'ion that they be 'identi cal 'i s readi 1y e:*icin.t but compleie independence is difficul t, to obtain (SaunCers, 1968). >cr L | 5 | I gu, Correlated noise oiher than that arising from a signal source seriously Ceteriorates the performance of a direct multip'lication'interferomeier.
anipf

vv.

7. it

has been assumed that the antennas are identical. As rhey itave a bearjng on'ly on AT, and as AT js d'irectly related to the aperture area for a Eiven source, it can be shorvn that'in the case of non-icjentical antennas ihe equations are valid if the geornetric niean area is consiclered in

relatjng

AT

io a flux density

(l(raus, 1966).
1e a$

B.

thai ihe cabl es be I ossl ess will have the effect of lowering the ga.in
The conCi t'ion

not irr;portant, as 'iossy cables t,he sysiem and increasing the

receiver noise.
9.

The condition that AT<<Tsys rvill be saiisfied in cases as AT is typically of the order of 10k, and degrees.

all praciical astronomy Tr^ severai hundred

as

LU.

simi'lar1y the conditions that

typically
i1.

and fr<<Bp wj'11 usually be met, Bg-lMHz, fs-100H2 and BL is on'ly a fraction of a hertz.
B;<<Bp1

As the interferometer output varies sinusoidally w'ith phase difference O, 'if there is relative motion beiween the antennas and the source, the output of the system will vary in a pseudo-sinusoidal fashion. This fact con-

siderably enhances the detection of signals, as relative motion is usually produced by the rotation of the earth. The frequency of this variation sets a lower lim'it on the bandr"r'idth of the low-pass filter, and so to the reduction of the background no'ise. The optimum filter if an ideal (rectangular pass-band) filter is assumed, is one which has a banclwidth B; equal to the frequency of these sinusoidal variations. t,lith a rea'l 1ow-pass filter, the sensitivity wi1'l obviously be less. For a simple RC filter, Griffiths (1956) has shown the minimum detectable signa'l to be Z.SdB higher than for an ideal filter.

2.9

Comparison vrith

0ther Results

sensitivity of radio telescopes has been a topic of dispute it is pertinent to compare the resu'lts of equations 2.40c and 2.45 rvith those obtained by others. The total power radio telescope, shown in Figure 2.3, is common'ly used as a basis for comparison.
As the

the resulis obtained in this chapter are app'lied to such a system, the mi n'imum detectabl e si gnal i s readi 1y found.

if

,/,qrursx xa

X ^...,u.* ; I D.T. i
-ri-:

i-;f so' LAY/ LiLov/-eassL

IFILTER
I

ourpur

Figure

2.3: The total

/ rrf \

powen radio. telescope

\^'i m'in -

Ttyt

Bs.T;

2.46a

For the purposes of comparison a factor

te1

k'is

defined so that

for

any

escope confi gurat.i

on
t, 'f I S-VS

(AT)mi

^.

y DH.iL

(2.46b)

where

k is an index of

performance

relaiive to the total

pov/er telescope.

the results of equations 2.40c and 2.45, k = r/Z/2 for the phaseswitched interferometer and 1//2 for the two-channel direct mu'ltiplication interferometer. In comparing these instruments with a total power telescope it must be remembered that AT is the increment in temperature at one antenna (in the case of two identica'l antennas). If the two antennas were coupled together in a totai power arrangement, a source wou'ld produce tlice the increnrent in temperature that it would for a single antenna. Referring a1l sensitivities to the same total antenna area, k for a phase-switched interferometer is r//Z = 2.22 and k for the two-channe'l d'irect multiplication interferometer is /2 = I-4I- These two telescopes use the total antenna area less effectively than a total pov/er telescope. However, other factors which limit the sensitivity of a total power telescope but have not been included in equat'ion 2.46a usually lead to a greater relative sensitivity for an interferometer configuration.
From

The

factors obtained are in

(Goldstein

with most of those in the literature et a'1,1957; Saunders,1968; Tiuri,1964) provided the total antenna
agreement

52.

'literature arising frorn this point (Goldstein,.19,55; Goldsteln et al ,19513 Tl'uri, 1964). Robinssn's (iee+1 results are also jn agreenrent with those obtained here except for an error a;f /2 which arises in his anaiys.i,s of a squar.e
Jaw

area

is considered in the interpretation of aT.

There

is

much confu:sion

in

the

detector.
The EffFc.t

2.ICI

of

teqeg-ted Observations

the constant output of a radio teiescope usually changes with time, as menti,or,led in section 2.8" there rr's a'lower limit on the bandwidth of the lowpass filter'r and so oh the neduction of- backgr.ound noise. The baekground noise can be furthr reduced hovlevef, without destroSring the signal information, by taking the av,era.ge 0"f, several obsenvations of a sourc.
Because

a fun.ction of time f,(t) which consists of. a siEr,ral S(t) and a noise N(t). The signa'l S(t) is periodic with period T, and the noise N(t) is a stationary random process with a zeFo mean and an r.rn,.s. value,o. Let f(t) be sampled at Q points per cycle of s(t), so that the kth sarnple wi'll be
Con:sider

f(tk)=s(tk)+N(tk)

Now
where

tk = O,+
=nT+tp
and
prcq..

i
.

e.47)

k, n.n and p a:re integers

Thus

f(nT + tp) = S,(nT + tp) + N(nT + tp)

= s(tp} + N(nr'+ tp)

N(nT+tp) will have a zero mean and r.m.s. ra;t:io at the kth sample point willl be

o, so that the signa'l-to-noise

s/,,r
whete

FIP]'
be

tp is
m.

deff ned by eguatian 2.41

If

sanples takeill

at int"ervals T are sununed, then the summation will

aJ.
m

nlrt(nl+to.)

,.i,

[,.0,
+

+ N(nr+tp)
nl

1
|

= m.s(to)

n=1

I w(nr+to).
will
nr

mo.z

Ine mean sguare value of the sum of m r'ndependent samples of l,l(t) (Lee, 1g60)o so'that ther signa:l-to-'noise,ratio after the

be

saniples

wilt

summatisn of,

he

S/* = t's'(:o)

"

mo2

=m

Ldl

EA]

The siQnal-to-noise ratio is thus increased nr times by the sumrRation or averagJng of m nepetitions ef the signal, point by point.

soutce crosses the rneridian at any point on the earth ohoe VeFy sidereai dajr. For a celestial source' the output of a fJxed radio telescope is thus perriodic wrlth a period of one sidere:a'l day. If resuilts o;btained on m succssive sidereail days are averaged' then the signal-to-noise ratfo of the output of the :telescope wil'l be irrlproved m times fro,m that for a s:ingle observation. Noti4g that fsr all of the t:nstruments discu5sed the ou:tp1,rt voltape is propor.,tional to the input poffef then thfs factor fn, the number Of observations sumncd, can be included in the genenal re'lationship (eeuation 2.46b) as
(AT)rni

Because

of the rotation of the earth, a celestial

(2.46c)

of avergg.ing m obse;nvations ean be consldened as, lncTeasJ,ng the f ntegratr'on tirme T; of the lou, pass fi'lter m times, wtitholrt altering'its response to the signal

The effec:t

54.
REFERENCES

CHRiSTIAIISEN,

l,l.N., and

H.OGBOM,

J.A. (1969):

i'Radio Telescopes". (C.U"P,,

Cambridge). DICKEi R.H.

(1946):

"'The Measurement
,

of Thermal Radiat:ion at

Mfcrowave

Frequenc'ies". Rev.Sci .Inst

FRATER,

, lJ

pp. 258-275.
,

R,H. i1965): "Synch:r,onous Integrator and Denrodulator", Rev.Sci,Inst. 36 pp. 634-637

GALEJS, J'..

(1957):

'fC,srn,parison

of Subtr"actton-type

and

Multiplier.type Cir"cuits:*. Froc. LR,E.

Radiometersr'. Proc.f .R,.E. ,

G0LDSTEIN,

45
of

pp. l4?0-,W22.
Two Rad,iometer

S.J, ("i955):
S.,J.,
TUCKER,

u.A

Cornparison

43 pp. 1653-1666.
G0[-DSTEIN,

0.G., and QRAHAM, M,H. (1957)r rlA Oornparison of Radiometen Circuits". Proc.I.R.E. , 45 pp. 365'3'66J,ltl.R, (1955};
'n0ptirnum
.RC

Two

GRIFFiTHS,
FiELSTROM,

Fi'ltens", Wireless Engn.,

9l

P,p' Z6:8-210i.'
f,Pergarnon

C.ttt, (1960): "statistical Theory of Signal Detectdon". P'ress, Londsn).

"Radi o Astro'qo.my"

KRAUS o'

J,D. (1900 :

(McGtr."aul-,FJi J

, New YorkJ .
(tottlleyp i'lew Yonlt}.

LEE' Y.lrl,.

(t900,): 'rStat{stical Theory of Communlication".

LIM, J.C. (tS0S1l 'fNon-Uniformly Spaced Arrays :of Directional Elements", Ph.D. Thesis, Universrity o:f Auckland.
RICE,

5.0. {:1945):
pp.

t'Mathematical Analysi.s o,f Random

Nofse".

B.S:..T.,J,,

.!!,

4'5-155.

R0BINSCIN,

8.,J. (196,4): '!,Receivers for Cosmic Radio tr'laves'r, Ann,. Rev. AstroR. AP", -2 PP. 4o'1'-432.
A.M. (1968): "A Design Study of the ,Correlation Radiometerr!. M.EThesisi University of Auckland.

SAUNDERS,

TtrU,RiI,

M.E. (i964) : ilRadio Astronony R:eceivers", Trans. I.E.E.E,, AP-12 pp. 931-938.

\.''.::

D:i Z:;l-, A. (1955): "liojsc".

(Cira:::crr dtici

ilall,

London).

56.
CHAPTER 3

The Interferometer

In

An Equatorial systern

of coordinates

the output of an interferometer and the incident radjation established in Chapter 1 js extended to relate the output to the pos'ition of a celestial source and the rotation of the earth. The coordinate system is defined and the concept of sidereal tjme is established. The output of the interferometer is then found in terms of the pos.ition of a source refemed to these coordinates, and the position and orientation of the interferometer base'line. It'is shown how thjs relationship can be used to determine the coordinates of the source from the interferometer output.
between

In this chapter the relationship

3.1 &qlg
This system of coordinates, conrmonly used fn astronornical work, is referred to the ce'lestiaJ sphere, an imagjnary sphere of infinite radius with the earth at its centre. The intersection of the p'lane of the earth's equator with the sphere is the celestial equatorn and the intersections of the earth,s axis with the sphere are the north and south celestial poles. It is convenient to regard all heavenly bodies as be'ing projected on to this surface, and the coordinates of a body can then be defined on the sphere in a manner similar to the

terrestrial coordinates of latitude

The

and lonqitude.

ascension (R.A. or o) of a point on the celestial sphere is defined as the angular distance along the equator from a reference point (the vernal equinox, sometimes called the first point of Arjes), measured eastwards to the hour circle of the point in question (the hour circle is the great circle passing through the poies and the point). The declinatjon (dec. or 6) of a point on the celestial sphere is the angle between the celestial equator and the point. Right ascension may be measured in degrees, minutes and seconds of arc, or in hours, minutes and seconds of time (24h=3600). Declination is expressed in degrees and lies betrveen r90o (positive north of the equator).

right

right ascensions and decljnations of stars are nearly constant; they vary slightly because of real motion of the stars, and precessional motion of the earth's axis, and a]so periodically because of nutatjon and aberration
The

(H.M.s.0., 1961).

57.

3.2

The Measurement
The most

of

Time

natural unit of time for terrestrial purposes is the so'lar day, the time corresponding to one rotat'ion of the earth with respect to the sun. Because of the annual rotation of the earth about the sun, the directjon of the sun is continually changing with respect to the celestial sphere, and a solar day does not correspond to one true revolution of the earth about its axis. For reference to points on the celestial sphere, it is more convenient to use a un.it of time based on the true period of rotation of the earth, the sidereal day. This represents one complete rotation of the earth with respect to the celestial
sphere. The sidereal day is defined as the interval of tinre between tlo successive upper transits of the vernal equjnox over the sarne neridian (l{.M.S.0,1961; Hosmer and Robbins, l94B), an upper transit being that instant that the point

crosses the upper branch of the meridian. The vernal equinox, or first point of Aries lies on the line of intersection of the plane of the equator and the plane of the earth's orbit (the ec'liptic). It is the ascending

in question

crosses through the plane of the equator from south to north, during the northerr, spring. The direction of the first point of Arjes moves slowly westward because of the earth,s precessional motion, and oscil'lates slightly about this motjon because of nutation. Owing to precession, the mean sidereal day is about 0.01s shorter than the actual period of diurnal rotation of the earth (Hosrner and Robbins,
1e4B).

node

of the ecl'ipticn the direction of the sun vrhen it

is divided into tlenty-four hours, each of which is divided into sixty minutes, and each minute is divided into sixty seconds, in the same way as a solar day. The beginning of a sidereal day (00h) is known as sidereal noon, and at a given meridian is the time of the upper transit of the vernal equinox. The sidereal time at this meridian is then equivalent to the ang'le through |,rhich the earth has rotated since the upper transit of the
The sjdereal day
equi nox.

'lower branch

solar day is defined as the interval of time betleen two successive lower transits of the sun's centre over the same meridian (tlosmer and Robbins, 1948), d loler transit being the instant that the point in question crosses the loler branch of the mericlian. The so'lar day is defined urith respect to the
The

of the meridian in order that it

may begin (00h)

at midnight (the

58.

civil

day).

As the earth rotates about the sun jn an elliptical orbit, its angu'lar vltocity in accordance with Kepler's second 1aw, the apparent angular motion of the sun is not uniform, and the length of the solar day as defined varies from season to season. The solar time nornrally used is that defined with respect to

a fictjcious point, tlte mean sun, which is imagined to move at a uniform rate a'long the celestial equator, making one revolut.ion in a year. The time indicated by the position of the mean sun js called mean solar time, and that indicated by the position of the actual sun, the apparent solar time.
Universal t'inre (U.T.) or Greenwich mean tjme (g.t'1.t.) is civil tinre (solar time beginning at midnight) for the meridian of Greenlich. This is the solar time on which most astronomical calculations are based.

3.3

Solar and Sidereal Tirne Intervals

Referring to Figure 3.1, let C be the position of the earth at the tirne of the vernal equinox, then the observer at 0 has both the sun and the first point of Aries on his nreridian. After one true rotation of the earth, the observer is at 0' and once again the first point of Aries is on his nrericlian, the earth having moved to C'. The time elapsecl is by definition one sidereal day. But it can be seen that the earth must rotate further by an ang'le SC'X before the sun is again on the meridian of the observer at 0". This means that the earth must move further on its path around the sun to c". The arc cc", and hence the angle SC'X, is almost one degree, so that a solar day is almost four minutes longer than a sjdereal day.

If C' is the position of the earth at any tirne after the vernal equinox
then cc'represents the tinre elapsed since the equinox. The angle sc'x represents the accumulated difference (in sidereal time) between solar and sidereal time. As these two ang'les are equal, it can be seen that after one complete revolution of the sun by the eartho solar time is 3600 (one sidereal day) behind sidereal time. The tropical year (equinox to equinox) is 365.24220 mean solar days (H.M.S.0.,196i) so that this interval corresponds to 365.24?20

+ I sidereal

days. 366.24220

i.e.,
or
and

x 1 sidereal day

365.24220
.99726957

x l solarday

sidereal/solar ratio

solar/sider ratio

t.0027379L

59.

Figure

3.1:

Solar and sidereal time intervals

This

nr,eans

that

ornc

sidereal secsnd

is

.9972695;l

solar

seconds or" that

the solar second

is

.27379L:1; long,er

than the sidereal

s,ec,o,nd.

3.4 Rig[t Ascension

The

and S:idereal Tirne

(L,H.A.) of .a point sn the celestial sphere is defined as the arc of the equator (sr angle at the pole') ffiedsurd l'iestwar.ds from the locarl menidian to the hour circle of the point. The Greenwich hou,r ang:le (G.H.A,) of a Boint is the hour angle at the meridfan of Greenwich.

local

,hour ,angle

In.Fi'gure 3.2, 0 is the position of, an observer, S th,at s,f a star, and the hour circle through G is the Greenwieh meridian. For" thre ohserver at 0, the lscal hour angle of the star S is the arc 0'S' and the Greenwich hour anEle of the star is GS', The arc G0' is the west longitude of the observer at 0" so that the f.ollowing re'lationship exists,be,tween Greenwich and local hour angl,es:

0rS' = GS'-G0'
L.H,.A. = Q.H:.A.-weSt longitude
(3 .1)

As the side'real time at any meridian is equal to the time elapsed since the upper transit of the vernal equin:ox, then the local sidereal time (L.S,T.) 0t any point is equa,l to the local hour,angle of the vernal e,quinox. The Star Almanac (H.NI.S.0., 1970) tabulates a quantity R which is defi:ned as the differ*

60.

NC.P"

I
I

J
I

Figure.

3.2:

The nelationshi'p betwen Greenwtch nd local hour an;g:les

the Greenwich hour angle of Aries (Greenw'ich sidereal tfne, G.S.T.) and un,ivensal tinre (Greerwici,r rnan time, G.l,l.T.), This quant'ity is egual to the angle SCiX in FiEure 3.1 and increases by 3m 56.55536 s every day (H.M.S.0.n
enrce be:tween
1961 ) .

G.S.T,

U.lT.+R

(3.2)

As sidere,al timre is the hour arrgle of the first point of Aries, and a re'lationship has been e-starblished (requation 3,1) between Greenwich and local hour angles, local sidrereal time can be calculated from Greemrich sidereal time.
From equatisn;3.1

L.H"A.

i.e.'
0r

L.S

= ,T, F =

G.H.A.-west Iongitude
G.

S., . -wSt ,lonEi tude

L.S,T.

U.T.+R-west longitude

G.3)

In Appendix 6 a cgmputer pfogFffrfl SIDER is described, wlri:ich given a starting valu'e of R and U.T., tabulates L.S.T. at intervals of local zsne time (Auckland).

61.

If in Figure 3,2 the poJnt v is the v,ernal equ.i:nox, then t:he definition the rfght ascension of the star s, A relations,hip can
between

arc VS'

is by

tlme (T = 0'V).

r{ght ascension, local hour angle (h = arc gfS,)

0'S'+VS'

be found and local s,i dereal

0,\l
R.A

.,e. ,

L.s.T.
T

. + L.H.A.
h

(3.4)

OF

o*

a star is on the local meridian, its local hour angle is zero (h=0). Thu's the sidereal time at fhat meridian is nurnerically equal to the r:ight as.cension of thc star, or the right,asceR:sion of any star is the (Iocal) side_ ;real t.;ime sf its uppe_r transit.
When

3.5

The FiEht Asce,nsio,n

of the Sun

Universal time, as defrlned in section 3.2 is equal to the Greenwic,h hour an.gle of the mean sun less twe,lve hour"s. If the hour angle of the actual sun differ.s frsm that of the filean sun by a quantity e, then
G.Fl.A.sun

= u.T. + 12h + e.

The Star Almanac (H.1,t.S.0., lg70) tabulates a guantity E (=12h+e) trom uthich the Greenwich hotrr angle of the sun can be calculated. G.H.A,sun
From eqgatisn 3.rl

U.T.*E

(3. 5)

R'A'ron
i' . ,.
r.

= G.S.T.-G.H.A.rru
= ;R-E

R.A,ruo

(3.01
surrl

e varies approximately within the range *15 mins so that the actual devirates from th trUe sun by about t4o.

3.6

The_0utput of gn Interrferometer iJr Tellrs

of the Eqqatsrial Cqofdinates

that if the antenna power pattern lc(g)12 and the bandwidth patterrir B(.e) are wi,de compared with the fringe widthn the output
was shown

of a Source In section l.E

it

62.

of a come'lation interferonreter is given by

D

R(0) = cos Zna-{gi-sino)

4o

(1.9r)

0 is the angle betueen the sor.mce and the no:rma'l to the inter^ferometer baseline in the plane thr"ough the baseline and the source. The length of the baselline i's D metres and the centre operating frequency is c/., . .The quantity 0i coffe:s'ponds to an instrumental delay. It is desirable to ^o reJate 0 to the hour angle H and decltnation 6 sf the source, and the hou,r angle h and declination d of the r-nterferometer pole. The interferometer psje I is defined as the interrsection of the tbase'lirle f,rom antenna l to antenna 2 with the aelestrial sphere, (see Figure 3,3),
where

Fig,ure
The

3.3:

The

definition of the lnterferometerr pole

spherical triangle of Figure 3.4,represents a section sf the cerlestial sphere. P is the nor"th celestiai pole, S i,s the souroi I is the interferometer pole" and 0 fs the centne of the sphere.

Figure 3..4: The sprherical triangl e showing the rrelatjon bebleen the position of the source and the baseline

63. From

the spheri ca'l tri

angl

formu I a

for

cos i

nes (l.losmer and Robbi ns , 1948)

cosa = cosb.cosc + sina.sinb.cosA

the fol

'l

owi

ng rel a ti on i s obtai ned:

cos(te) = cos(|ol .cos (|a) + sin(to).sin(td).cos(h-H)

i

.e.,

sin0 = sind.sind + cos6.cosd.cos(h-H)

(3.7)

Substituting this value of sin0 jnto equation 1.37,

r1
R(H,6) =.or2nDlei-(sin6.sind +

trsL

s6s6.cosd.cos(H-tr))l
J

(3.8)

This equation can be used to determine the coordinates (H,6) of a source from the interferonteter output. D, d and h are properties of the antenna system and can be measured either by normal surveying techniques or by calibration from a known source. lo and Li are propert'ies of the receiving system.
From equation

3.4

related to
observation

its right
by

can be seen that the hour ang'le H of a source is ascension o and the sidereal tinre T at the point of

it

T=cr*H
Denoting the sidereal time at the interferometer pole as TO, then the hour angle H in equation 3.8 is given by

H=TO-a
and refemed

(3.9)
becomes

to the pole, h is zero.

Equation 3.8 then

R(TO,cr,6) =

..r

+[ni-sin6.sjnd-cos6.cosd.cos(fp-o)]

For a particu'lar source, cr and 6 pseudo-sinusoidal fashion with time.

wjll be constant, and R will vary in a If O. (TR - o,) < n * then as TO increases,
cosd

cos(tp-a) will decrease and the argument of R(TO,o,6) wil'l increase because and cosd are necessarily positive (-n1, < 6,d < + r/Z).

* This condition implies that the source is in the visible

i nterferometer.

range

of

the

64.

is_a time at which a zero occurs in R(To,q,6)n and if roo2 is a zero n half cycles later and Tpo3 another zero m half cycles after Tpe2, then
a

tt.t'gt

?Put -si nd. si n6-cosd. cos6. cos (Tpot-o) ) = (N*|),,

Tkut-sind.sind-cosd.cosd.cos(Tpo2-o)

) = (ru+|n)n
) = 1N+|n+m1n

(3.10)

lkot
where N

-sind.sin6-cosd.cos6.cos(Tpo3-o)

I
the

is

an inteqer.

It is preferable to use the zeros of the output as points of reference

their positions are unaffected by the modulating effect of either antenna povler pattern or the bandrvidth pattern.
because

the equations 3.1.0, by subtract'ing the second from the third,

From

first

from the second, and the

$osa.cosd [cos(rpor-o)-cos(rooz-o)] =
and

(s.toa)

$osa.cosd [.or(tnor-s)-cos(rpos-o)] = m

These two equations can be

further

combined

to yield

f,-.-1r.l nfos (T,,o2-o)-cos (Too3-o)_] = m

provided cosd.cosdlO.

fos

(Tpq1-o)-cos (rpez-")_l

If

cosd.cos6=0 then there

of time.

The arguments

of

be no fringes as a function the cosine terms can be expanded, giving

will

*
where

= k.n _ tan-r m.cosTool-(m+n)cosTpo2+ncosTpo3 (3.11)

k is an inteqer.

be known from the pointing angle of the time, so a unique solution should be obtained from equation 3.11. The declination 6 can be calculated by substitution of this result for cr, into one of the equations 3.10a.
The shortcom'ing

The approximate value of o antennas and the local sidereal

will

of this

nrethod

of ca'lculating the position of a radio

65.

source is that lf Tpol- Tpo2 and Trs3 lie close togeth,er, both the denominator and nunerator of equation 3.11 will be small. Superior methods of performing this calculatiion have been sugg,esued (Read, 1963i Swenson and lrtathnr" 196S) birt these involve the assumption that the interf,erometer baseline,is horizsntal at the point of observation. If this is so, and the baseline is orientated in an east-west direction, then equatlon 3,8 beconres
R(H,6) = cos and

*[-t-cos6..cos(h-n)]

lf T, is the local s{dereal

time
h-H

at the sbserver's meridian,

=lm-u-y

1T

which leads to

R(Trnu,d) = cos

Tftt-sss6.sintrr-o)]

the bearnwidth of the antenna amay reducing this equation to

R(Tr,,c,d') = cos

If

is srnall, then lTm-ol is

snratl,

+[-t-(Tm-r) ..uru]
at
which zeros occur

(3' ta;

Tmol, Tlno2 and, T6e3 are the times previously defined for Tp, ttlen

If

in

th,e output as

fl*t-(rmor-o)

"coso) = (N+|)n

f,
from which a solution for.
6

*.r-(rmoz-s) .cosd)
ei

= (N#n)*
= (N#n+m)r,

(3.13)

-(T*6-o)

.cosd)

can be obtained

d=

q6g-r mr 2D1

;;;)-

1s.

rra)

=cos-l
As an a:pproximate v'alue of e

mfu
be known,

will

can be found by substitution

66.

into equations 3.13.

alternative method for solving equation 3.8 in the genera'l case, and ohe readily rea'lized in a digital computer, involves an iterative procedure for finding u and 6. The major portion of an output record corresponding to the transit of a source can be nonmalized by dividing it by the approximate antenna power pattern. The resulting record can be corrsidered as consisting of the fringe factor only. As the approximate values of c and d will allays be known from the pointing direction of the antennas, q and d can be calculated more exactly by an iterative procedure to find the curve which gives the least squares fit to the record.
An

of the Interferometer pole If the parameters d, D and h in equation 3.8 are to be calculated by geodetic surveying methods, then it is necessary to relate them to the measurable parameters of the interferometer baseline.
Coordinates

3.7

Referring to Figure 3.5,7 is the zenith at the point of observation, and has latitude 1,. The baseline is inc'lined at an angle e to the horizontal at the point of observation, and its projection on to the horizontal plane makes an angle 0 with the meriCian p1ane. 0 is the centre of the celestial sphere, I is the interferometer po'le with hour ang'le h and declination d, and P is the north celestial po1e. The plane NEO is the horizontal p'lane at the point of
observati
on
.

Nl
I

srcPZ=*-1

NZ:I

I :lZ EI:e
NE:
EZ

Pl:+-d

=Iy

Figure

3.5:

relationshio betleen the i nterferometer and the measurable parameters of the basel'ine
The

pol e

67.
From

the cosin: fule for spherical triangles

(Hosmer and Robbins, lg4g)

applfed to triangle PIZ

ttt

cos({-d1 = co.s(}.e) .eos(Fe) + sin({-1,) . sin$e},cosCI

i.e.,
A:lso

sind = sin$,sine +

cos!,dcoss,cos0

(3.14)

cos(F"l ^^-, L\ = cos(-hr _

- cos(tr).costial

i,.,

cos(h)

= sinq

- sin[''sfnd
.c

(3. 15)

If Tm is local sidereal tine at

the pole Tp

the zenith Z, the local sidereal time at

(3.16)

will

be given

b,y

To=T*-h
Thus

l, can be measured, and if sidereal tirne at the ob,server's meri'dian is known, then the sideneall time at the interferometer pole TO can be
and

if e,0,

calculated.

RETERENEES

H,M.S.0. (Her MaJesty's Statfonery Office), (1961): the Astronomical Ephemeniso. (London),
H.M.S.,0" (Her Majestyrs Stationery 0ffice), (t9ZO): Surveyors for the year 1970r'. (London).
HOSli,lER,

"Expl anatory Supplement to

"The Sta:r A:lmanac

'for

La'nd

G.L.

, and ROBBINS, ,J.lil, (lg4E): npractical llal I , London).

Astronomy". (Chapman and

READ,

R.B. (tgga): n'Accurate Measurement of the Declination of Radio Sources'!. Ap.,l. , 13E pp. 1-29 .
6.W., and lltlATFlLfR, N.e . (tS0S1: "The lr;rterferometer Fnoc. I.E,E.E., 56 pp. ?114-2130.

SI,IENS0N,

in Rad'lo Astronony".

68.
CHAPTER 4

The Specification

of a Data processing

System

of

the positions of radio sources which can be obtained from the output have also been discussed. In Chapter 2 a method of improving the sensitivity of a radio telescope t/as demonstrated. This consisted of taking the average of a number of daily observations; records on different days at the same sjdereal tirrre and at the same declination being of the same area of sky. Averagirrgr of this kind can be performed by the manual addition of analogue records, but the process is tedious (McLaughl in, 1962; Pownall , 1969). If the observations are available in digital computer acceptable format holever, the averaging, and any subsequent analysis of the averaged record, can be carried out rapidly and efficiently by a digital computer. Further, it has been shown that records obtained with different baselines can be combined to produce a map of the sl<y brightness distribut'ion by a process of Fourier transformation. This technique of aperture synthesis requires complicated manipulation of the data which can only be realized in a digital
computer.

tivity of an interferometern and the information concerning

The preceding chapters have established the relationship betneen the output a radio'interferometer and the incident angular power spectrum. The sensi-

In this chapter the general requirements of a data processing system for the acquisition, storage and analysis of the data are discussed. The systen has been designed primarily for use with the present 200 |'lHz telescope, but as the requirements of this instrument are ntodest, sufficient flexibility has been maintained to accommodate poss'ible future extens'ions of the telescope. In the final section a bnief descrjption of the system deve'loped from these requ'irements is given, and the design and developnrent of the'individual elements of this system are discussed in the subsequent chaoters.

4.L

The Universjty

of

Auckland Radjo Telescooe

The present 200 [IHz telescope is located on the roof of the School of Engineering in the centre of the city of Auckland, at a latjtude of -gO0 S1' 18' and a'longitude of n4o 46' 11r' east. It consists of two small antenna arrays on an east-l'/est basel i ne , operated as a phase-srvi tched 'i nterferometer. A bl ock diagram of the overall systern is shorvn in Figure 4.1.

69.

FI

LI

ER

STRIP CHART
RECORDER

Figure

4.1:

The 200 MHz interferometer

4.11

The Antenna System

lengths (-3 ft1 in diameter and is positioned one half wavelength from the centre of the main reflector. The reflectjng surface is made of l" galvanised steel wire mesh supported by a rvooden space-frame. The coaxial feeder cable enters the hollow subreflector support near the centre of the main reflector. The feed dipole is mounted on this support, vrhich contains the matching balun. The whole structure is mounted on two tripods rvith an east-west ax'is, and can be steered about this axis 600 either side of the zenith in the north-south plane. The gain of each antenna is approximately 15.5 dB, corresponding to an aperture efficiency of more than 957i. A more detailed description of the short-backfire antenna, its development and operation, is given in Appendjx 4.
The two identical amays each comprise two short-backfire antennas spaced 2.24 wavelengths between centres on an axis skewed vrith respect to the inter-

Four short-backfire antennas are used in the present system, two combined in a simple array to form each e'lement of the interferometer (see plate 1). The short-backfire antenna was developed for satellite communications (Ehrenspeck, 1969) and is remarkable for its s'inrp'licity and high efficiency. The 200 MHz antenna has a half-wave dipole placed midr.lay between two plane reflectors. The main octagonal reflector is trvo wavelengths (-to tt) in diameter, and is surrounded by a rim a quarter wavelength wide. The subreflector is 0.64 wave-

.2a), The calculated half-porver profile of the resultant pattern is shorvn in Fjgure 4.2b. A more detailed computed pattern contour plot, for the array pointed at the zenith is given in Figure 4.3.
feronreter baseljne (see Figure
4

70.

ttl

L L

(o

,o
G'

(u

c g

.o

(u

rF

-o

.v, (J ,u
(u

+,

o
(U

o
HI
!,J
I
I

dt

EI

71.
N

rF
li <l
I

4=2G.50

:,v
\ ?.-/ \(b)

(q)

r-

Figure

4.2:

The antenna amay and

its half power pattern

at the half-poler points is approximately 140 w'ide in right ascensiol.l and 24o r.,ide in decl ination trrlten the antennas are directed tolards the zenith. The peak s'ide-lobe level is 12 dB below the rnain beam.
The main beam,

trans'it principle, the bearn being scanned in rigrht ascension by the rotatjon of the earth, and in declination by steering the antennas about their east-west axis and jntroducing a phase delay into the leading antenna of each array. The effect of this steering is to reduce the effective north-south spacing and the skew angle o with increas'ing angle from the zenith. The computed pattern shorvs very'little deterjoration in the steerable range, making the visible sky those declinat'ions between +23o and -900. The variations of array right ascension beanuidth and peak side-lobe level as a
The te1escope operates on the

function of pointing angle are shown in Figure 4.4.

The two arra.ys are spaced about 60m apart and are at different elevations (see Figure 4.5). The projection of this baseljne on to the ltorizontal runs directly east-west, the tvestern array being at the higher elevatjon.

to the receiver vja long runs (-150 yarcis) of coaxjal cable, with a resultant attenuation of the s'ignals of 20 dB. To compensate for this loss preamplifiers are located at the arrays to ampfify the
The antenna arrays are coupled

signa'ls before they are transnritted down the lines. These preamplifiers use a sing'le b'ipolar transistor in a conmon base configuration producing a gain of 13 dB, vrith a noise temperature of 100001... This gain is insuffjcient to conrpensate for the losses in the cables, and consequently the cables make a consjderable contribution to the total system nojse tentperature.

72.

'1r

'-/,

-t

f/_

ul

rgil

f ili

= I
15{-

E
.ul

2
N
:E

E
&
LtJ

o
J

,f
,l
,l

cr' z

,#,

V
,{

I
I

*+l

A
I I

I'

I I
/ r' /

t,

>.
coRtours

in cs

lslqw

mExirn,gm

,gsin,

may.

plot of the pourer pattern of

the

73.

HALF.POWER BEAMWIDTH

PEAK SIDELOBE LEVEL

BEAMWIDTH

PHASING

LE

LENGTH

..-.o---+

- Yr-

3)/4-- ----

LOBE LEVEL

Figure

4.4:

Pattern deteri orati on with pointing angle for the skewed antenna a rr ays

Figure
4.12

4.5:

The interferometer baseline

Before the antenna output voltages are added together at the input to the receiver, the signal from one antenna is passed through a phase reversing sr,litch (see Figure 4.1) which inserts an extra half-wavelength of cable during alternate half cycles of the switching signal.

74.

a hybrid ring circuit (Smith,1961) as shown in Figure 4.6. l.lhen the inrpedances from B and D to ground are interchanged, the phase of the output at C is reversed exactly. If the impedances are a short and open circuit respectively, then there vrill be no losses in the switch.
The phase reversing switch uses

INPUT

OUTPUT

Figure
Germanium sr,ritching

4.6:

The phase reversing switch

diodes are used to perfornt thc switching operation. Using an impedance transformation, the "011" properties of these diodes have been considerably inrproved (Aitchjson, 1962). A ctuarter-vrave transformer has been used to achjeve this transfornration, so that the "0ll" state appears as an open circuit, and the "0FF" state as a short circuit. The reactive component present in the open cjrcuit case has been removed by the addition of a shorted stub. The switch layout is shovrn in Figure 4.7, and jts design is covered in

detai'l in Appendix

3.

These switches provide an isolation of better than 20 dB rvhen shorted (diode 'rOFF'r) and cause an insertion loss of less than 1 dB when open (diode
"0N" )
.

4.13

The 200 l4Hz Rad'iometer

a unit previously used in a 42 MHz instrument. A 200 MHz R.F. ampfifier and a 20G'42 l4Hz conversion stage have been added. This R.F. anrplifier uses a similar circuit to the antenna preamplifiers, and a dual gate metal oxide field-effect transistor is useci as the converter. The basic 42 llHz system also uses metal oxide field-effect transistors in its high frequency section, the 10.7 l'|Hz I.F. section uses integrated circuit cascode
The recefver
based on

is

75.

75N COAXIAL CABLE ARMS

OF HYBRID RIN6

O.226,\

SHORTED O.23

75N

STUB

153N

LENGTH OF
CABLE

lOOO

GERMAIIIUM
DIODE

pF DlsK FEEDTHROUGH CAPACITOR

SWITCHING

SIGNAL

Figure
ampl

4.7;

The diode switch confjguration

ifiers

(yarral I , 1968) .

The noise temperature

of the receiver is about 1000ok,

width (including preamplifiers)

The

and the 3 dB band-

is BOO rcHz.

I.F. output is

voltage
4.14

is

a square law detector, so that the output proportional to the input pob,er, rnodu'lated by the switching signa'l .
demodulated by

The narrol-band selective amplifjer and synchronous detector r,lere also designed for use in a 42 l4l-lz installation. The discrete component amplifier uses a twin-tee feedback network to obtain a 3 dB bandwidth of 12 Hz centred an 423 Hz. At the nearest harmonic of the nains supp'ly frequency (4oo Hz) tfre gain is down by 12 dB. The phase-sensitive detector is linear over a range of t400 mv output, and its operation is essentia'l1y unaffected by the presence of noise on the modu-

lated waveform (Lim, i968).

A simple RC filter with a switched time constant of either 10, 20 or 30 seconds (T = RC = 1/4 Bp) is used to remove h'igh frequency noise from the output. A high-input-impedance unity-gain amplifier follor^rs this filter to prevent loading by the analogue recorder. The output impeclance of this amplifier is -200 o (Yarra'tl , 1968) .

4.15

The Pqrformance

of the 200 liHz Interferometer strip chart

record

Figure 4.8 shovrs the analogue

of a drift

scan through

76.

the Crab Nebuld, o = 05:31:30, 6 = +Z1o 58, (Kraus, 1966). For this observation the antennas were pointed 580 north of the zenith 1o-+zto1 and the filter tjme constant was 20 seconds. The transit occurred at approxinrately 11.00 pm local time, when terrestrial interference is relatively 'low. Short spikes of interference can be seen qu'ite clear]y on the record. The 3C list of radio sources gives the flux density of the Crab llebula as 1420 x 10-26g/nf lHz at 178 l4Hz (Kraus, 1966). Taking the maximum peak-to-peak def'lection of the fringes to represent 3000 x I0-26!1/m2lllz, then the average peak-to-peak noise deflection is approximately 1200 x I0'26i[,/nr2/Hz. Assuming the peak-to-peak deflection of a noise waveform to be four tinres the r.m.s. amplitude, the r.ffi.s, noise fluctuation of the system appears to be of the order of 300 x 10-26v/nz/Hz.

I ,t l,

;..

|, ;

.'',

*
i

It tt

I I

\. rlr
lr -l
o

'

1'l

'{

[,

i'tl , ,l

.:l

(rt-

II
t-

| '. )

Fjgure 4.8: The analogue chart record of a drift scan through the crab l.lebula on the zOth Decenrber Lg7o. Antennas pointed to 6 = + 21o; filter t'inre constant Z0 seconds
The

theoretical value of these fluctuations can be ca'lculated

Tsys

from equati on

?.40,
li \^'/min -- Zfr /^T\

'zEH.tf

For a source

with the antenna by (Kraus, 1966)

of flux density S W/nz/Hz, if the source is small compared beamrvidth, then the increment in antenna temperature AT is given
AT AI

Ae

2kr

(+.t1

'is the effective aperture area of the antenna, equal to the geometric mean in the case of an interferometer, and k is Boltzmann's constant (1.38 x 10-2t;/0f) . The nrinirnum detectable fl ux densi ty wi 11 tlren be
where Au

77.
(as )mi

k.n Ae./2

Tryt
/Blr,.TL

(4.21

From equation 2.31

ferometer is

the system noise tern;lerature for a phase-slitched inter-

trrs =
where Tp

TR*>n(TA+Tg)

being caused by the losses in tlre transm'ission lines. l^Jith a high frequency bandwidth of 800 KHz and an effective integrat'ion period of 40 seconds (nc=Zos) the calculated minintunt detectable temperature increment is 1.4lo1. For the short-backfjre antenna arrays, A.-14m2, s0 that the r.m.s. fluctuations at the output are equivalent to a source of flux density 290 x l0-26!,/nz/Hz.
4. 16

ground temperature is approxinrately 10000K (Shklovsky, 1960). The receiver noise temnerature for the present confjguration is about 7,5000K, most of this

tures due to the sky background radiation. At 200 l4Hz the effective sky back-

is the receiver noise temperature and T4 and Tg are the antenna tempera-

Future improvements to the present interferometer system can be divided into two groups: (1) thcse improvernents a lready be'ing worked on, ancl (Z) improvements planned over a long period, of a much more indefinite nature.
1.

preanrplifiers and a nev,r receiver are being developed. These should be in operation within the next six nionths. Preliminary tests on a preamplifier circuit (Bryant, 1971) indicate a gain of 29 dB and a bandwjdth of 1l'1H2, with a noise temperature of about 1000oK. This should reduce the minimum detectable temperature to .Z7ay,, i.e., a minimum detectable flux density of 53 x i0-2tw/^r/Hr.
nevr

At present

2.

One

baseline of the interferometer cannot be extended beyond its present length. It is possible that at some future clate the telescope may be shifted to a more suitable site. If this is done then both the baseline and the antenna area wi I I be extended. 0n the present s'ite, no major a'lterations to the present configurat'ion, other than the scheduled rece'iver improvement mentioned in (i) are at the moment
p1

of the major limitations of the present system is the site. In addition to a very higrh terrestrial noise level, it has the disadvantage that the

anned.

78.

4.1"7 The Possi bl e Observation of pul sars

present knowledge

ti'11 the present time at the University of Auckland, attention has been prinari'ly directed tovrards measurements of nelative flux densities and positions of radio stars, and general observations of the sun. Nith the discovery of pu1sars in 1967 (Smith and Hervish, 1968) a possible new sphere of interest was created. This netJ class of radio source is characterized by the radiation of short pulses of energy at precise intervals, typically of the order of one second. Since thejr discovery they have been intensively studied at many different frequencies and at many different observatories. To date, more than fifty sources of this type have been located. Hewish (1SZO; presents a summary of the
Up

of pulsars.

The average flux density of these sources is typica'lly of the order of 1g'zorrtr1^z/Hz, and the peak pulse flux, subject to great variation, is usualiy of the order of 20 x 10-2'\rl/n2/flz (Booker and Runrsey, 1969; Ginzburg et a1 , 1969). To observe the individual pulses, very short time constants (-10 ms) must be used on the low-pass filter of a telescope. This requirement reduces

the sensitivity of observations to such an extent as to put pulsar reception out of the range of all but the largest radio telescopes. However the detectability of the signals can be enhanced by making use of the accurate repetition period of the pulses, and averaging over a number of periods. If for instance a twenty milli-second time constant was used, averaging 1000 pulses wou'ld bring the sensitivity of the observations to the same level as for a single observation with a twenty second time constant. I'Jith a one second repetition period thjs vtould imply averaqing over a period of seventeen minutes. Such averaging can be performed by an on-line general purpose digital computer (Booker and Rumsey, 1969), or by a specially designed signal averager (Deardorff and Trimble,1968). The period of time over whjch averaging can be satisfactorily performed is limited by variations in intensity of the pulses. For reliable observations this period should not be longer than a few mjnutes (Booker and Rumsey, 1969). the present telescope has been extended to its maximum perfornrance within the present site limitations, it is proposed to evaluate the feasibility of pulsar study in light of the sensitivity of the instrument. If such a project seems 1ike1y to produce useful results, special purpose pulsar signal averaging equipment will be developed. This possibility'is to be borne in mind in the specification of a general data processing system which fol'lorvs.
When

79.

of a Data processinfl System Data processing in any field is concerned with the collection of data, the conditioning of this data, and the ana'lysis of the data to extract the required information (Preves, 1964; Clark, i970). The collection of data usual'ly involves the conversion of physical quantitjes into electrical analogues. Because the processing of large amounts of data js often best performed digitally, it is the function of the conditioning section to convert these analogues into digital form, and store the data ready for the final stage, that of analysis. If the data has a coordinate (e.g., time) r,rhich is fundanrental to the analysis, then this coordinate must either by stored and identified with a set of data, or inplied by the storage location of the data.
The Function The essential functions

4.2

of a dig'ital data

processing system can be

sp]it

into four sections (Figure 4.9):

1.
2.

The

interpretation of the physical

phenomenon by

electrical

analogues.

The conversion

of these analogues jnto numbers (ana'logue-to-digital conversion) and the establishment of any coordinates. this data
(and coordinates).

3. 4,

The storage of The processing

of the stored data to interpret the results.

DATA ACQUISITION

DATA

ANALYSTS

/--.^-,

DATA

DIGITAL
DATA
PROCESSER (COM PUTER)

DIGITIZER

EXPERIME

TAL

\' TRANSDUCE

RES
RS

LTS

Figure

4.9:

Elements

of a digital data processing

system

80.

the experiment.

in which the digital data is to be stored will be influenced by the type of processing to be performed. If this processing is complex and not routine in nature, the ntost efficient processing will often be achieved by a general purpose digital computer. In rnny cases the rate at which the data is acquired will be well below the capacity of a digital conrputer and it is often advantageous to store the data off-line - that is to store the data on some temporary storage mediunr (punched ca'icls, punched tape, or magnetic tape) which can'later be processed by the computer in much less time than the duration of
The ntanner

4.3

The

specific

Requirements of_ the 200 MHz Interferonreter

In a recent review of astronomical information processing systems (Clark, 1970) it was stated that the essential prob'lem is merely decjding what is required, and then producing a system to meet these requirements. From the general digital data processing systent described in section 4.2, and the details of the 200 MHz
interferometer given in section 4.1., this sectjon requirements of the system.

will

establish the basic

4.31 The InterPretation of the Physjcal Phenomenon by Electrical Analogues The function of data collection is performed by the ex'isting antenna/receiver system. The physical quantity of interest'is the power in the incident electric field from a particular direction of the sky at a particular frequency. It has been establishec,l in the preceding chapters that the output voltage of a radio telescope is proportional to this quantity.
4.32
The conversion

total number of states which nray be represented by the conrbination of N binary digits is then 2N. An analogue quantity nrust be amplitude quantized in order to be represented by this finite number of states. Because of the fjnite time required to store these digits, and a finite storage area, the analogue quantity
must also be tinre quantized

The conversion ampfitude and time quantization. This process is performed by an analogue-to-digital converter. In an electrical-numerical system numbens are usually represented in binary form. Each binary digit can represent either one of two states, and the

of the Electrical Analogues to Digjtal Form of electrical analogues to digital form implies both

or discrete'ly

sampled.

The interferometer output must be sampled at a sufficiently high rate to preserve ai1 frequency components present, and the resolution of the amplitude

81.

quantization must be sufficient to resolve the entjre range of the signal, fronr noise level to saturation. This asnect of the specification is discussed in

detail in

Chapter 5.

of binary digits to be stored in any interval will be proportjonal to both the number of digits per samp'le, and the number of samples per second.
The number
Hence

the data storage rate

The Establishment

will

be dependent on the quantizer specification.

4.33

of

Coordinates

output in order to calculate the positions of radio sources, and also to average collateral samples*. 0bservations of the sun are almost repetitive with a period of ?4 solar hoursl for these observations the coordinate required is solar or universal time. Observations of stars are repetitive with a period of ?4 sidereal hours and thtts for these observations the coordinate requirer, is sidereal time. it would be possible here also to record solar time as a coordinate, and to calculate the cornesponding sidereal time during the subsequent analysis. However samp'les taken on successive days would not necessarily be at the same sidereal time, and interpolation would be necessary before the observations could be averaged. It is then preferable, for observations of stars (other than the sun) to record sidereal time as the coordinate and also to ensure thai; samp'les taken on successive days correspond to the same sidereal time (i.e., are collateral). For observations of the sun, solar time should be recorded as the coordinate and samples taken on successive days should correspond to the same solar time.

It is necessary to relate time to samples of the interferometer

the storage of successive samples of the interferometer output is sequentia'l (as opposed tc randonr) and the sample inter',,a] is fixed, then it is necessary to record the tjme coordinate only once during any one scan as the position in time of any sampie relative to this will be implied by its storage location. In order to avoid the loss of large amounts of data if an error should occur in the system, the data can be stored jn blocks of a suitable lengtho the ends of block of data being marked by records of the time coordinate. The choice of block length r^ri'11 be based on a consideration of the permissible data wastage, the rate of occurrence of errors of this kind.**
are appfied to the interferometer sampled data as follows: sequential samples are successive sarnples of the output, forming a continuous record; collateral samples are samples corresponding io the same point in the sky, taken on different days.

If

* The terms collateral and sequential

B?..

This requirement may vary from one experiment to another. For a single observation of a source any data lost vrill be irreplaceab'le, and the block length should be small. For a series of observations which are to be averaged, data lost in one observation can be replaced by the averaged data from the remaining observations, and so the block length may be longer.

4.34

Storage

of the Digjtal

Data

The process'ing to be performed on the interferometer data may vary from the complex manipulations of aperture synthesis to the sinrple arithnretic of averaging a set of numbers. Processing of such a qeneral nature is best performed by a digital computer. As the processing will norma'l1y involve combining observations

from several days, the data should be stored off-line onto some temporary storage medium to be later read into the computer for analysis. The choice of a storage medium wjll be governed by the input facilities of the available digital cornputer.
The University of Auckland computing systern is based on an IBM 1130 computen equipped vrith a high speed card reader/punch, a high speed line printer, and a low speed paper tape reader. The 1131 central processing unit uses a 16-bit word, and has a 16,000 word storage capacity w'ith a 3.6 micro-second cycle time. An additional 106 words o'F storage are available on tlo random access magnet'ic disks connected on-line. Each disk contains approxinrai;eiy 500,000 words of

storage with an average access time of 30 rnicro-seconds. The 1403 line printer will print up to 600 ljnes/minute; each line contains up to 120 alphanumeric characters. The 1442 card reader/punch will read up to 300 cards/minute or punch up to B0 card columns/second; the 1134 paper tape reader will read up to 60 tape characters/second (IBt'1, i96g).
The high cost of a card punch, coupled with the fact that its high speed capabilities would not be fully utilized by this project, rules out the use of punched cards as a temporary storage nredium, leaving punched paper tape as the only possibiiity. Paper tape has the advantage of being the cheapest of the machine readible media to implement, and the djsadvantages of the'lovr speed, noise and unreliability inherent in mechanical dev'ices (Clark, 1970). llowever

the relatively lorv data rate of this project

inexpensive paper tape equipment, making
medium

is vrel'l within the range of

choice as a temporary storage

its

desirable as well as inevitable.

** These may be caused by electrical interference, for

instance.

83.

The 1134 paper tape reader is designed to handle standard one inch wide, eight channel paper tape. Data fronr the tape can be read direcily into core storage without code conversion as an image of the holes in the tape (.i.e., a

read as a binary 1, no hole as a binary 0) by assembler subroutineq or tapes punched in PTTC/8 format can be decoded by stanclard Fortran subroutines. The PTTC/B code uses one entire tape character to represent a single a'lphanumeric character. Because only data is to be stored on the tape (no comments or statements) a direct binary representation wil'l be more economical of tape, hardware and reader time. The slor,r reading speed of the 1134 combined with the cycle-steafing concept of the 1130 (IBl1,1968) makes complex non-standard highdensity data formats preferable to standard low-density formatsn because decodinq can be performed during the read.ing operation. Although the Unjversity is at present negotiating for the purchase of a new conputer, a system based on paper tape w'ill not become obsolete as sevenal other paper tape punches are in use in the University for recording experimental data for analysis by the present computer, and any future computer r'ri11 be equipped vrith paper tape peripherals.

hole

is

4.35 Anglsis of the Stored Data

As suggested in section 4.34, analysis will be carried out by the IBM 1130 computing system. As details of the analysis rvill vary according to the investigation being carried out, it was the aim of the author's research to develop the process'ing system only to the point vrhere individual experiments would diverge. standard software is then required for the following procedures.

1.

The transfer of data from the temporary storage medium (paper-tape) to the computer bu'll< storage (nragnetic d'isk) . The data should also be checked for

errors occurring in the acquisition portfon (hardware emors).

?. 3. 4. 5.

digital filter to

tortion.

produce the nraximum filtering of the data rvithout disThe philosophy behind this technique is discussed in Chapter 5.

The averaging The

of data from a number of

observations.

(e.g., the spikes

rejection, during this averaging, of data marred by excessive noise.

appearing on the record

in Figure 4.8).
comparable

The output of the reduced data analoque strip chart output of

in a form directly
the telescope.

vrith the

84.

6.

The transfer of the stored data from the magnetic disk (a senri-permanent mediunr) onto punched cards, a ntore pennanent mediunr, enab'ling a more rapid

storage

of the data if it should be subsequently required.

The data, once stored and returned

in the computer should be kept in a standard

form,

to this standard form after any other operations. A fully indexed file system should be provided so that at any tinren details of the data stored, and its present stater can be readily obtained.

4.36 Internal Requirements of the System As it is necessary that in aclcljtion to recording a tinte coordinate to samples of the interferometer output, samples on successive scans should be collateral, then the same time-keeping equipment which generates the coordinates could also be used to generate the sample interval. In addition, this timekeeping equipnrent could be used to initiate and terminate the acquisition process at set tjnres durinq the day, rvhen sources of interest were in the antenna
beam.

4.37 General Considerations

The processing system specified in this chapter can be divided into two basic functions - data acqujsition and data analysis. The acquisition or hardware sectjon takes the output from the interferorneter, quantizes it, and records it on paper tape together with time coordinates. The analysis or softlare portion of the system consists of a series of cornputer programs designed to

store the data from paper tape jnto the computer, reorganized this data into easily manageable form, and perform some pre'linlinary processing on the data
From

an

the general data processing system of Figure 4.9, the specification has developed to the system shown in Figure 4.10. A genera'l description of the data acquisition system is given in section 4.4 and the development of the various elements in both the acquisition and analysis systems is covered in the subsequent chapters. The data processing requirements of the existing telescope are very modest, and an attempt has been made to keep foreseeable improvements to the telescope wjthjn the capabil'ities of the system.

4.4

of the Data Acquis'it'ion System The data acqu'isition system deve'loped to meet the requirements specified in this chapter is slrown 'in bl ock di agram form jn F'igure 4.11. The principal
A General Descriptjon

85.

Existing
ten
Receiver
Anerlogue Ree ord err

Progrannab)-

Analogue,Converter
n''ormat

Acquisition or
llardwere Sgrsten

Control

to-Di.gita1

Co,ntrol

3ap:er Tape

torage Anelysi s

Digitax
eomputer

Analysis

o.r

Software System
Chart-Type Output
Nurnericel. Reeu1ts

Fiqure

4.lQ:

Thie interpretation speci fication.

of the data processing

system

86.

units of this system are a digital clock, an arialogue-to-digital converter, a paper tape punch.

and

A high stabil ity 5 l'lHz crysta'l oscil lator drives a digital clock vrhich sintultaneously produces both solar and sidereal times in b.c.d. format (hours, minutes, seconds, I/70 seconds). A six digit numerica'l display can be srvitched to show either one of these times. Control circuitry, lvhich derivcs its timing waveforms front the clock, produces sample instructions at a programmed interval.
These cause the analogue-to-digital converter to sample the radjometer output and transfer the resultant digital word into a buffer register ready to be punched onto tlte paper tape. After a nreset number of samples, a block mark

instruction is produced r^rhich causes the digital output of one of the clocks (either the solar or the sidereal) to ne transferred into a buffer register ready to be punched.
I'lhen any

data is transferred into the buffer register, it is divided up into five-b'it bytes whjch are punched, together vrith two identification bits and a parity bit as one eight-bit word on the paper tape. A digital mult'iplexer controls the grouping of t.hese bytes rrrhich are punched in a preferred sequence, and only those words in the buffer into which data has been entered are punched.

SYSTEM
PROGRAM

CON T ROL
C I RCUI TRY

5 MHz
OSCI LLATOR

DIG ITAL
C

BUFFER
R

DIGITAL
MULTIPLEXER

LOCK

EGI STE R

DISPLAY

PAPER TAPE
P UNCH

Figure

4.11: simplified block diagram of the data acquisition

system

87.
The design and development of the three principa'l units, and their associated systems, are described in the following chapters. A'lthough the digital clock forms the heart of the systern, controlling the entire acquisit'ion

process, the analogue-to-digital converter provides the vital link between the telescope and the computer and its specificatjon must be carefully considered. The sampling rate and dynamic range requirernents of this unit are deterrnined by the frequency spectrum of the interferometer output. Before the design of

the analogue-to-digital converter is descnibed in Chapter 6, a detailed discussion of the effects of filtering and sampiing on the interferometer output is given in Chapter 5.

REFERENCES

AITCHISON,

R.E. (1962): "The Use of High-Speed Silicon Computer Diodes for R.F. Switching". Trans. I.E. Aust., El{4 pp.7-10.
RUI'1SEY,

BOOKER,

H.G., and
Earth

V.l-1.

(i969):

's Pl asrna Envi ronment" . Prooosal Subnri tted to the lla ti onal Sc'ience
BRYANT' OLARK,

"Radiot{ave Diagnostic Studies Uni vers i ty of Cal i forni a , San

Foundati on,

of

the

Di ego ,

P. (tgZt): Fl.E. Thes'is, University of Auckland. (to ne pub'lished).

"Information Processing Systems in Radjo Astronomy Astronomy" Ann. Rev. Astron. Ap. , 8 pp. 115-137 .
and

B.G. (rgZO):

DEARDORFF,

J.8.,

and TRIMBLE,
ng "

Averagi
EHRENSPECK,

C.R. (1968): "Cal ibrated Real-Time Signal Hewlett-Packard J., 19, l'lo. B, pp. 8-13.
Nachri chtentechni sche-

ll.rr,. (1969): ,' 'Backf ire' - Antennen,' Zeitschrift, 22 pp. 286-292.

GINZBURG, V.L.,7HELEZNYAKOV,

V.V., and ZAITSEV, V.V. (1969): "Coherent l4echanisms of Radio Emission and Magnetic l4odels of Pulsars". Space Sci., 4 pp. 464-504.

Ap.

HEWISII,

A. (1970): "Pulsars". Ann. Rev. Astron. Ap., B pp. 265-296.

"IBM 1130 Functional Library, Form A26-5831-4.
(1966)

IBM,

(1968):
J.D.

Characteristjcs".

IBM Systems Reference

KRAUS,

"Radio Astronomy". (l,lcGrarv-Hill, New York).

88.
Llllvf

'

.r.C. (1968): "N'on-U6ifonmly Spaced A1 rays of Dirrectiorral Fh.D. Thesis, Univers;ity of Auel,,la.n,d.

Elernents,r.

McLAUGFILIN,

J"C. (196?): "A Data Digitizinrg and Pro:cessing

M.Se

System

Teleseopet'.
P0I'INALL' M:"J.

. Thesis n O,hio State U:nlvefsity.

for a Radlo

(lOeo1: 'lA Data, Processing system for a Rotating lnterferumeter'il. M,. E. ThesJ s , Univ.ersity of Aue.kltand .

PREVES,

D.A. (1964): "The Acqu'isition of Analogue Data in a Digital Format,.. Unive-rsity of Illinois, R,R.L, publication 26,5.

SHKL0TVSKV,

I.S. (1960) :

"Gosmic Radjo wave,6". (l{arvard Univerrsity press

Massactucetts).
SMITFI'

F.G. (1961)' nR.F. Switching Cir"cuits and htybrid Ring Circuits Used in Radio Astronomy". P,Foc. I.E,E,, l0B pp. Z0I,-ZM.
(Macmillann

sl{xrll, F.G,., and HE!'tIsH" A. (eds.), ([96B): ,,pulsating stars,,,

Londo'n)
VA'RRALL'

J.W. (leeel: "A 42 MHz Radiometer using Metal Oxide Fiel.d-Effect Transistons and Integrated Circurits". M.E. Thesls, Un,fversity of
Auekl and.

89.
CHAPTER 5

Filtering
The problem

And Sampling The Interferometer 0utput

of specifying the capacity of a digitizer in terms of sampling rate and avai'lable bits is re'lated to the dynanric range of the analogue signal to be converted, the noise in the analogue system, and the use to be made of the digitized s'igna'l (l'4elton, 1967). In this chapter the requirements of a data digitizer are established vrith reference to the spectrum and dynamic range of the interferometer output. The output spectrunr is dependent on the characteristics of the 1ow-pass post-detection filtern and having the data in digital form opens the possibility of using a dig'ita1 filter, s0 relaxing the requirements of this analogue filter. For this reason, all tlrree functions, low-pass postdetection analogue fjltering, data digitizing, and post-sampling digital filtering, must be considened together.

5.1

The 0utput Spectrum

of a Correlation Intenferometer

In Chapter f it was shor'rn that the output of a correlation interferometer for a point source, as a function of source position 1,, was the product of three factors: (1) the antenna poh,er pattern lG([)l', (2) the fringe pattern F(l) = cos(znn.p./l) and (3) the bandrvidth pattern B(L) which is usual ly suffi ciently wider than lG(,Q,)lt to be ignored. If the signal output as a function of L is denoted S(g), then
s(

r) = |G(o)lr.F(s)

=
where D

lc(

L)l'.cos(z"p)

(s.1)

is the baseline length in metres. For a single lobed antenna power pattern, e(f.) l' ir conveniently represented by a Gaussian function.
I

lc(e)12 =

u-r[;l

,L *2

(s.2)

the half porver r,,idth of this pattern is Zeg radians, and if 0g is srnall so that f,g = sinog * 0g, then defining 0=0 as the djrection of the pattern
maximum
n

If

"[tj

= 1nZ

90.
i,

., ,

o =

9'B'

/L'lnZ ,/ 1l
ri ?0g, Substituting this value of o lnto equation 5.9., nfr, l2
le

(s)

;z = *-4[e-s;
as

(s. zal

and thus equation 5.1 can

b-e lvrri

tten

s(*1 = .+[*-rj
Fron equation 3 ,,7 , lo ean be relrated 'parameters of the baseline,

n .cosZnf,.

(5.1a)
and the

to the pos'ition s'f the source

f, = sind.si
where

nd*cos6,,Gosd. cos(Tp-e)

(5,3)

the source has p'ight asciensiion'o, declln,ation d, andthe interferometero pole has de-clination d and lscal siderea;l time Tn. Fnom thr's eguation, when (Tp-cr) * rll, then L varies app'rqximate'ly linear.ly wr:th time. For. a horieontal ea:st-w,st baseii re this dmpliers observations near the zerll'thn whi,oh is co,nsistent with the co'ndi'tion that 06 is small. From equatfon 5.3n

E+

B(T+t)

*
where

p.tr

(5.4)

is the hour angle (in r"adians) of the source re,l at'tv;e to the i nterfe,roneter zenil th. Equation 5,la can now be rewri'tten as
and

F = eo-sd.cos,6 " T = tand.tan6 t, = (Tp-o) -rl2

n[Ft:)

s(t) = .-4-[6-u 1 .coszfst'

which gives the output
var"ie-s

(5.5)

sf the interferometer
at a rate of

as a function of

t',

an angle

whiich

linearly with

tr',me

Zn r.adian,S/day" Fon

t'

deftned in

seconds

0f tfrne, then

91.

6 = BThe fol'lowing

COsd '

965't ?r radians/second

(s.6)
5.5.

-ilAOiAOassumptisns appty

limiting

t0

eq:u6tf,o,n

1,, 2.

Trhe

antenna power pattern Js narroq go

that foF excu,rsions 0 about its

centfe, 0 I
zenl'th

sino.

The,antenna power pattern

in order

is eentred ln the d'irection of'the baseline that (Tp-al * nlg.

if the sig;n:al output, (equation'5.5) ls to b low.pass filtered and sampled, then it is:of interest to know,the frequ'eney spectnum of S(t). From equation,
5.5 this spectrum $(f) .uo be written
as

3(t) = I

JL

fr-g.fg]' ^ I -j2nru, - .dt'. lr-alry cosznftt'1..

A
J

Let.

3,(r)=j.atoe-J.e"
and,

Jl'!i]'

-iznrt,

dt,

| -j2nft, dt' i,1r1= | .ouzokt' .. ')'tr

then

16

e,(u) = e, tr)*$- 1,r}

where

* rreBr^esents eonvolution (Bracewell, 19,65).

c.

Now -l r' t''

t
Becauise

g.-on[Tlu
ts

relationship between c(*)n the antenna vOltage pattern, and g(x) th6 antenna aperture distributr"on, then Sr(f), t'he Fouri'er transfst"m,of lG(gls is 1/B times the autocorrelation func,tion of the apet'ture distrlbutJon, with f/6 substituted for x.
trransfor:m

of the Fourier

,92.

and

i,rfl

= *gCn-Tl

- lnft-iql

i.o.,
This 'spectrurn

$(t) = FL.

t' -u''F,'#,]'

*.-4"[t*'4']1

(s

"r)

is

shown

in

Figure 5,!..

ISU,F-5.!:

The output spectrum

of a c'orrelation iriterferorneter

As a functio;n of source declination 6,, the product, cosd,cos,6 has a maximum; value of cosd (0<cosdct) corresponding to a source at the,equator., and a minimum value of 0, comesponding to a source at a pole. For any particular s,ource declination" the outprrt sig;pa1 spectrum of a correlation intrerferorteter will be gi:ven by eq,uation 5.7 and Figure S.1o whers B i.s dete,rfiined by,equation 5.6. Fot'9,=6 (a source at a po'tre) the spectrum r'rill he a delta function at f=0, f ,e., the ourtpu:t fs c.onstant and thene are no f,.ringes. In the analysis g'iven in this chapter,, i't is,the highest, freque,ncies prre-sent in the signal output which are of interrest.or concern, For this reasen the cese of a sourrce at the equator (e=0; and a t-rue east-west baseline (A=0) wilt be oonsidered. From equation 5,6,

F=
"r-%.

7.28

x 10-5 radians/seeond.

For the 200 l{Hz interferom:eter, 206-160 and D=40},, giving

# = 2'6 x 1o-4
and

I'lz

ry

E 29 .L x Lo'* Hz.

93.

In addition to the signal spectrum of equation 5.7, the output of a correlation interferometer also contains a noise spectrum (equations 2.38 and 2,43)
vrhich can be considered

flat at frequenc'ies much less than Bp, where Bg is the

section.

bandlidth

of the high frequency

5.2

Analogue

Filtering Techniques sensitivity of a correlation interferoK.Tsys

(AT)mi

In Chapter Z it
meter

is

was shown that the defined by (equation 2.46b)

=

,/m
K.Tsys

(5.8)

where (AT)min is the ntininium detectable increment in antenna tenrperature, K is a factor determined by the type of interferometer, BL is the noise bandwidth of the post-detection 1ol-pass fi'lter, and Bp1 is the noise bandvridth of the high frequency section. The minimum detectable signai is then proportional to the square root of the noise bandwidth of the lovr-pass filter, and for maxinunr
shou'ld be as narrow as possible without distorting the signal. If the intenferonreter is to be used to observe sources at all decl'inations, then from F'igure 5.1, for no signal distortion the pass-band should extend fronr zero to DBn,u*/tr lrertz.

sensitivity the bandwidth

At these 1ow frequencies, realization of higrh-order circuit approximations to the ideal filter (e.g., Butterworth or Chebyshev) is impracticable because of the high LC products i'equired (Griffiths,1956). For this reason active RC filters of one or more stages are nonna'liy used (Criftiths,1956; Yarrall,1968; Cooper' 1970) although other novel forms have been suggested (tluchinich, i969).
noise spectrums and monotonic sinusoidal signals, Griffiths (1956) has computed the optimum cut-off frequency in terms of the sinusoid frequency, of a number of low-pass fjlters. The opt'inrum filter is one wh'ich produces the maximum improvement 'in signal-to-noise ratio. He has also calculated the loss in signal -to-noise ratio compared r^rith an ideal 1or'l-pass f ilter, under these optintunt conditions. Three consideratjons significant to radio astronomy have been neglected in Griffiths' analys'is.
For

f]at

1. It is

important that the post-detection

filter

should give a

fast step-functio

94.

significant ovenshoot, to prjnimize the time required to calibrate the system by the injection of a hnown noise signal into the input (Cooper, 1970).
response r'rjthout
2.

the post-detection filter rvill gjve rise to dispersion as well as time shift, destroying the information.
3. Because

As the real-time output of an interferorneter contains valuable information concerning the positions of sources, significant non-linear phase lag in

of the sntall signal-to-no'ise ratio at the output of a radio telescope, extraordinary disturbances often cause large deflections of the output.
transient d'isturbances is obviously a significant factor in the choice of a lou/-pass filter. Disturbances of a long duration will be covered by the step-function response criterion (1). Short term disturbances however, will cause deflections corresponding to the impulse response of the network.
The recovery time from such

Table 5.1 oresents a summary of the properties of several "optimised" lowpass fflters. The ideal lovl-pass filter and ideal integrator have been included for purposes of comparison. The "optiniised" filter is that filter giving the maximum signal-to-noise improvenrent for an input sinusoid at frequency f5 plus white noise. The input signal-to-noise ratio is such that the output signaito-noise ratio for the opt'imised ideal lor,r pass filter is one. Al'l properties of the optim'ised filters are given in terms of the sinusoid frequencV fs. The derivation of this table follotrs fronr Griffiths' (tgSO) and is given in Appendix
5.

of the impulse response is taken as the interval during which the magnitude of the response for the normaljzed transfer function exceeds 0.01. Because of the non-linear relationship betleen this duration and the filter parameters, the 0.01 level impulse response duration is plotted in Figure 5.2 as a function of fs for the optinrjsed filters.
The duration

In considering the optirnum signal-to-noise ratio given in Table 5.1 relative to that for the ideal 1ow-pass fj'lter, it nrust be remembered that the output voltage of a multiplying interferometer is proportional to the input power at the antennas. Thus a loss in signai-to-noise ratio of l,l dB at the output represents an increase in (ar)rin (equation 5.8) of onlv (il7r) og.

95.
U)

o
+-.'

O o

a,/1

UJ
LTJ

L E

ro

t\
cn

q-

tn

\()

r\ cf)
UI qF\ C\I

Refer
t^ q(\j
r.o

to Fiqure

5.2

(n J a) = luf o- tdH

or(u = 3->

a (F c!
ES.

th t^ tn Fq-qc\, c! r\ t/|NcoN (F sf sf (r, cr)

lnA tF CO

\o
(U

\o

c\l

q-

(o(Y)
g

LO (n (Ur)
LrJ

t+)

z. >-<-

Cl

(u

)tn

a
qtn

o z.
th (F

c o z.
q.-{
CO

c)

(l,c, oobeba
=,
v,

Z.

r{

rf)

z.

o
tta (F
qrr)

Lrl c) tll

v)
o-

c. v\
vl +) (F
th tn
(o

Fa,, rt

r0,

'-E F iq.P a f)
t)

lr,
\^o

t-.

CE

f-.

.n qr-{ r.o

alnul q- q- q\- \. -\ f\ C\t Nl C\l tft CO r\ + cf)

\.\ |.r)
to

\0
co
GJ

co

o I
o =
E
(u
ah

z,+ F
F

ut,

E O

Ef]

cc :o

co

rO
C\l

co

ao of oc -g 1J -O

O c!

ro
l..r ^ q-l c{^

o) or
(\.l Fl

co E'O
(Y)

(\t
r-{

ct

(\,t

c!

F P

o o
o)

J tlJ 6 LI V'

t{qqF

th

o \\l lts 9- I *-. v

|.-n lv

ltF

o qtF
= =
=
I

o JJ

c\rll
I

cr-

+t qC\,I

lr{

C!

tr

o
co

{J

,d

rd +J

'o +J

z,
st co
ll

(o
O
rf)
(Y) I H

q-

l'*-

o
U)

Ot

a q)
+)

=f I qf r-l

Of\(C)tr) Ost(f)@ +sfcDC! tttl

<3r{ sr CO C\J CO Ln (O cn <J- Lo

c\t
cf)

l. (U q o
(u

F F c,

O
r-l

sr

ro

cf)

@ tf)

<r
a qHqll E=vr(f) |F f\l \co<f rIll

(f, F\

=t

to F

ro
u
-o
ct F

HF t-- H LO O

== Ier

UI
14

Lltts
tl

tn tn (F
tl

F\ fr)
tl

t^ r.tCV ca

\ \aa
oooo q-+Frts
lot

l.l- a a F{ tf- qc\,1 (.o Fl r{

.fl

tc

L)

(Fo

o tF
l+-

Ilttitl

C\l r{

ooo q-q-tF

qLrJ

o (ts

<H F(-)

LL6 ul =.

ro t+ +) tF
t(\ .r? Ol (ts

+) q-

o
L)

+-

'-) I

(\,

+x (F
=

Ct

U.

trlF '-1tr ol

FI (Fl

ltr l\t

f-tr lo(\,l

o tF===
(F

\\
F{

l= ll^ totr l(Fc! \Fll

l+l- '.? I l+ lr-lo lsrF
vl

L)

&,

-rl(F l.l'-) l+o l?-a

ll t+-

'r?
C\t

\t

Fl
ll

r-{

HF LL

E t!, l{ FoJ>-

o
tr.'l

o +J
fd

L (U
(J
cJ I .IJ

rO

L o

-l g= . GJo

-cJ

rcJ ro9 qJc -OH

o
LN

c)(J qJ ca V)

CFt rl

(v ro rr) .ccr\
H

EO G)'c +) +)

ruu
N,

-O tJl H(J
LN
@

G,l

t()

o Ft

LII

niltl LN L'

z,

96.

Simple RC

Ideal Loir-Pass FiIter Ideal Integrator

Filter

-+--+ -r-{-i
il
as

r. =

0.7 I second ) 0rder = 1.0 J Filters

RC

cascaded RC sections as for second order fi lter with ; = 1.0. Second order filter with c = 1.5

for simple

filter,

10

v,

z
(J

o
U

z o
F E J t! 6

z o
E
vl U

u3 q

0.2
0.001

!.UJ

0.

I
|

0.3

sIGI.iA:- FRiCUENCY

Figure

5.2:

(t '5

'

uFoT?

The .01 impulse response duration of some optimum

fj I ters.

97.

Table 5.1 shows that the optimurn ideal 1ol-pass filter produces the best improvement in signal-to-noise ratio for an input sinusoid plus white no'ise. The idea'l lor^r-pass filter is however, physica'l1y unreal'izable even in digital form, as its impulse function exists for an infinite t'inre. 0f the real filters ljsted, the underdamped second-order filters give the nrost improvement in

signal-to-noise ratio. The N cascaded isolated RC filters come only to within 3 dB of the ideal response for large values of I'l (Griffiths, 1956) and other high-order f ilters show on'ly a sf iglrt improvement for added complexity (Cooper, 1ei0).
The

ideal integrator, which can be physica'l1y realized (Tavares, 1966)' gives the fastest step-function response tvitlt no overshoot for a given ft. l'lo analogue filter, of any order, can procluce a better response (Cooper, 1970)' If I% overshoot can be tolerated, then a secorrd-order filter with 6=9.825 has a rjse-time only L2% longer than that of the ideal integrator. On'ly a slight (Cooper' improvement in this rise-tjme can be achjeved by higher-order filters 1970). If 5% overshoot can be tolerated in the step response' then the secondorder filter with 6=0.7 produces a rise-time only 3% longer than that of the
i

deal 'i ntegrator .

For a given s'igna1 frequency f5, the ideal iow-pass f ilter gives the smallest peak cleflection for an inrpulse input, but it can be seen frorn F'igure 5.2 that for signal frequencies greater than 0.005 Hz, most of the other fjlters produce a deflection rvhich lasts for a shorter period than the ideal low-pass filter. 0f the realizable filterso the ideal integrator gives the

smal'lest impulse deflect'ion, and apart from filters designed for signa'l frequencies irr the range 0.0037 to 0.18 Hz, the duration of this response is less than that of any of the other filters. Table 5.1 has been clerived by considering a signal

of a single fixed jn interferofrequency. l,lhen transmitting the Gaussian spectrums encountered metry the amount of distortion introduced by the filters must be consjdered, jns because as previous'ly mentioned, the tinre varjation of the signa'l conta valuable information. Al'l of the RC filters exhibit a non-linear phase delay' and at the s'igna1 frequency fs this delay is qu'ite significant (n7O for the simp'le RC filter, greater for the others). As r're'I1 as producing distort'ion of the Gaussian spectrum for any particular value of B, if the interferometer is to be used to observe sources at different declinations, then the average time sh.ift of the s'igna'l w'i11 vary fronr declination to declination. As far as analogue filters are concerned, such heavy filtering as implied by the optiirum

98.

filter is not of great practical interest, because of the severe distortion produced by the dispersion of the filter (Cooper, 1970). Recovery time from transients is also long for these filters. Even the ideal integrator which has a linear phase response produces d.istortion because of its non-linear amp'litude response. Generally, where optirnum signal-to-nojse ratio is requ'irecl it is preferable to use a moderate amount of analogue filtering and to follow this
with some form of digital filtering (Cooper, 1970), by rvhich near optimum signal-to-noise ratio can be ach'ieved r.rithout undue distortion of the sional
spectrum.

of a number of filters for a maxitnum distortion of 7% of signals in the range G'f, hertz. For three of the filters discussed, these parameters are sholn in Table 5.2, together with the corresponding noise bandwidths in terms of f' and the loss in signal-to-no'ise rat'io compared wjth the ideal 1oi.r-pass filter. The step response and impulse response of these "I% distortion" filters is also given.
parameters

Tavares (1966) has computed the l'imitjng

filter

Distortion is here defined as the r.m.s. difference betleen the input and output of the fjlters, with suitable delay and normalizat'ion to minimize this distortion, when the input is a flat spectrum extending from 0 to f, hertz.

this table that for a maximum of I% r.m.s. distortion the signal-to-noise improvement of an ideal integrator is greater than that of
can be seen fronr

It

a simple RC filter, but not as good as that produccd by h'igher order filters. The ideal integrator g'ives the fastest step response and the least significant impulse response, but tlrese are not a great improvenent on those produced by the
simple RC filter.

5.3

Sampling and Frequency Al jasing

of the sarnpling operatjon is that of "frequency folding" or "aliasing" (Martin, i959). The effect of sampling a s'igna1 at a rate f6 is to produce jn the frequency domain an infjnite number of images of the orjginal spectrum centred on inteqer multiples of the sampling frequency
A fundamental property (Bracervell, 1965; l,lartin 1959) . If the sanrpling frequency is less than twice the hjghest frequency present in the signal spectrurn then some of the first harntonjc spectrum will fold back into the origina'l spectrurn, causing aiiasing of siqnal components symmetrically d'isposed about f6/2. This leads to the well knotvn sampling theorem (Bennett, 1948) that'it is necessary to sample a signal at trvice the rate of the highest frequency present in the signal in order to be able to fu'l'ly recover the s'ignal .
l,lhen sampling

a signal in the presence of noise,

if prefiltering

has

been

99.

'di a,

FI

irO b

="arrrl g3-

l4lv

#. tl (-)+ '4tF

'vl

tn tF

or
Fl

io .iF

l{-

an

tlFl

t/l

rc\l

A:JF r3- g r{ r:l

l4l.(f,

*-4

.f\

at:

'tJt

@ r{

o,
N

tl

r=

rb

o. i
ch
FI

.n

t4 9(u s.G a+, .cL

to

lrl vr.,u

lag At ! LCD ag ()

.F

J<
l-l

rl*
SJ

tn
:OI

=|.l-! o- 6-

vl

q
o
:(/l (F

Fi

!l-

an

rts
lJft

,ln

th
B.

.FE

f?
(Tl

+t
lF ,g ,o {J I o {-l
IA

'@ GI

-sE F6 .
N
4L

nt

cl_

q o' .i|nl

.11 af,

= H CLF tdl Ir- lrf

H 'e,

lrJ

(F

ian

ri !o

t<)

t\ rr-l

!n

tF
AD
.LO

,In

rF
$J

.jA

ovl .u1 o5:

ll
l'{-

Ft

(\I

r,o

g,

.F

:o

E,
b.q

e I r-d OF F< lct

< Lrt d,.
utt

Fl

ro
o0 g,

(D

c,?

rS E (o

1J

hr ()

CO.F'

o'

lq
t

a
,l

q
I

g o
Q

t')

(ts
rti,

z.

o u
1-

^gt +, l.g \o. !r gr=.E i-l *i t(l,+f vi, +, F 4, (oq-(u '..FL

FO'F (li E.F

o
+,
aF

(!t

th

,r9.L9

+,

F lrj Cl Itl J1 ,{ 3l olf 4Z 6

:l;c'

t;

ttt

tl-

(\l
<f

lF N N
(?

rh

fF !\. r-l

ull

.cL

0o F.

(tJ

(rl

"c P.

EOF EOFi dr.F,,)r .F.qrnqg =+r(J'

*l=G=F.11

otnct JrF

att

rst.oo,o

ft= oct Lr- Pr

zE, o9 HFF(/| li-f l{

*
iF
W {F
UI

*
$ rf(o If
tl

*
u, qr sl'

eit .ll lol

l=

lrt

=.!a o
(;'I FI

oa-

I o: t{F

-:

l-

il

rF

ct sf tl
q-

5l gl

ol

.e -t Ct +t Ot-(D(') {uoL(t, (F an tn .A .,r, (u 5=.Ot^+' O({rEosO .F D(.

.t-

:c|

.4 ut .L,tJl
ll-

ut,
tut,

I' o +l L 9l F (lt (o] i}: (us

.(5

(t

'h- 6-

-J >. EiF

a-

.6

&,

()
CL

L. (, :g L QFr Itl
Q,o

10t..]F

.9= oo !J H

.ID F<

{n'

t/.,

uc) ud.

100.

light in ot"der that the fu'|1 amplitude of the signal ls retaiRed, then even if the signal-plus-no,ise is sampled at twice the h'ighest frequency i'n the:signal
kept

the first hannsnic nois,e speetrum will quite Tikely overlap the origin,al signa.l sFeetrum. This "reflected{ noige cannot be removed, even by subsequent dig'ital filtering if the f'ull signal gpectrum is to be pre,ser,ved. This is il,lustrated in Figure 5.3
spectrumn
wU)

/ .------/-

t'T-l
I

j' ,--=*._/::'

Figu;r'e

5.3:

The,

eff,ect of sanipli'ng on a sigmal-p1us-no,lse (a) Input data befone s,anrpling (b) Data sampled at, a frequeneJ fd, shouihg
inrage speetrums

(c1

(d) If
sampling

Transfer functisn o,f digital filter fon nnaximum signal -to-noise improvement Sample<tr data after fr'ltering uith the
optimurn

filter

shoryn

in (c),

is to int'roduec no add,itfsnal noise,

then signal-plus-no'ise

101.

must be sampled at a sufficiently high frequency to ensure that no noise in the first harnonjc spectrum is folded back inside the transfer function of the subsequent digital filter. If no post-sampling filter is to be used then it is necessary to sample at trvice the frequency of the highest significant component

of either the signal or the noise spectrum to ensure that sanrpling introduces
additional noise.
The shape of the noise spectrum of the input data (Figure 5.3a) mined by the transfer function of the presampling filter, and jf the

no

is deter-

to this filter is white, then the shape of its

same shape

as

its transfer it

input noise output noise spectrurn rvil1 be the

function.

should be noted that jt is preferable to sample the signa'l waveform as slowly as possible wjthout deterjoration, in order that (1) the data recording speed is l<ept to a min.imum, making the most economical use of the storage medium and perhaps reducing the cost of the recording equipment, and (Z) reducing the computer storage requirements and processing time for a given area of sky.

At this point

nofse reflected into the signal spectrum is permissiblen then the necessary sampling frequency f6 can be computed rvhen the filters discussed in section 5.2 are used as presampling filters. The right hancl colunrn in Table 5.2 gives the frequency at which lH(t)lt = 0.01. If the input noise spectrum is flat, then this frequency fx is frequency at r^rhich the noise polver is i% of its low frequency pob,er. Assuming that an ideal transfer functjon can be achieved in the post-samp'ling digital filter, then the only concern is for" noise reflected inside the original signal spectrum. For I% reflected noise the required minimum sampling frequency is
L%

It

f6=fr+ft
For a simple RC filter, designed for l% maximum signai distortion, the required sampling rate is 47fr, wh'ich corresponds to 1.6 samples per filter time constant. The ideal integrator requires a sarnpling rate of f6 = 20fs or 2.4 samples peLintegration period. ilowever by careful adjustment of the sampi ing frequency to fa = i the portion of the harnron'ic spectrums reflected into the 1ow frequency signa'l spectrun correspond to nulls in the filter transfer functi on (see F'igure 5 .4) .

For J = 'tt75/fs, the filter giving I% distortion, the required

sampling

102.

frequency

is B.5fy

only 1.3?i at

and the reflected noise from the first harnronic spectrum is the edge of the signal spectrum. This is essentially the functjon
a

performed by the integrating digita] volt-meter, rvhich integrates the input signal over the sarnpling interv,rl. Although this type of digitizer leads to very efficient systenr (Cooper,1970), as noise reflectecl into the signal spectrum increases rapidly with frequency (o fu near f=0) the realization of

the'low noise requirement

post-samp1 i ng

fi I ter

is very dependent on the transfer function of

the

(Tavares

, 1966) .
w(f
)

1.,

Figure

5.4:

The

first

of an ideal integratoris

irnage spectrum when the output sanrpl ed at one sampl e per i ntegrat'ion period

Considerable reduction in required sampling frequency can also be achieved by using a second-order presampling filter, for vrhiclr the minimum sanlpling frequency is only 13ft for I% reflected noise from the first harmonic spectrum.

less than 1/3 of the sampling frequency requ'ired nith a simple RC filter. llowever, as with the ideal inteqrator, the reflec'ued noise increases rapidly with frequency and this low noise condition is dependent on the post-sampling filter, Usual'ly, because of non icleal post-sanrpling filters, a sampling frequency h'igher than f s wi'l 1 be requ i red .

This

is

5.4 Digital Filtering

Techniques

Consider a function y(t) sampled at a frequency fdGT/1^). If the sample is taken at time t, then the value of the kth sanrple !p will be

first

Yg=Ylt,+(k-i)T61
0r

yk=y(te+k.T6)

(s .e)

103.
where

to

as

k is an integer and to = t, - Td. a set of sampled data.

The samples

y(to + kTd) rvill be referred

to

A digital or nunrerical filter is one r^lhich acts on a set produce an output Jo(t) where (tlartin, 1959)

of

sampled data yk

Yo(to+pt6)
Usually p

k=--

Br .y(to+k .16 )

(5.10)

origin for k, equation 5.10 can be revrrjtten

t\l

is an integer, so that the output replaces a sampled value for a particular to, and Bp is non zero only for a fjnite range of k. Redefining the
as

yo(to) =
Thus the

tr2

,.1., K=l\

Bk.y(ts+k.T6)

(s.toa)

consists of a set of (ttr-llr+l) wejghts Bp, .... BNz, and the output is a r.reighted average of (ilr-Nr+1) sampled data values. Noting that the action of filtering vievred in the tirne dornain consists of convo'lving the filter impu'lse response with the input data, 'it can be seen that the weights Bg correspond to ordjnates of the impulse response of the filter. As a zero phase shift fjlter has an irnpuise response symmetrical about t=0, zero or n radians phase shift at all frequencjes can be achieved in a dig'ita1 filter by nnking Bk=B-k (l4artin, 1959), i.e., by making the weighing symmetrical about te. l,lriting -N,=Nr=ll, equation 5.10a for a zero phase shift firter is

filter

16(to) = I Br.y(to+k.T,1) k=-ll

vthere B_k = Bk.

(5.10b)

the desjred filter transfer function l-l(f) is knovln, then the weights Bp can be ca]culated from tlre filter impu'lse response h(t),
Bk = Td.h(kTa) where

If

(5.11)

the 'impulse response ordinate h(kra) has been multiplied by the samp'le interval T6 in order that the sumrration of equation 5.1.0 replaces the convol ution integral.

Ideally, any filter transfer function can he procluced by a digital filter. From the theory of matched filters (Turin, 1960), optimum signa'l-to-noise ratio

104.

will

be ae'hieved by a tnansfer function the complex conjugate of the sighal spectrun. The spectrum of sig,nails o,f i;nterest is approXirnately re:ctangular f,rom zero to fs, (DE*.o/l), and the optimum filter will be the ideal 'low,-pass filter

the ideal lovrpass filter transfonms to a weighting function which deeays rather slowly with tinre (see Figure 5.5) and needs to be trunca&d for practical purposes. The mos.t rapid filtoring w,ill be achieved with as few weig'hts Bg as po,ssible, as'therre will be fewer c-omputations for each flltered data value. It is of interest then to o,bserve the effect of truncating the impulse t"esBonse of' an i,deal 1ow-pas,s filter.,

wfth

fo=fr.

$lowEver

Consider the ideal low-pass filter with a function and impulse response are

cut-off
U(r-fo)

f,requency

fo. Its transfer

(s.lz)

H(f) h(t)

u(f+fo)

sin2nfqt Znfst

uhere U(x) is a unit step at x=0. From these equatiiohs, the weights Bp digital fonn o.'f this filter will be

of the

B,k = 2foT6 sinZnf6kT4

ZnfekT6

oF
wher,e

Bp

= ?r t#f;51

r = foT6 = fA/fd, the ratio s'f cut-off frequencJ to sampling fr,equrency. If r is small, as it wil'l be for liEht presampling flltening, then Bp is sigimprulse response

nificant f,or large values of k (see Figure 5.5), and h.e'nce the evalu,ation of the filter or.ltput ofi any particul,ar tine involves a larEe n,ulRber of samples, unless
the

is

truncated.

Csnsider the truncated

filter
z?

with Bk giv,en by

Bk

ti$#

forn I r.I o tolra

=0
If
then

for

lkl

to/rn
and a

this

filter

has an irnpulse response ht

(t)

transfer function H'(f),

105.

h'(t) = t"[t).tu[r+so1 - u(t-ro)]

and henee
H,'(f

), = H(f)'t

lJ=^Zttttr nf'

(5.13)

where

* repr"esents eonvolutis:n, and H(f) and, h(t) are given

the convolution inteErail for. eguattorr 5.13,
and

by equation 5.12.

I'lrJrt:ing
then,

putting x=Znfto,

l2nto(f+fo)

H'(f)

si nx

.dx

5.13a)

'Znts(f-fo)

Fi.gqfe

5..5:

The impulse response

of the f deal

low-pass

filter

The tnansfer functton

of this

for various

value,s

of't6.

tr.uncated fiitern is plst,ted i'n Figure,5.6 The corresponding impu:lse response can be obtained

fro,m Fi,gune 5.5.

faature o,f the transfer functioils o these trtrncated filters is the ripple in the ampilitude rsponse in the reg'ion sf the crt-off freguency, which increases with increasing to. This is a direct resu'lt of the truncation of the impulse'response, and it can be shown (Fapoulis, 1,9:62) that if the Fourier tran'sfonn f(t) o.f a discontinuous function F(f) is truncated fs,r ltl>tq, then the comesponding frequency functio,n F'(t) does not Eive a satisfactory
The mai'n

106.

-l*o

,o Fl*

- l*o
tl

tl*o
-

,,8 o

.o

FL .e .F) lF

P;r

r.p vlGt L(, (uE

.u {d Q.t= oc =ct F'E

ct +,

vlF .nL

Pl
atr

sl q:
al
(l,

*f*o

-l.ie

o at lFo, o+r fg
an6

o= .r 9+J {-t (,
go(F +' =c,
tJ1

(/l (, gE

lAl tt

l*o
o

,^l*O ''1(\r
tl

o,l rFl
+,

EI Ll
o

(tI

F
t,

x
I
I

:t o1 iil

:l

"it

107.

appt"oximratisn

to F(f) in the vicinity of the discontfnuity,

no matter hovl I ar.ge

to i,s chosen, unless it is infinite,, This;behaviour of F'(f) nuity of F(f) is ,hnoWn aS Gibbs' ph:enonenon.

near a di sconti -

the Fouriep trransform r(t) ef r(f) is nrultiplied [y the tniangular pr.rlse of Figure 5.7a, rather than the sguare puilse of Figure 5.7b rrrhich corresponds to the truncation previ,ously discussed, th,en the resultant frequenqy funct'iorn F,'(f) d,oes not contain nipples near diseontinuities in F{f)n but changes monotonically (Papoulis, 162; Craig, 1964). The o-vershsot, of the Gi:bbs'phenomenon is eliminated, rhowever a slolver chan,ge results.

If

fi{ure 5,7;

The tr'to impulse respon.se truncati,ng

multipliers discussed;

(a) the tniangular multiplier^, dftd (b) the step multiplie-r"

its

Applying this fol"m, of truneation to the irnpulse response h(t} of the ideal low-pass filter (equa,tion 5"1.2), the modified im'pu]se response h"(t)

and

transfer function H"(f} are Eiven rby

h,'(r) = h(t).(t-l'l/.0).tU(t+101 -

;U{r-ro),I
(5, t4)

H'(f)
The second term

sin-arrtls) = H(f)*to (nft6)2

in the convolutrlon,
(r6xo1 to sin2 (nfrs) z

i's

knov,n

es the Fejdr. kerne'l

loru*pass

, and

this appraxinatisn t'd t:he trahsfer

f,unctlsn

of the ideal
0rar'9, 1954) .

filter. is

knorun

as the Fej6r fiLlte,r (,Papoulis, 1962i

108.

By performl':ng fhe eonvolution

for H"(f) and writing x=nfton trhen

H'(f)=*l

lnts(f+fs)

tin;t'd*

(5. r4a)

I 'nto(t-fe)

This transfer fu,nction h,as been ev'alu'ateol for vari.ous values of tq, and is shown in Figure,5.6 plot,ted, on the same greph as the corresponding step-truncared filtel". It can be seen that the transfer funct'ions of these Fejdr filters do not contain any amplitude ripple near the cut-off frequency but do not give as sharp a cut-off as the step-trunca,ted filters f,o.r the same ts.
The step responscs

S'(t) and S:"(t) of these filtens

can be evaluated by

the inteEration of their impu'lse respo,nsc,s, i.e.n

s,(t) = I h,(t),dt
J

rl

=0, fort"-to
= | zro sil2nfot . dt, fo,r ltl: to
1t

.| -to

&rfot

| zfo sinZnfot dt, for t>to Z?rfot .| -to

rt

r+to

and

S"(t) = I h.'(t).dt
J
r0O

=0, fort<'-to
=

J -te

| rto tlnl"lrt tt.qJ.dt ror ltlsto ' Znfnt

rt

= l'orru zrfot J
-te

*":#

rrJ$:oti ro' r>rs

109.

-l-o

.f*o
tl

+)

(F
atl

-E
(6 -*t

{o(u o.+, I rlt BQ oc

.nE

ttF .rL 6 Tlr o5 +, ol

C)(r'

a'>

.oc
E.r

5! t+) +,

q-I

EI ol uti

ol

ol

atl

U,
cL
{-t

3-g

ou

o(u e+,
l=

A^ gEl

(l)

aat

(l.,+,

E .IJ

taoo

.^l*o s'l
cl
tl ll

.!r ;l I a(t
cl

(lJ !r)

ol

-c F
g

(u

rrl
rrl

crit

Ll JI o{
|

(ulI

lr-

110 .

The step responses corresponding

to the normalized transfer functions

(H(0) = 1) of the step-truncated filters and Fejdr fjlters shorvn in Figure 5.6 have bcen calculated and are plotted in Figlure 5.8.
For short truncations (to = l/2fo) both filters have step responses lvhich rise monotonically, and the FejCr filter has the faster rise-time. For larger to the responses become indistinguishable near the step and tend towards the response of the iCeal filter which is characierized by a 9% overshoot and undershooto and a rise-time of 0.615/fo (see Appendix 5).
approximating r,reighting functions corresponding to particular transfer functions have been developed (l,lartin, 1959; Cooper, 1970) but in general, results for 1ol-pass fjlters vrill be sjnri'lar to those obtained here. For a finite r"reighting function the degree of sharpness of the amplitude cut-off will be dependent on the weighting function iength; the'longer the weighting function the sharper the cut-off, and for a particular vreighting function length, ripple in the amplitude response can be reduced only at tlre
expense
5

Various techniques

for

of the cut-off rate.

nq

.5

General Fi'l teri

Cons'iderati ons

can be seen from the results obtained in the preced'ing sections that similar amplitude responses can be ach'ieved riith both analogue and digital filters, although in genera'l a digital filter can oroduce a cut-off rate r.rhich can on'ly be equal'letl by a very conrpiex analoaue f ilter, the limjtation on the digital filter being the nunrber of data pojnts it is convenient to involve in any One calculation. Dispersion in an analogue filter can produce considerable distortion vthen heavy filtering is used, and any time delay produced must be allowed forin source position calculations. llowever a digital f jlter can be designed to produce no time de'lay by using a synrnetrical lveighting function, and the input signal isthenmodified only by the shape of the amplitude response. The necessity irlplied by digital filtering, to accumulate a iarge number of data points before filtering can be carried out, introduces the possibility of editing out interference spikes prior to filtering. Thus the effect of these spikes vrhich can be quite significant with analogue filters and may marr a vital part of the signal can be elinrinated (Cooper, 1970).

It

required to produce the nraxinium signal-to-noise ratio wjthout distort'ion, it seems preferable to use a relatively srna'll arnount of presanrpllng analogue fjlterinq, enough to rationaiize the samplinE rate requirements without producing significant distortion, and to follow this vrith
optirnum

If

filtering is

111.
some

form of

digitai filtering to

produce the desired optimum signal-to-noise

ratio.
5.6

Considerations in the previous sections of this chapter have been directed towards the sampling rate of a digitizer and its effect on the sampled data spectrum. The sampling process was assumed to be ideal, i.e., the sample data was the exact value of the input data at the sample instant. Holvever digital sampling inrplies quantization of the data, and the effect of amplitude quantization must now be considered jn order to establish a requirement for the quantizer step size.
The dynamic range of the input data is definecl as the dBn bett',reen the maximum and minimum siqnals of interest.
minirnum

ratio,
In

expressed in most cases the

signal level

dynamic range

is

by the noise present on the data, and the then the ratio betrveen the nraximum signal level and the noise

is doterrnined

level (l'1elton,

1967).

ampfitude quantizjnq rvith a quantizer step q introduces an error eO vthich is uniformly probab'le over the range tq/2 and has a mean square value oet = q2/Lz (Bennett, 1948). Defining the dynanlic range Do of a quantizer as the ratio of peak cl.c. input power which rvill be quantized without

The process

of

limiting to quantizer nojse,

then
201

Do =

ogro(zU/r) + q.B

dB

(5.15)

where 2v

is the peak-to-peak
becomes

voltage range of the quantizer.

For an N-bit binarv

quantizer this

Dq

= (6u + 4.8)

dB

(5.15a)
reduce the dynamic range

In order that the effect of quantizing should not D, of the i nput data, then
Ds.Dq

The question arises that if the signal-to-nojse ratio of the samp'led data is to be increased either by digital filtering or by averag'ing collateral data sets, what is the dynanric range of the input data? Firstly it can be established that the processes of filtering and averaging are essential'ly the same. The impu'lse response

of a signal averager is a train of

inrpulses and

this leads to a

LT?.

ing a comb, vrhere the spac'ing of the teeth js inversely proport'iona1 to the sanrp'le interval and the width of the teeth is inversely proportional to the number of samples (Trimble, 1968). The signal averager can then be treated as a nrultiple band-pass filter. ConverselJr 0S the function of a filter in the frequency domain js the multiplication of the signal spectrum by the fjlter transfer function, tlren in the time domain the function is one of convolution - i.e., a weighted average of the signal.
resenrbl

filter transfer function

Consider as in sectjon 2.10 a signai S(t) olus a noise N(t) where the noise has an r.m.s. value on. If m prec'ise samp'les of thjs data are averaged the result vri'll be the average of the m values of S(t) plus a noise of r.nt.s. value on/fr. |^ljth quantized samples there will be an added uncertainty because of the quantizer noise. Provided Q << on then the quantizer noise can be assumed to be independent of the sampled data value, as this will cross several levels between. samples (Ohlson, 1971). If m quantized samples of the input data are averaged, the result will still have a mean equal to the average of the m value of S(t), but the noise vril'l be increased to an r.m.s. value 'qN + o77nl. As oet = q'/n, then for o'n >) g, this noise rvill be negligibly greater than the noise for the precisely sanrpled case. For g = on/4 the increase in r.m.s. noise is approxinrately 0.1/". Provided the noise has been samp'led rvith a sufficiently sma'll quantizer step q, then the average of m samples will allays be equal to the nrean signal level vrjth an r.m.s. uncertainty of on/ffi, even if the mean s'igna1 level 'is well below the original noise level . For reasonable detection of the mean signal S hol'rever,5 should be greater than on/fr, or m>

tis defined
as

If

the dynamic range D, of the input data

D, = 20]ogro(V/on)
where V

is the peak modulus of the input and op is the r.m.s. noise, then the condition that q = ofl4 imol'ies
Dq

= D, + ?2.8

dB

(5.16)

can be seen from these results that iight prefiltering, vthich vtould have the effect of reducing D' would also reduce tlre requjrements for DO. The signal -to-no'ise ratio could then be improved by post-sannling f iltering. liotvever the lighter prefiltering \,tould mean thai higher frequenc'ies l^,ere present in the

It

113.

input spectrunr, and a higher sampi'ing rate would be required.

5.7 The Effect of Aperture Time on the Q1,p611ic Ranqe of a Quantizer

Although the effect of amplitude quantizing has been tal<,en into account in section 5.6, it has been assumed that the sampling orocess can be performed instantaneousl.y. For practical quantizers this process requ'ires a finite "aperture tirne", and in considering the dynamic range changes in r.he fnput data over this interval must be taken into account. (Hoeschele, 1968). Consider an N-bit binary duant'izer with a basic step which can be quantized ulithout distortion is then

q.

The peak input

\u* = *zN-l' q
error in the quantizing process is tq/Z (Bennett, l94B; Hoeschele,1968) so it can be assumed that the aperture interval will jntroduce n0 appreciable emor provided the input changes by no more than q/2 during the interval (the exact effect of this change on the quantized data will be dependent on the type of quantizer). For a sjnusoidal input of frequency f and amplitude A' the maximum change in voltage over a short interval t (t..11t) is 2rftA. If the aperture interval'is tu, then the condition for the change in the input to be less than q/2 over this interval is
The inherent

A<
Expressing

(5.

17 )

this

amplitude A
A

in

terms

of A*u*

then

Ar.*

I - --TI-)

z''. zrf ta

(s"17a)

which gives the normaljzed amplitucJe of a sinusoid at frequency f which w'ill not be significantl,v distorted by the effect of sampling vrith a finite aperture interval ta. A/A--_ expressed jn dB as a function of ZNtut is plotted in 'max Figure 5.9. The dB ratio can be considered as a'loss in dynamic range at hjgher frequencies.

For signals which exceed this frequency-amnlitude linrit the form of error will be dependent on the type of quantizer. llor.rever most quantizers rvill give a sarnpl ed val ue rvi th an uncertainty of 2ll .znf tuA/A*u*.

1111.

0
_4.

ftp

{dB)

Figure

5.9: The loss in dynamic range resulting

inte,rval

t" for an lt-bit

fronr a binary quanitizer

finite

ape.rture

REFERENCES

BENNETT,

l.rl.R.

(1948): "spectra of

QuantizEd sig,nars,t.

B.s.T,J.,3I

p,p.r$46-472.

tsRACEW'ELL,

R.[1.

(1955): 'The Fourier Transfor-m and i,ts App:licatiors,,.

(Mc6l.aw-,Flil1 000PER,, B.,F.C. (1970:)

, lrlew york) .
"Fost-Detector Filtering irn Radiometry,'.
pr

Aust."
CRAIG'

3!

oc.

tr.R.E.,E,.

pp. 41-49,
Engi,neersf,.

E.J. (ls6q): rLaplaee and Fourier Transfonns fsr E'lectrical (Holt, Rinehart and kJiniston, llew york)

GRIFFITHS, J.['1.R,
HOESCHELE, D.

(lgs6):

,,0ptimurn

RC

Filters".

Wireless Engr.

lx

pp. ?96-|l7a.

F.

(te0s1

Techniques "

ogue-to-Djgital/DlEital -to-Analog.u,e (Wi t ey, l{ew york) .

"Anal

Convers,r'on

FHRTI$|' M'A.

(1959):

rFrequency, Dornain Applications

to

Data Frrocessi'ng'i, Trans.

I . R.E.

, S.ET-5 pp. 33-41 .

115.
MELTCIN'

8,5. (1967): 'lAnalogue-to-D,igi'tal O,onversion- A Problem or to-Digits' ", Trans. I.E.E.E., QE:S, pp. fg-ZE. J.E. (1971): 'rEfficiency of Radio Sci, 6 pp. 341-345.
Radl'ometers using

'DecibeJs-

0llLS0ftl'

Digital Integrationi',,

PAp0tl-IS'

n' (t,gea):
New

"T'h'e

Fourier Integr.al and its Applications". (Mccraw-Flill,.

York).
and, Low-Fass

'TAVARES,

s.E. tt00o;: "A Co-nrparison 0f Integration Trans. I.E.E.E., Il.l-1=5_ pp, 3J-38.
l,lo.

Filtering".

TRIMBLE, C.Ro,

I,

(19681: "What is Signal Af;eragirngfil Hewlett-Fackard

pB. Z-7,

J.,

19,,

TURtrN,,

'G.l-' (tgSO): 'Intr"oduction to Matclred Fi'ltersr'- Trans, I.R.E. IT-6, "An pp" 31.1-340.,

1'IUCHINICI|,

D' (tsgg): "simple Ultra Irett. , ,tr p. 137 .

Lor^r-Pass

Filter (njqde tsnake)"',

Elestl"on.

YARMLL,

'J..hl.

usr'ng Meta'l 0xide Field-Effect Tnansistors and Integ'rated Circuits!'. M.E. Thesisn Un{vers'ity of
Auckl and,

(1968): I'A 42MHz Rad'iometer

116

CHAPTER 6

The Design and Development

of an Analogue-to-Diqital

Converter

The requirernents

of the ana'logue-to-digital converter are dictated by the

characteristics of the interferometer output, and are essentially independent of other considerations. In Chapter 5 the effects of sampling on the signal characteristics t,rere discussed and principles established for the choice of a suitable sampling interval and quantizer step. These principles are now applied to the characteristics of the interferometer output, and a quantizer specification formulated. In view of the numerous techniques of analogue-to-digital conversion available the design of an economical unit to meet this specification

is

explained.
The Specification The

6.1

of the Analogue-to-Digital

Converter
con-

specification of an anaiogue-to-d'igital converter should include siderations of the follorving requirements (Hoeschele, 1968):
1.
Sampl i

rrg rate.

2. 3. 4.
5. 6.

Dynamic range,

or quantizer resolution.

Aperture time.

Input vo'ltage range, and input

impedance.

Digital output.
0veral

accuracy.

Following the analysis of quantizer operation in Chapter ments can now be considered, and a specificatjon formed.

5, these require-

6.11

The Input Spectrum and the l'ljnimum Sarnplinq Rate

in section 5.2 that for general observations the output signal spectrum of a correlatjon interferometer can be considered to extend from zero to DB,n6x/), hertz, vrhere D js the length of the interferometer baseiine anci
was shourn
Bmax

It

#ffi*

rad/sec

II7.
declination d of the interferometer pole can be obtained from equation 3.14. For the 200 i'1flz interferometer this maxjmum signal frequency is 2.9 x 10-3 Hz. If the signal spectrum is to be distorted by 'less than 1%, the required time constant of the simple RC low-pass fi'lter from Table 5.2 is RC = 12 seconds. For less than I% noise reflected onto the signal spectrum the minimum sampfing rate fd, also fron Table S.Zn is fd = 0.133 Hz, or one sample every 7.5 seconds.
The

6.LZ

The Dynamic Range was shotvn

of the Infrut Data

Chapter 5 that in order that the information contained in the data is not distorted by the quantizing process, the dynamic range Dq of the quantizer should be related to the dynamic range D, of the data by
DO

It

in

D, + 22.8

dB

For an

il-bit

binary quantizer this relationship

becomes

6N>Ds+18
where Dr

is the dynamic range of the data, expressed

irr decibels.

Chapter 4 the noise level at the output of the present interferonreter was shown to be equivalent to an incjdent radiation of flux density 300 x 10-26 W/n2/Ilz. flovtever improvements scheduled for the immediate future should reduce

In

50 x 10-26w/n2/Hz with a 20 second RC time constant, or 65 x 10-26 l'Un2/Hz r^rith a 12 second time constant. The strongest ce'lestial source in the area of sky visible to the interferonreter (excluding the active sun)is Centaurus A, rvhich has a f'lux density at 200 MHz of approximately 3000 x 1g-zey16z/Hz. * As the output voltage of the interferometer is proportional to the input por./er, the dynamic range of the output would then be z01og,o(rooo/os) = 33.3 dB. Hourever the dynamic range of the present system is limjted to about 32 dB by non-iinearitie in the synchronous detector and the limiteci operating range of the diode square law detector (Lim, 1968; Yarrall, 1968). This range does cover all visible. sources excluding Centaurus A and the sun; the Crab i\lebula, the next strongest source has a flux density of approximately 1500 x 10-26',!1n21Hz at 200 MHz. For observations of the stronger sources, limiting in the detectors can be avoided

this figure to

by inserting

some

attenuation

in the I.F.

section.

* This figure has been obtained by interpolation of quoted flux densities

86 l4Hz and 960 f4Hz.

at

118.

is

The number then

of binary digits

N required by

a natura'l-binary-coded quantizer

6ll >32+18
or
Thus

N> 8.3

a nine-bit binary quantizer will have anrple dynamic range to cover the input data satisfactoni'ly. For a non-natural-binary-coded quantizer which has a resolution of n equaily spaced steps, n will be specified by

201og,o(n)r32+19
0r

n
on the Aperture Tinre

>317

6.13 Restrictions
The

of the Quantizer
shown

F'igure 5.9, is to reduce the dynamic range of the quantizer at h'igh frequencies. The dynamic range falls off at a rate of 20 dB/decade, the same rate as the amplitude response roll-off of the oresampling RC filter. If the cut-off frequency of the RC filter is less than the break-point frequency of the dynamic range then the data will not be affected by this loss in dynamic range. The breakpoint in the dynamic range of an N-bit binary quantizer .is

effect of a finite aperture tirne,

in

E_
where

'-ilE
I

tu is the aperture time of the quantizer. The required cut-off frequency of the presamnling filter has been calculated to be 0.0133 l{z (RC = 12 seconds), and the capacity of a natural-binary-coded quantizer specified as nine bits. The maximum permissible aperture time is then t6 = 23.4 mllliseconds. 6.14
The Input Voltaoe ranqe and Input Inrpedance

variation of the'interferometer is limited to t400mV by non-linearities in the synchronous detector. As these are also the'limiting factor in the dynamic range, the quantizer should give full scale deflection for these I imiting vo'ltages (i.e., t400mV). l{ovrever the output will often be well be'low this level, and it vrould be an advantage to be able to increase the
The output voltage

sensitivity to aoproxirnately
The output inrpedance

t100mV

full

scale.
determined by

of the interferometer is

that of

the

119.

of an isolating amplifier this has been reduced to -200n. For the loading effect of the analogue-to-digital converter to be less than 1/2 the quantizer step (in keeping with the genera'l accuracy) the input impedance should be at least 100Kn.
low-pass
By the use

filter.

6.15

The Format

of the Digital

Output

a natural-binary-code representation is used, the minimum quantizer capacity required js nine bits. As the natural-binary-code utilizes a]l possible combinations of binary digits, no other code can achieve the same resolution using feler bjts. The natura'l-binary-code has the added advantage that it is the code used within the IBM 1130 computer, and data in this format can be directly interpreted r,rithout code conversion. 0f the range specified, one half wi'll be used to represent positive numbers and one half to represent netative numbers, imp'lying the use of one of the nine bits to represent the sign. As the representation in the IBl4 1130 is two's conp'lement, then it will be desirable for the ana'logue-to-digital to also use this system.
There remains the question of whether the nine-bir output should be in serial or oarallel form. The recording medium is by nature parallel-bit, serialword, but because more than one tape word rvill be requfred to record a sing'le sample, some conversion betleen serial and para1le1 bit forms rvill be required. lrlith the output in serial form, one group of bits could be punched in one word, and the remainder in the next, but because of the slow punch rate, some form of storage would be required to de'lay the second group. Holever, with the

If

output in para'lle'l form the two grouns could be punched one at a time by switching between tvro sets of data lines, prov'ided the output persisted for the duration of the recording. The choice of a para'|1e1 data output is suggested by another factor, that of a visual display. With a para11e1 output which persists between samples, the current binary output can be displayed by a row of
I amps.

6.16 Overall
The

Accuracy

of the Analogue-to-D'igital converter

specification so far has assumed the quantizing process to be exact, the only errors occurring being the inherent quantizing error (tq/Z where q is the quantizer step) and tire error of the finite aperture rvhich has also been restricted to tq/?. Hovlever other errors vrill occur jn the system, because of non-linearities in the electronic comDonents for jnstance, and in keeping rvith the inherent quantizer error, the overall equipment error should be less than !q/2.

120.

6.t7

Other Considerations

specification contained in the preceding six sections fulfils the requirements of the present interferometer and the improvements planned for this instrument in the immed'iate future, The speed requirementsn that is the requirements of sampling rate and aperture time, are very modest by present-day standards. lloting that a high-speed analogue-to-digital converter could be utilized in a pulsar signal averaging unit (see section 4.17) it was decided that the converter should be nrade as fast as possib'le without significantly increasing
The

its cost.
sampling

The requirements

of

dynamic range would be great'ly reduced

at

high

rates, because of the much greater noise level inrplied by the

very

short time constant.

6.18 A Summary of
The
1.

The Specification

specification of the preceding sections can be summarized as follovrs.

i ng rate

Samp'l

mi nimurii

of 0.133 sampl es/second, preferab.ly

greater than 1000 samples/second.

2. 3.
Resol

ution

:317

mi nimum

(g

ul

N. B. C. )

Aperture time

Maximum

s-bit
4.
5.

23.4 nrsec, preferabiy -50psec for accuracy at f6 = 1000 Hz'

Input voltage Input

range

t400mV,
>100Kt

with gain to extend to

t100mV.

impedance

6.

0utput format

Parallel bitn natural-binary-code, with two's

complement sign representation.

7.

Equipment Accuracy

t0.2%

full

scale.

6.2

A Survey

of Analogue-to-Digital

Conversion Methods

Present-day methods of analogue-to-digital conversion can be divided into two broad sections: (i) those rvhich convert the input analogue voltage'into some more readily measurable quantity, usually time or frequency, and (ii) those which compare the input ana'logue vo'ltage rvith an internally d'igita11y generated voltage. The characterjstics of these two types of converter are discussed in the following paragraphs, and the convers'ion method best su'ited to the
spec'if i cati on establ i shed
.

t?t.
6.21 Voltage-to-frequency and Voltage-to-time interva'l
good accuracy, and low complexity (Hoeschele,

Converters

These converters are generally characterised by 1ow conversion

rates'
con-

1968). Voltage-to-frequency

verters, or jntegrating digital voltmeters generate a frequency proportional to the instantaneous input voltage. This vary'ing frequency is gated into a counter over a set period, and the resultant count is then proportional to the integral of the input voltage. This type of converter performs the functjon of an ideal integrator, and for th'is reason has found application in rad'io te1escope
systems, whe.re it performs both the filtering and sampling functions (Heeschen, 1961; Mclaugh]in, 1962). As shown in Chapter 5, with such a system much loler sampling frequencies may be used than with RC'low-pass filters, but the removal of ref I ected noi se 'is very dependent on the post-samp'l i ng di gi tal f i I teri ng . Converters employing the voltage-to-time interval principle are very similar in operation (Hoeschele, 1968). By integrating the input voltage for a set period, and then reducing the integral to zero at a constant rate' a time jnterval is generated which js proportiona'l to the average value of the input voitage. A standard clock frequency is gated into a counter during this period to produce a count directly proportional to this averaEe vo'ltage. This type of converter

also performs the function of an ideal 'integrator, but here the integration period, and hence the convers'ion tirne, is proportional to the input voltage and for a given c'lock frequency conversion speed can be improved only at the expense of resolution. This converter obviously cannot be used in place of a low-pass filter, since for smal'l inputs the integration period wjll be small and the reflected noise hjgh. Because of this dependence of integration period on input voltage, such a converter is not suited to thjs application.

6.22 Discrete Comparison Analogue-to-Digital

Converters

These converters range between low and medium speed, are highly accurate' and are of low-rnedium complexity (Hoesche'le, 1968). An analogue comparator is used to indicate vrlren an internally generated analogue voltage from a digital-

'input to to-analogue decoder is equal to the input signal . The cument d'igita'l the decoder is then the numerical representation of the input voitage.
counter-ramp analogue-to-digital converter, the digital input to the decoder js steadily increased from its minjmum value, one step at a time' until equa'lity is reached. This converter has a conversjon time dependent on the magnitude of the'input voltage, but no averaging'is performed. The dig'ita1

In the

output represents the instantaneous value of the'input voltage at the end of the conversion period. Thjs converter suffers from the same speed limitat'ions

t22.

as the previous pair; conversion speed is determined by the maxjmum frequency at vrhjch the counter will operate, and the maximum conversjon time is the time taken for the counter to accummulate its maximum count-

(rn.s.b.),. each bit in the digital-to-analogue decoder js successively set to a,,1.", drd the output of the decoder compared rvith the analogue input vo'ltage. If the decoder voltage is the greater, then the bit is returned to a rr0rr; if the rtlrr. The next ntost siginput voltage'is the greater, then the bit'is left at a nificant bit (n.m.s.b.) is then set to a rrlrr and the process continued until the least significant bit (l.s.b.) has been set and verified. For an N bit converter, the time taken for tlre conversion js equal to the tjme taken for N comparisons' much less than for the counter ramp converter where the maxjmum time taken is equal to the time taken for (ZN-t) comparisons. 0nce again no averaging is performed by the converter, and the process'is very dependent on the constancy of the input voltage over the conversion period.

In the ,u...rrive approximatjon converter, equaiity of the decoder and input voltages is achieved much more rap'id1y. Starting with the most significant

bit

6,?3

The Choice

of

an Analosrue-to-Digital Converter

There are nuny more varieties of analogue-to-digital conversion methods than the four mentioned in the previous paragraphs (ltoeschele, 1968), however most of these are special cases of the types mentjoned, or else are too obscure to warrant consideration. The choice lies between the voltage-to-frequency' counter ramp and successive approxinration converters. The first two suffer from the 'less complex than the latter. The same speed limitations, but are in genera'l various properties, advantages and djsadvantages of these three conversion
methods

are tabulated in Table 6.1.

In spite of the higher sampling rate requiredn it was dec'ided to use a discrete comparison type of converter because of its greater flexjbility in both sampf ing rate and filter characteristjcs. A successive approximation converter was chosen in preference to a counter ramp jnstrument because of its greater speed capabilities,'in light of its poss'ible use'in a pulsar signal averager. of a successive approximation analogue-to-d'ig'ita1 converter js shown jn Figure 6.1. The design of such a converter is covered in the rema'inder of this chapter, each element of the functional d'iagram (figure 6.la) being considered separately. At the tirne the design of this unit was
The general operation

begun, large-scale-integration microelectronic successive approximation converters vrere available, but thejr cost precluded their use in this proiect.

The

,
.+t Ptg .F

1,?3.

s o
+t E

o
= (')

x o L o a
(u

o
(tt

== .r 'lJ

F=

((t

ol(U.F EES

.c ql

+J
I

.n

+,
'(J

.o

-t-trtt-titP.-= {]rJorLJq Cr.r-U)(U(U(J-(U E,ILECLO! -c,c,.FO-G,! L{rQ-eE(ll (uFO-.O+rL+, P{DEt,qo.u t+-cfo(u+rL .FtnlU

c{d(ut(u'Cr(u L+,E!-(uL f(t.('.ctES!.e

Cr#OTt (uoa..c.E

tna ]h vrl--c'u| (U(|J.r

u = ta

o (J

an

g) (F

L(u-(t (6 (uo E(.l .-(U rE

+, .rL

E+r+).FE g(lJ-(1'--.F15 ctg,F(UOE =Ec.u!gQ-.n .nE-Cl(J.a.Frgi. fOtn.Ftl)f+)Ul11; P(u(JXCLL!-g q'c' OE+r(U.-+rL O-Htro--

oo-rFrtsLrFC q)EO.FO..goc'U).F
(J
Vl

IFaFF(l|.FUT

L o P L

,n

o c o I
g|

Fl

(\l

+,
'E

C'

o
E !

E .u

(J

P E = o

(u

o=sl =-c .d O'r -c

+,
I (u

5 qt

o
G,

t q
o,

5 g
I

E (u

'0 (l, L
q =

to o
t

g =

rF

u 3-

+)

='-ql o=rrGt o(lj+r

-=(u

El

+t

.F tF

+r(u o
g) gC

L L (u1J

(u

Orh

o)

+tc(6(trg, (l,Ec .r 'lJ .n lFg(J-q+t (l,.F(JC,

P|r'Ul .rLLC vrotfi|o .n+Jq9r! olFE .F (, o).Flt-.F gEA.E $.dEct Gtotn(og Lc,PE (u('E(u

'o

o (l) t
+,
lF
.(,

'E

o c o vl

.h

! G' A

E
.!t .r

o (J

+,

at

Ct)

vtFE

o
.+-

o:

$).r .r tL LL fc, o

cc .FO

oo ZJ =
t-l Nl

ct(o ,n aa (I) ttcL(u

ea FE

gro-+r(u =otAorF '-E.F*,)(F

FgLcl Q-.r(1)+t E+r.F+t Gt(FLr(f=5

-'i

+t-vf6L(F+) t/|(,.c(urF O c, (, O-.r rJo

F{ (\J cf)

utor(tooo l3-.F.F-C

-l
FI =

CJl

5l rdl

(,

LrJ

o-

F
&.
Lr.f

'tt (u (l,+,
OC, vto
E o+, '|: '. t!1 xuvt(J'(' L(U,tTL+)

ol c
lF t (u

F E,
lrj

+t E

.E

UI

z, o (-)

(u!(f!c EE(Ju(Jt 9, ao(g(Jn trg.ttlFrg-

.It

C'

vl

.t'

'o

124.

Anotogue

Input

tli,

Vs Sa,riol 0utput

'

,a-'

Porolt,et Outgut

(a)

M,5.8;

Eit
'Bit

1,.,',,,,

ait
'V;
v9

j'-'-

b
Figure

Seriol Output

6.!:

(a) The suecessivre approx'imation analogue-to-d'igital eonverten, and (rb) typical opellatJng wave fonms.

125.

converter v,as designed utilizing

t.t,l . (transistor-transistor logic)

integrated

circuits

and available analogue components.

6.3

The Digital-to-Analogue Decoder

The analogue-to-dig'ita] converter js to have a n'ine-bit capacity, and as one of these bits is to be used for sign representatjon, a digital-to-analogue this decoder of eight bits is required. An R/2R ladder network tvas chosen for decoder, in preference to a vreighted resistor network. The advantages of a

ladder network are (i) closer resistarrce to'lerances are easier to obtain when resistance values do not vary widely, and (ii) as the analogue switches are all carrying approximately the same current, the effect of switch offset voltages can be ignored.

overall accuracy of the decoder should be vlithin the overall converter js best analysed by considering equipment specification of !0.2%. This error and separately the trvo chief sources of error; errors in the ladder network' errors i n the el ectroni c equ'ipntent.
The

6.31 Accuracy Requirements of the Ladder Netvtork

An

t,l-bit R/zR ladder netvlork

is

shovln

in Figure 6.2.

The netvlork has an

output resjstance R and an output voltage of

vo = vR
where D*

....[rAr+ ?t. Bt+ $]

(1 or 0) '
Ran-z

(6. 1)

is the logical state of the *th bit

2R
D3

R7

2R

2R

Ra*
2 D4

bo

vr
0v

Figure

6.2:

An

N-bit

R/2R ladder nettlork

It

can be shown (Hoeschele,1968)

that if all the resistors in the ladder

t26.

fractional tolerance te, then the maximum error in the output voltage occurs when the m.s.b. 'is a L and all others are 0. This error has a worst case value of te/? of the full scale voltage. If the decoder is driving a nu11 summing junction then it is the short cjrcu'ited output current which is the in the output resistance of the ladder quantity interest, and the error must be taken into account.
have a

to Figure 6.2, if Rr has a fractional error e (i.., Rr=2R(l+e)) and all other resistors have the'ir exact valuesn then the output resistance of the ladder is R(I+e'/?). If R2 has a fractional error e (i.e., Rz=R(l+e)) and all other resistors have their exact values, then the output resistance of the ladder js R(I+elil. Similarly if Rm has a fractional error e and all other resistors have their exact values, then the output resistance of the ladder is R(1+e/2m). For an ll-bit ladder, the contribution to the error in the output resistance of an error e, in resistor.,h it 4n/rm for 1<m<(2N-1) (see Figure 6'2)' and for m=2ll the contribut'ion is e*/21'l-r. With all resistors of the same fractional tolerance e in an N-bit ladder, the worst-case error ee in the output
Refem'ing

resistance

is

then

(6.2)

The most probable value

of es 'is given by

to'''-

"(f,+

16

h......

?2n

"" ' -

,3rzr,-r))

.E2

i.e.,

eo *

t0.5'i7e

10. za )

Dt As the output resistance, and hence this effor' are'independent of the states, then'it would seem that the error would produce only an absolute error in the output current, and no relatjve errors between output currents coffesponding to different states. The sw'itches however will not have zero resistance,

and this resistance may vary w'ith the state of the switch. If the switch resistance ances are included aS errors in the ladder resistors, then the output will vary from one state to another, wjth'in the range specified by equation 6'2' The

resist-

short-circuit output current Iq is given by

L27.

.vo I9=F;
so that the worst-case emor in Io is equal to the sum of the errors in Ve and Ro.* The largest error in Vo occurs when Vo = Vp/2 and the worst-case value of this is 1e.Vq. The worst case error in Re is te.Ro, and thus the worstcase error in Iq is tZe,Io. However for Vo = Vg/Z, Io is half of its fullscale value, and hence this worst cose error in output current is texfull-scale. or t0.707e. The most probable error is */E

the overall accuracy of the decoder is to be better than t0.2%' then the tolerance of the resistors in the ladder network, including errors introduced by the switches should be less than t0.2%.

If

6.32

The Development

of an Analogue Switch Circuit

of the analogue switch circuits are specified by the overall accuracy requirements and the input logic levels. For the t.t.l. integr'ated logic circuits used in the converter, the logic leve1s are (i) low < 0.4 volts with up to 16mA sink current, and (ii1 high - 4 volts with a source resistance of 1504 (mut t ard, 1968) .
The requirements

A bipolar transistor switch was chosen in preference to one using fieldeffect transistors because of the less complex driving circuits required by the former. When used in the inverted mode**, bipo'lar transistors have a low saturation voltage (VfCsat < 10mV) and are quite satisfactory for use in digital-toanalogue decoders (l-loeschele, 1968; Mann, 1968). To achieve the single-po1e double-throw action required, a circuit of the type shown in Figure 6.3 can be
used.

with either positive or negative reference supplies. tlhen used with a negative reference (-Vn), the transistors have a
This circuit
may be operated

This is not strictly true as errors in Ro and Vo are not independent. However as the worst-case voltage error and the worst case resistance error do not occur simultaneously, these figures are on the safe side as far as design is concerned**If the excess base curent flows through the base-collector junction when a transistor is saturated, then the transistor is said to be operated in the inverted mode (Hoeschele, 1968) which is characterised by a low saturation vo'ltage
vEcsat'

128..

c.unr,ent gain

of Bp, the forrnnrd curyent gain, when nOving through the active region, hovever an input logic swing of zero to -Vp volts is required to operate the switch. With positive references voltages (:+Vn), the input logic swing requir.ed is zero to +V* volts, readily avai:lable from. t.t..l. ci:rcuits' but the transistors have a current gain of Fp, the rPVBfe:E current gain (BR - 0.18p) when
active region.

moving through the

vr.r

Logii
Input

To Lnddcr

Network

FJgu!e

6.3:

An inverted mode bipolar transistor double-throw switch

A satisfactol.y design was achieved uSing a pos'itive reference of fourr volts. This deslgn,, shown i.n Figurre 6.4, requires no active drivirtg circuitry when driven from t.t,l. eircUits, in spite of the low current gain sf the transistors. The S1gitch op.er.ates from inverted logic levels, the lsw leveil input is interpreted as a logical I and h'igh leve'l input as a loglcal 0.

+5

(:t.t.l. suppty

volts

ta-on
Logic

i;

Input

\1

, Figure 6.4: The decoder ladder switch

The operati,on

of the cireuit

san be described a,s follols:

(A)

tlhen the The base

input is lsrv (a logical 1)' Vf is <0.4 vo:lts p'ovided IL.16mA. of transistor Tz will be at 0.11 volts, and Ta will be cut-off (for

L?9.

silicon transistors no current will flow unless vbe - >0.6 volts). The base of supply of Tf is effectively a voltage of 2.5L volts with a source resistance 779{1. The collector-base junction of Tr is then forvrard biased and a base current 16, of 5mA florvs. If the output current Io is less than Ibr.9R, then (4-Vrgrur) the transiitor r^rill be saturated and the output voltage Vo will be vol ts.
the input is high (a logical 0), VL = 4.0 volts with a source resi stthese condi ance of 1500 (VL = 4.0 + 11.150). Assumjng that Ix is zero under el tions, the equivalent circu'it is shown'in Figure 6.5.

(B)

hlhen

390^

Figure6.5:Theequivalentcircuitfora.high.input.
of
source resistance The base supply for Tz is a voltage of 4.L73 volts with a 4540. The base-collec.tor junction of Tz is thus forward biased and a base
mA

cuffent 15, of 7.86

Under these then Tz will be saturated and the output voltage Vo vlill bt VECsat' valid' conditions V6, = 4.02 volts, so the assumntion that I3, was zero is The complementary

flows. If the cutput current -Io is less than 8*'I5,

transistor pair used

very stable saturation voltage Vggrat of the saturation resistance of less than 10 under these conditions. The effect of rnade voltage can be offset in the reference supply. The 1ow dynamic resistance it possible for a IK/21( ladder to be used. A low ladder resistance was des'irable minimum' with this discrete component system to keep the propagation delay to a selected to The ladder was built up from l;W, 5% tolerance lFJl carbon resistors,

(Bc108/8C178) were found to have 2-3mV for Ig = 5mA, and a dynamic

atoleranceofllaQ.Comb.inedtviththeswitchresistanceoflQ,thisresultsin the design a maximum error of 0.1% in the output short-circuit current, withjn
specification of
The
t0.2%.

four-volt reference 'is supp]'ied by an integrated-circuit voltage regu-

130.

from an avai'lable +15 volt rail in the system. It can be shown that the cument flowing through the terminating 2R resistor of an N-bit ladder (RZn, Figure 6.2) when alf inputs are L's approaches V*/3R when N is large and the

lator

output is driving a null sunming junction. The maximum output current occurs under these conditjons also, and this'is equal to (ZN-t)VR/(2NR) rvhich is approximately VO/R. The maximum current drawn by the ladder is then 4VR/3R amps. Hovrever the base current drawn by the transistor switches is significant and must be taken into account. Referring to F'igure 6.4, for a logical 1 input the current drawn from the reference supply is Ibr + Io = 5mA + Io. Thus the maximum current drawn from the reference supply when al'l logical inputs are l''s is

Iru* = :p+
1A

N.16,

= t+8x5mA
=
By using a small power

45.33

mA

transistor (ltJE9602) to increase the ga'in of the integrated-circuit regulator, the output resistance was reduced to 0.020, producing a drop in output voltage of only 1mV at the nrax'imum load current. The reference voltaqe is then stable to within 0.025%.

6.4

Sign Determination and Voltage Comparjson Circuits

The input Va

to the sign determjning circuit is assumed to be a voltage in the range tVref (t4 volts). The purpose of this circuit is (i) to generate a sign bit, and (ii) to modify the input voltage so that when the decoder output is the negative of the modified voltage, the decoder digital input, together with the sign bjt, forms the two's complement representation of the input voltage V6. The input to the comparator is the sum of the modified input voltage and the decoder output. The output of the comparator must be capable of driving t.t.l. circuits, and must change state when the input changes from +q/2 to'q/2, where
q=4/28=15.6mV.

6.41 Two's

Complement Sign Representatjon

In the two's complement system, drY integer in the range +(Zn-l) to -(2n) can be represented by n+1 binary dig'its. if N is positive or ze?o, then the digitsformthe natural-binary representatjon of N; jf N is negative they form the natura'l-binary representat'ion of (Zn+l+t't1. For example a system of 3 binary

131 .

dig'its can represent anY integer in the range +3 to system is shown in Table 6.2.

-4.

The coding

of

such a

zn+1+N Bi nary

Cod'ing

101 |
Table

110

,r, | ,r;

010

6.2:

Two's comPlement coding

This can be interPreted in another b,ay. In an (n+1) bit system, negative n numbers have a sign bit (the most significant bit) of 1, and the remaining bits form the natural-binarY representation of the positive quantity (2n+m); pos'itive numbers have a sign bit of 0 and the remaining n bits form the natural binary representation of N.
Thus the nrodification

of the'input voltage

'is positive, and an output of The sign bit should be a 0 for v1 positiven and a 1 for vu negative.

-Va

when

Vu

V6 should produce an output of (-4vo1ts -Vu) when V1 is negative'

6.42

The Voltage Comparator

Circuit

an operationa'l amplifier is to be used as a comparator, the output of the digital-to-analogue decoder can be connected directly to the null summing junction. If the input voltage range is to be tVr.r, then the modified input (=lKO), vo'ltage should be connected to this same iunction via a resistance of R gain of the since this is the output resistance of the ladder network. The operational amptifier should be sufficient for the output to swing between high 'levels (+4 volts * 0 vo'lts) with a change in 'input voltage of and low t.t.l. the com15.6mV, j.e., the gain required is at least 250. The response time of parator is also important, since it wili probably determine the overall operating

If

speed

of the analogue-to-digital circuit

converter
meet these requirements using an operational amp'lifjer. Th'is comparator

A comParator inexpensive

was designed

to

14C1439G

is shown in

integrated-ci rcuit Figure 6.6.

The closed looP gain has been set

to

1000 by

the

1140

feedback resistance'

132,

Eener diode connected from the output-lag tei"rnil'nal to g'round restriets, the output uoltage to the range +5 volts to -7 volts, per,rnissible clrcuits. Figure 6.7 slows inp-ut and output oscilloscope ex.eursions for trages for this circuit when driven by a 15.6mt/ peak-to-peak s.quare wa\re. The
and d

sipvolt

t,t.l.

output takes apprbximately 5 pseconds to swing from a logical 0 to a logical

when

the input

changes f,rom +7.8mV

to

-7,8mV.

Modif ied

lngut
Loddar

0utput

Logic Output

Figure

6.6i

The voltage comparator cirrc,uit

Figure

6:,-7i

(a) The 15.6mV peak-to-peak sqqare-wave'input'

-2V output waveform. T:he time-.base'is Susec/dJvi sion.
+5V

and

(b) the

to

133.

6.43

The Sign Determination System

(i The sign cleterm'ination system must perform tlvo basic functions; ) the decision as to wlrether the input Vu is positive or negative, and the generation of the appropriate sign bitn and (ii) as a direct result of this, to modify the input voltage in the mdnner specified in sectjon 6.51, i'e', to produce an
output of -Vu when V.
negati ve,

is pos'it'ive' or an output of -4 volts -Vu when Vu is

A comparator circujt of the same form as shovrn jn Fjgure 6.6 has been used to determine the sign of the input voltage. The output of this comparator is in the correct form for a two's complernent sign bit, and its sensitivity (t7.BmV) is sufficient to g'ive a definite output level for all input voltages of interest'

overall sign determination system is shown in Figure 6.8. The sign bit is used to drive a switch, of the same type as used in the decoder, through an inverter* to give an output of +4 volts t'then the input is negative' and zero volts when the input'is posjtive. This voltage is added to the input voltage vu in a unity gain invert'ing ampljfier, urhich produces the desired modified output' The operation of this system for an'input bipo'lar sjne wave is illustrated in
The

Figure 6.9.

6.5

The Progranrmi nsr Log j c The requirements

of the programming logic can be assessed by considering the operation of the converter. In the followjng description the response time of the comparator is defjned as T. The comparator output is high when the ladder
voltage is too snrall, and jow when the ladder voltage is too 1arge. The of the conversion process can be described as follows.
sequence

1.

0n the recejpt of a sample and all others to 0.

command

the m.s.b. of the ladder

is set to a

Z. After an interva] of at least T,'if the comparator output is low then the m.s.b. is reset to 0; if the comparator output is high, the m.s'b' is left
at a 1.

3.
4.

The n.m.s.b.

is set to a 1.

After an interval of at least T' if the comparator outPut is low this bit is reset to 0; if the comparator output 'is high then it is left at 1.
A

l'ist of 1og'ic symbols used in this

thesis

is

given in APPendix

B.

r34.
Sign Bit

lMn

+4v rali

lnput
vq

Output to
Compor.qtor

figtt,re
vo
+ l+v

6.8: The sign determinatio'n

system'

-6v

s[F
brt

+5v

Figur:e

6.9,:

The_openati6n ot.the sign de'termination system an input sinusoid-

for

135.

5. 6.

Steps 3 and 4 are repeated has been set and verified.

for

each

bit until theleast significant bit

An end-of-conversion messaqe The programming system

is transmitted.

of a successive approximation analogue-to-digital converter usual'ly incorporates a flip-f1op data reg'ister to store the final digital word, and to supply this word in paralle'l form to the digital-to-analogue decoder. Cjrcuitry to generate the contro'l signals is also required, i.e., to set each bit in the data register to 1, test the magnitude of the resultant decoder vo'ltage, reset or leave this bit, and pass on to the next bit (Hoeschele, t96B). This control or'strobing'circuitry'is usually based on either a counter or a shift register. Counter strobing genera'lly jnvolves a higher component count than shift register strobing and for this reason it was decided to use a programmer based on the latter principle.
The 6.13 and system developed to perform the programming 6.14. A detailed description of the operation of

logic

is

shown

this

Figures system is given

in

in section 6.53. In order to clarify this description, the function of the word-'length switch must be explained, and the properties of some of the logic
elements establ ished.

6.51

The Adjustable Vlord Length

Facility

In addition to the features specified for the converter, facility has been provided in the logic system to reduce the output word length from the maximum of nine bits to seven or five bits jf desired. Th'is reduction in rvord length is accompanied by a corresponding decrease in aperture tinte, a feature which would be an advantage in pulsar sjgnal averaging (see section 6.17) where high
sampling rates would be required
The word length switching

at a reduced resolution-

achieved by terminating the conversion process after the fourth, sixth or eighth bit of the ladder network has been set and verified. If the unused bits of the ladder are 0 then the total resistance of the unused portion of the ladder to ground'is 2R, the correct termjnating resistance.

is

6.52

The Properties

of

Some

Logic Elements

The converter has been designed using a positjve log'ic representation, i.e., a 0 corresponds to the low voltage 1eve1 and a 1 to the high voltage 1evel. The ladder network operates from negative logic levels however (0 corresponds to the

136.

high level and I to the'low level) and the inverted s.tate of each data register must be available to drive the ladder swi tches .
The fol'lowjng three elements are
(a

bit in the
chapter.

of particular interest in this

The master-sl ave J-K f'l i p-f I op The

FJJlll master-slave J-K flip-flop used in the programming systern is shown symbolically in Figure 6.10a, and its truth tab'le is given in Figure
6

.10b.

Ttrigtr J

-+ Tlo*
Kn
0
1

Jn 0
1

Qn*
Qn

0n*'
8n
Qn

I
K

qn
Jn

Kn

fn
(b)

Kn

(o)

Figure 6.L0:(a) The FJJ111 master-slave f'lip-flop and (b) its truth table.
accePts data from the J and K inputs when the clock input (T) is high, and the resultant Q and Q appear at the outputs when T goes low' A 0 applied to the S inPut sets Q to 1 irrespective of other inputs, and a 0 applied to the C input sets Q to 0.
The

flip-flop

flip-flop The FJJl3l type D flip-flop is shown symbolically in Figure 6.11a and'its truth table in Figure 6.11b. Data is transferred from the D input to the output S and C inputs perQ when T goes from 0 to 1 (positive-go'ing transition). The
The type D

(b)

form the same set and clear functions as with the FJJl1l.

Tto*
Dn 0
1

Thigtr Qn*,
0
1

(o)

b)

Figure 6.11: (a) and (b)

The FJJ131

tYPe D fliP-f1oP

its truth table

137.

(c)

The capacitively coupled gate

coupled to the input of a t.t.l. gate, the output of the gate responds only to the neqative-going (1*0) transitions of the driving source. Under steady state condjtions the output'is 0, imespective of the input. hlhen the'input goes from 1to 0, the output

If a logic driving source is capacitively

momentarily goes to 1, then reverts to 0. The actual operating waveforms are shotvn in Figure 6,L2.

circuit configuration and

vin

--l

Vout
vx

., vout
-----_-o-

,ii
ll
(b)

i]

lL-

a_rFD-'
Q:64
Figure 6.12:

:lD"-.
Q

= 64
(c)

+ dB

Q: 6A* e

(a) The capacit'ively coupled gate 'i ts operati ng waveforms (b) and (c) its synhrolic representati0n.

of the output pulse is determined by the capacitance C, and will in the logic diagram (see Fjgure 6.7?c) alongside the capac'itor as T microseconds. The three forms shovln in Figure 6.1.2c a1l appear in subsequent circujt diagrams. The iogic statement 6X is taken to mean a G'l transjt'ion af X, i.e,, Q=6A impf ies that Q 'is a 1 for a G'l transition of A and a 0 at al I other times.
The length be written

6.53 A Detailed tjescriptjon of the Programmer Operation In the descript'ion of the programming unit it rvill be necessary to refer to the output states of specific logic elements. If the output of the specified element is not a labelled system output, then jt will be referred to by the reference code for that element, shown on the relevant d'iagram (e.g., Gro refers to the output of gate Groi the Q output of flip-f1op Ds vrill be referred to as
Ds, the Q output as Du).

138.

C LOCK

IN

cil,,

ciz
SAMPLE

lN(

st,se

Do

Figure

The control wavefornt generator analogue-to-digital converter programming

6.13:

for

the

logic'

Figure 6.15 shorvs the timing diagram for the programming logic (Figure 6.14) and jts control waveform generator (figure 6.13). The vrord-length switch is taken to be in the seven bit position; s'ix bit reso'lution is required of the programming logic-dig'ital-to-analogue decoder system, the remaining bit being supplied by the sign deternrination unit. The input voltage Vu is assumed to be such that the fina'l digital output, excluding the sign bit is 011010'

i.e., vi = -4x (26/oq t I/na)

(see The timing of the system is controlled by a 100KHz square wave clock Figures 6.13 and 6.15). This is used to generate two internal clock waveforms, CAt and Cgr. Cp, is a 100 KHz repetition period lusec pulse waveform with

rising edge corrbsponding to that of the input waveform. C,Z is a 100KHz square wave r.lith a rising edge corresponding to the fal'l'ing edge of the input waveform; the rising edge of cgz occurs 5psec after the rising edge ?t.tqt' Cgt is supplied to the trigger inputs of the eight J-K flip-flops r'rhich form
a

the data register (Rr*8in F'igure 6.14). These fl"ip-f1ops contajn the output digitai word at the end of the conversion. Data appearing at the J and K inputs of these flip-flops during the lusec high period of Cpi wi1'l be transferred to the outputs tthen Cp1 returns to 0. CgZis supplied to the trigger inputs of the eight t.vpe D fl;p-f1ops (Dr*a in Figure 6.14) wh'ich form the strobing register. Data appearing at the D inputs prior to the G>l transition of CgZ will be transferred to the outputs duling this transition.

139.

(D

tti,
J
I I
I

c
.9 >yt

ob
!c

uJo

co

E
-l -t l!
a, CL

:. &, o
=
h
trJ
I

()

z
E
ttl

.3
l-

o-o o ql!E
,-t
(D

ln('l

o)

.=
(U

o o
J

! c't o !

o F

a
F-

d3
..o

fr

o
l.
(u

IL

F
I

c t,
+r (t)

= -i tr.'r
GT

(n

x.Y ao
.F

+t
I

no tr
cL(d t!.!
I I
I I I I

nc) o-5
o

(tt

:<E tr-o

lot

rrl
r.ol

fri
u'l

an

ol r-l
5l
.rl LLI

o-

)
J F

ctl

o
0 o

o Lr
E

U d:

o o6.

E(J (4

oo

.rs,;

14{.
Glock

lnput

cg,

ct,
Sompte

Input

Grc
l!

st sz
Do Ccmpor-

qtorr
R1

D1

R2

o2
R3

03

&
D4

,1 I
I I

r
I I
I
I

ts5

Ds Rc

06
D

G, End of
Conn Tirne

lo I It
I

t5

tg' t1

t1

t2

t3

t4

t5

tA tv

Figure.

F,15:

Tfrning diagnam f,or.the_analoEue-to-digital con;r/erter programming logi c.

141.

A conversion

is initiated by a &nl transitjon at the sample input (Figure

this transjtion occurs, the RS flip-flop formed by Grz dnd Grs is set, and the sample instruction js stored unt'il the next G'1 transition of Cgt. Grr is then reset to 0, and a 2Usec reset pulse Sr, Sz is generated by the monostable multivibrator G:s, Grs. At this same instant the RS flip'f'lop formed

6.13).

When

by Gre dnd Gzo is set, making Do a 1. If the sample instruction occurs during the lusec interval when Cgl is high, then the instruction is not stored and the reset pu'lse and Do are generated immediately,

Referring now to Figures 6.14 and 6.15, a sample instruction is received at time tr. 0n the next G'1 transition of CgI, at time to, a reset pu'lse Sr, Sz is generated setting flip-flops R2 to Re and Dr to De all to 0, and Rr to 1. The Q outputs of Rr to Re are suppiied to the ladder slitches, and as R1 is the m.s.b., the ladder input is 10000000. The resultant ladder output of 2 volts is greater than -Vi, and after a short de'lay the comparator output goes from its initial 1 to a 0, indicating that the ladder voltage is too h'igh. At time t*,Susec after to, the clock Cp2 goes high transferrjng the 1 on Do to Dr, and at the same instant, Do is returned to zero (tfre RS flip-floP Gre, Gzo in
Figure 6.13)

J and K inputs to the data reg'ister flip-f1ops must now be examined. Ignoring the presence of the word length control gates G2 and Gi, the J input of Rn, where 2:n1B is Jn = Dn_l, and J1 is 0. The K input of Rn, where 1:n18 is l..n = Gr.Dn. At this time (t*<tctr) Rr and Dr dr 1's, R2*s and D2*6
The

are all 0. Gr, the inverted coniparator output, are then

is L.

The cument

and K states

Jr

Jz =

1i Jr*, = 01

Kr

Kr*. = 0.

At time t1, Cp1 goes to 1 and lusec later returns to 0. As a result of this' with the J and K inputs given above, Rr Ftill return to 0, Rz will become 1, and R.*, wi'|1 remain at zero. The ladder input js n0w 01000000 and as the resultant voltage is less than -Vi, after a short delay the conrparator output goes from 0 to 1, ind'icating that the ladder voltage is too low. Susec after tr, a 0+l' transition of C* occurso transferring the 1 at Dr to Dz, and returning Dr to zero. At thjs time Gr js 0 and the J and K states are

Jr, Jz = 0;
and

Js = 1;

Ju+, = 0;

Kr*, = 0'

L42.

At time t2 another lusec pulse of C^ occurs, and as a result, with the J and K inputs given, R3 gos to 1, and al'l other R's remain in their Previous states, i.., R1 , Ra-+6 = 0 and Rz = 1. The digita'l input to the ladder switches is now 01100000 and the resultant ladder voltage is st'il'l less than -Vt. The comparator output rema jns at a 1 indicating th'is condition. 5psec after tz ' another G+l transition of C* transfers the 1at D2 to De, returning Dz to 0. Gr is still 0, and the J and K states are

Jr*, = o;
and

Jo =

1;

Js*B

Kr*. = 0.

Lusec pulse of Cpt at time tg, dll R's remain at their previous states except R,, vrhich goes to a L. The ladder input is now 01110000' and the comparatgr output goes to 0 indicating that the ladder voltage is too

After the next

high. Another G'1 transition of CgZ occurs 5psec after ten transferring the 1 at D3 to D,, and returning D3 to 0.

I,

control line Wr js 0, so G+ = 1 and the J and K states are

The word length

Gz =

Dq. As Gr is

now

Jr*u = 0i
and

Jr=Gr=Do= Ku=Do Gl=

Ja*, = o
Ku*, = 0.

Kr*, = 0;

As a resu'lt of the lusec pu'lse of Cgt at time t,,n R1+3 dld R.*, remain at the'ir previous stateS, R,, returns to 0, and R5 $oes to 1. The ladder inPut is jndicatjng that the ladder now 01101000 and the comparator output returtrs to 1

voltage is again too low. A 0*1 transition of and D,. returns to zero. Gr is now 0 and the J

'92

and

transfers the 1 at [' states are

D+

to

Ds

Jr*s = 0;

J,
and

= D, = 1;

JrJ,=o

Kr-r, = 0'

Cpf at time ts, all R's remain at their previous states except R5 whr'ch goes to 1. The ladder input 'is 01101100 and the comparator output goes to 0 indicating that the ladder vol tage i s too hi gh . l^lj th the G'l transition of CgZ which occurs 5usec after ts' the 1 at Ds is transfemed to Ds and Ds returns to 0.

After the next

f.irsec pu'lse

of

143.

The word length

As Gr

is

control line l,lz is now 1, the J and K states are

so that Gs = 0 and Ga =

De

'Go = 0.

Jr*e=0(Jz=Gs=0);
and

Kr*, = 0; K. =

1;

Kz, K, = 0.

As a result of the lusec pu'lse on Cpl at time te, d'll R's remain at their prev'ious states except Re which returns to 0. The d'igital input to the ladder network is now 01101000, and the conrparator output returns to 1 indicating that aga'in the resul tant voltage is too snrall. At time tr, Spsecs after tr,
makes
hence

transition. Ds returns to 0 and as the shift regilter phth is broken by Ga1 D7 fflldins at 0. HoweVer as [lJ2 is 1, then Gz = De.Wz = De d1d
a
0-+1

'r,

Ge=6dz+odr+6Da
= 6dz =
6ds

produces an output Pu1 se because of the 1*0 indicate the end of the conversion process.

transition of D5. This is taken to

to the data register and the D inputs to the strobing register are now all 0, the programrner will remain in its present state (01101000) until the next sample instruction is received, in spite of continuous intemogatjon of these reg'isters by their clocks C^ and CQZ'
As the

and K inputs

the

During the conversion process, after a nev, dig'ital vlord is set by the falling edge of Cpi, a settling tirne of gusec elapses oefore the resultant comparator output is-interrogated by the next CB1 pulse- In view of the 5usec response time of the comparator, this period'is amp'le to ailow Lhe comparator to indicate its final state. A sequential truth table for the fjrst six bits of the data register throughout the operation iust described is sltown in Table 6.3' From the state of the comparator and the control register at time tn-, just before the pulse of Cpt at time tn, the resu'ltant J and K inputs to the data register are calcu'lated. As a result of these inputs, the R states are shovln for time tn+' iust after the Lusec pulse of Crt at time tn. both 14r and lolz (the word length control ljnes) had been 0' then the conversion prgcess r,rould have contjnued until Re had been set and verified'

If

L44.

d. o @O >44 (9 to u) DO

i!

o
c)

O O

o
O

o o
O

o o
r-l

-l
H

o o

o
Fl

&

n tto
ra

o
O O O
J

o o o o
O

r<

r{

v: a
hs DO
$

o
r{

O O
q) g +)
(I,

o o o
O
-t

r{

o
-l

yr 'o
-)
50

(.'
Cf,

o o

o
O
F{

-c P

o
r{

o
Fl FI

&

o
o

o = -c .n
C

o
O
C)

r-|

o
16

>zi q5
DO
N ON

@o

o
F-t

O O
FI

O O
Fl

o o

o o

+,

!rr, r-l C,

o oro

c
N

rt

6ro yA
NA F)O

c5

o
Fl

o
O O

(f,

O O

-cL P= (t) t-'F ol! iF

rF (uo -oE (o(d
{Jl-

(U(u

o o

d,' do >l: DO (5
F{

o
O O O
c>

-'l-o
O O O

-c {J.F -p L P
rtr

g) .6

.lJ
c)

o h o ot o ol o o
(J

o o o
O

o
O
F{

=' C
-t O O O O O
v)
(u

o
O O
r4

r-l

o
r-l

o
O
c-l

o o
O

n (o
(u

o
O O

-o rd

o
Fl

o o

o-

= o (J
UJ
li

o
+ o P

Fl

c)

= F

r+
+,lJ

r+ NN
+J {J

t+
PP

t+
+)P

on +t

r+
+-)

]J

t+ @@

{J

145.

and the end-of-conversion pulse would have been generated by the 1+0 transition of D6 (Onr). (R, would have been set to a I as a result of the Crt Pulse at time te, and the I at Do would have been transferred to Dz).

l,lr had been l and l,l2 0, then the conversion process would have been terminated after R,* had been set and verifiecl. The CBt pulse at time t,. "'JoulC not have set Rr to I as Jq woulcl have been 0. The end-of-conversion pulse vrould have been generatecl by the 1*0 transition of Da. The resultant digital vrord

If

would have been 0110C000.

hlith a 100tiHz clock input the converter has an aperture tinre of B0psecs for g-bit resolution, and 60 and 40usecs for 7 and S-bjt resolution respectively. The r,uximum jnterval bet1een the receipt of a sample command and the despatch

of an end-of-cottversion nlessage is 89Usec,69psec and 49Usec for 9-bit' 7-bit and 5-bit resolutjon respectively.
As a

result of the fjnal operation in the convers.ion process described' that of setting the sjxth bjt to a 1 and returnjng it to zero, the converter has determ'ined that the vo'ltage corresponding to the sjx-bit word 0110i1 is greater than -Vi (Vi js tlre nodjfied input voltage, see section 6.43) and that the voltage corresponding to 011c10 is less tlran -vi. Thus the final digital output represents -V.i to t'rirhin +4/64 volts and -0 volts, rather than the x4/LZB volts predicted. Th'is apparent deviation is a characteristic of any
discrete comparison ana'logue-to-digi

tal

converter (lloeschele, 1968) .

This devjation has been corrected by setting the comparator switch level one half quantum level above zero vo'lts. The effective atralogue'input to tlte comparator is then -(Vi * 97r) vo]ts, and the final ladder input represents this voltage to within +o or -0 volts, i.e., the ladder vo'ltage represents -VI to within t97, volts. As the quantum level q changes witlr word'length, the comection ltas been appljed for tlie nine b'it case only, tnthen Q = 15'6mV' Thjs has been achieved by connecting the comparator input to the -15 volt supply via

a resistance of

2i4CI.

6.6

The Input Anrpl'if ier

The basjc

sensitivity of the converter, at the input to the sign determination unit, is t4 volts full sca'le. Ampljfication is required to increase this sensjtjvjty to the specified ranges of t400nV anci r100nrV full scale, i.e., gains of 10 and 40. The input res'istance of this amplifier must be greater than (r7'BmV)' Such 100Kn and the drift at the output should be much less than !q/2

146.

s,pecifieations are nst easily met by cjrc,uits. u.sing inexpenrsive integratedcifcuit, operational amplifiers such as the Metrffi9G available. F:inite input bias currnents (-XuA) sr input offset cuments are tlle most troub:l,esorne deviation from the ideal in these amplifiers. The de-'sign of an input amplffier 'based on one of thes,e units req,uires a carefu''l consideration sf the effect of input offset currents on its perfornance.

6.61 Input 0ffset CurFsnt Consideratlqls The typical externa'l circuit arrangement sf a differrential i nput o;Perational amplifier is shown in Figurre 6.16' witli all input voltages at zero. Under the'sre
conditisns the amplifier draurs offset currents of

Ir and Ia.

Figure 6.1,6: Externa'l cronnections for a differential input oPerationa'l amPl ifien

If

the amplifier has an open-'loop voltage gain A then

Vn = A(Vz-Vr)

(6.3)

ulhey'e

fvo V1 = RrR'r RrtRa

t-,

- r,]

and
SUbstitr.rting these values
A>>l*Rs

Vz = -IzRa

of Vr and Vz into equation 6'3,

and assuming

/nl

r.,

, then
vo + IrRa

IzRa

[t *:]

(6.4)

UsualI;r the inpu,t offset currents are practically equal' and thefr effect can be d'lliminated hy making the parallel cornbination of Rr and R3 eqrual to

nrofR, = R,
t

,t - *tJJ .

147.

5.62

Tlre V,oltege-Follower Csnfiguration

As the amplifier is requirred to be non,-inverting, it was decided to urse an opeyational amplifier in the voltage follower configurdtion (see Figure ;6.1,7). This mode ls charaeteri:sed by a very h'igh input impedance and a very low out'put
impedanee.

Figurt 6.171 The voltage follower configuration.

Beferring to Figu,r'e 6.17, the galn of the feedbaek pa,th is -Rr/(Rr+R3}, frorn the basi,c theofV of fedback amplifiers (fitchen, 1966), provided A>> [nrtn3]/Rr, the closed-loop gain 46 wi]I be

n.=H=
and the input resistance Rip

,-fii
[t
*'.J

(6.5)

wlll

be

Rin = Rin(o)
where, R1p(l0)

is the opan-loop input rresistance. For the MC1439G' Rin(0)-100KS] and A-50,000, which for a gain A* of 40,results in a theonetical valu'e of Rin = lz5.Mfi, Rin is actually limited to lower values of rnesi,stance by intennal cottsiderations (Eimbinder, 1969),but is typically greater than 40[&.
,

The outpu't resistance

in th,is mode, Ro, w'ill

Ro =

be given by

##A.
a typical o'utput

where Ro(g) i,s the open-loop output resistance. The I'1C1439G has resistance of 4l$, yielding Ru = 3.20 for a gain As of 40.

148.

Provided that the source res'istance r, is much less than Vz cdh be taken as equal to V' and the gain of the ampiifier the source resistance.
Flaving estab'lished

Ri;', the

vo'ltage

is

unaffected by

that the circuit of Figure 6.17 vrjll produce the gain and input impedance requ'ired, it is pertinent to examine the effect on its performance of the input offset curents. In equation 6.4, Rz is noll ry and if the anrplifier is to be used with various source'impedances, then the condition
that

R'=d#
cannot be met. llorlever if Rg is kept constant, the effect of Ir will be to produce a constant output voltage, which can be accounted for by an offset voltage applied to the input. If r, is to vary, the on'ly way the resultant variatjon in Vo can be e1inrinated is to reduce Iz to zero. This can be achieved

by'injecting a constant current equal to Iz into the non-'inverting

input of the amplifier.

6.63

The

Des

jgn of an

Input__.tAtttpl

if ier

The input amp'lifier designed to meet the requirements is shorvn in Figure 6.18. Six different gains are available; 1, 2,5, 10,20 and 50' giving a range of full-scale sensitivjt'ies from t4 volts to t80mV. The input impedance is set to 1l''10 by the resistor Rr r drd a constant-current source is used to provide the bias current for the non-inverting'input, making the offset voltage
independent

of the source resistance.

the gain is voltage due to the bias current flovring through this resistance constant' that it can be eliminated by the'input offset voltage control Pr.

stant at

10Kfr as

The feedback resistance R: is kept conchanged by switches S. and S.,making the offset
s0

Details of the constant current source 15 are shown in Figure 6.19. By keeping the base resistance small compared with the emitter resistance, the collector current I, is maintained at a constant value l'lith variations in the
trans j stor parameters
.

The values of the ga'in settjng resistances Rz, Rs, Rror Rzo and Rso (pjgure 6.18) are determjned by relriting equation 6.5 as

Rr=uh

t49.

Rs.

s3

Vout

Figure

5.18:

The inPut amPlifien

l0Mn

15v

tsc178

lsl

Figure '6..-19: The constant current sourc'

The calculatedr vallfues

Is'
in Table 6.4.

for

these resistances iire

shown

GAIN
RESISTANCE

l.
@

,5

l0
I,111

50

z0
204

[0,000
The

2'500

526

Teble
When

6.4:

Eain-setting resistance values

drjven from a source of resjstance 30K0' with the gain set at 50, Pr and P2 canr be adjusted unti'l the zero-leve-l outpllt drifts by only t2mV for variations, of ternperature in the range l7-.?44C. l,lith these settings sf Pr and Pz, fon changes in sourEe resistarnce from O'301(0, and for all gain settings' the ze,rO-le.vel output does- hot vary Outside the range t$mV.

150.

6.7

The

Digital Output and Display

parallel djgital output from the data register of the programming logic persists between samp'les as specified, but is lost at the commencement of the next sample. In order to provide a persistent output, even when the converter is sampling continuously, it is necessary to transfer the data from the eight data flip-f1ops (figure 6.14) and the sign bit into a buffer register on the receipt of an end-of-conversion tnessage. At this tinre a flag should be set to indicate to the externa'l equipnent that the data is available. t'lhen the data has been accepted by the external equ'ipment it is assumed that a reset command will reset this flag to zero. The circuitry for this buffer, including the flag
The

faci'lity, is

sholn

in Figure 6.20.

I NPU

OUTPU TS - -

End of

Gga

Figure

6.20:

The output

buffer circuit.

The end-of-conversion 0*1 pulse from the programming Gso, Gsr drd Ggz and fed

logic is buffered

by

into the trigger inputs of nine type D flip-flops' Br*r'. This pulse transfers data from the nine inputs to the outputs, and the outputs remain constant until the next end-of-conversion pulse. The end-ofconversion pulse also sets the RS f11p-f1op formed by Gsg dnd Ggq, dnd F goes to 1, and stays at 1 until il, an invented reset line, goes to 0.

If a sample is transferred into the buffer before the previous data has been accepted, some indication of th'is data overf'low condition is required. A

151.

cincuit designed to perfonn this function is

shown

in Figure 6.21a.

If F is 1

0.) vrhen an end-of-cornrversion message is received' then 816 $oes to As Br.q then goes to 0, Bro will remain at 1whe,n the next, end-of-conversion a Until the 'overflox reset'switc:h S,, is elosed th,e flag F is occunseven

(1.e., F is

1.

if

0.

when a'rr,eRd-of-conversion

pulse oqcursn the data overflow indication 0F will

persi

st.

0vaFronge
OR

S-g

Fo-o*'sv
(b)

to progrsrnmcr control
.
ir.lst

somple o ructlon
+5v

v777'

[*

t'
(cl

Figure 6.?1:
and

(a) The data overflsw indicator' (b) ttre data over ranEe indicatorr (c ) the manual samPl e faci'l i tY.

An over'ra:nge indicaton and a manual sample-f nitiate contro:l have also been providedn and the circuits of these are shswn in Figure 6.21 b and c. When the output state 01111XXXX occurs (X can be either tr or' 0) then the RS flip-f1op Gra, G3g is set, and remains set (0R=1) ur,rti'l the over-range reset then this indicates that at some previous 0R is switeh Ss is closed.

If

l,

time the input wAs at 15/1,6 of

its positive full'-scale value, is in the external position

llhen the sample mode switcJt So (Figure 6.21c)

152.

then the output of the

sample

sample

short delivered to the sample input terminal, external functions.

An

Se is in l-pu1se occurs when Sz

input.

When

r fol 'lows exactly the extertla I the manuai positionn G'.r is normallY 0' but a is closed (Gu, = 6.Sz). This pulse is also
control
uni t

Gq

and may be used

to trigger other

additional requirement of the ana'logue-to-digita'l converter was for an i ncandescent I amp di spl ay of the current d'igi ta'l output. Thi s di spl ay i s useful when checking the system, and for ensuring that the dynamic range of the converter is being utilized to its fullest extent. The discrete component iamp driver shown in Figure 6.22 is used for this purpose.

Doto Inhi bi t

+12v

Figure
Nine

6.22:

The incandescent lamp

driver.

these gates, driven by the outputs of the buffer register (F'igure 6.20) display the current digita'l output of the converter. By connecting the nine inhibit lines to ground,the lamps are a1l extinguished in spite of the data input states. Similar lamp drjvers are used to display the data overflow and over-range states, 0F and 0R (Figure 6.21).

of

6.8

Mechanical Details

of the Analogue-to-Digital

Converter

of the completed converter is shown in Fjgure 6.23. Details of its construction can be seen in Plate 2. The unit measures 7" high x 4r4" wide x 12" deep, and occup'ies part of a 7" hi.gh standard 19" rack drawer. The analogue input and the sanple input are available on the front panel,
A functional diagram

together with the various control switches (Sr*z) and the incandescent displayIn add'ition, connections for monitoring the comparator output (serial digital word), the s'ign b'it, the end-of-conversion pulse, the reference voltage and the output of the input amplifier are avajlable on the front pane'|. The digital output is via a 16-contact connector located on the rear panel. Power supply connections, and the 100KHz clock input connector are also located on the rear
panel
.

153.

Rr= 10Kn R: 1Kn

Anclogue

Input

ond

Progromming Controt Log ic

oigitot
Out pu t

Ftog

Sompte Input C tock Inpu t

Key:

F'igure 6.23: The analogue-to-dig'ital converter. AS = analogue switch; C = comparator; A = amplifier.

logic and digital-to-analogue decoder are contained on two separate printed-circuit boards which are connected together by lateral connecting pins to form a s'ing1e plug-'in unjt (Plate 2b). All of the analogue circuitry,'including the reference voltage supply, except the input ampljfier' is contajned on the decoder board. Two more plug-in printed-circuit cards contain the output buffer register and the lamp drivers. The input amplifjer circuit is mounted on a sntall printed-cjrcuit board alongside the gain srvitch
The progranrning and the coaxial input connector.

I 54.

u c') o
g)

= !

to
ct)

o L

o.

^o -s -ct
-cr

E g
ro

Cov L lFl !E

|r'L ao, PO-

o g^

c,o +, L'

to (u

sc, o=

,g

|uro .Fc .r tU Enl .e C)

o f c e ?cfr qt i
-g ol

ln

fr # ft o #
'i,

'gP tl O+, ct IP O.e 5 ttl 9)'F OE |l'Tt gg

16Ct

Oa .EL FO'g aC ttt=

C'

o o 2 f, 1 |

.tt

o.

{l::?:1:

o-

v
llI

#s

lrl F J

CL

fr s

155.

6.9

of the converter is best demonstrated by a measurement of its'linearity. The threshold voltage for each of the 512 output states was measured, and lvith a maximum and minimuni ordinate for each state, the zerobased straight line of least mean-square-error was fitted to the resultant
The

overall

performance

staircase (see Figure 6.24).

Anologw

Input

Besl

Fit
Line

stroight

Digitot -1

0utput

Meosured Ttreshotd Votucs

Figure

6.24: Ana'logue-to-digital
to

accuracy measurements.

The mean quantizer step Qp was found deviations of the measured staircase from

be 15.6953mV and the maximum the straight line were +12 and -10mV.

The

overall accuracy of the converter is then +.3% to -.25/', not significantly fan from the inherent quantizer error of x.2%.

REFERENCES

EIMBINDER,

J. (ed.1, (1969): "Designing with Linear

(Wiley,
New York).

Integrated Circuits".

FITCHEN,

F.C. (1966): "Transistor Circuit Analysis and Design". (Van Nostrand'

New Jersey).

HEESCHEN,

D.S. (1961): "Observations of Radio Sources at Four Frequencies". Ap.J., 133 pp. 322-334.

156.

IISESCHELE,

D.F. (fsu8): "Analogue-to-Eigital/D-igital-to-Analogue

Osnversion

Techniques"

(t'li

lelr,

New York) .

LIM, J.C,

"Non-Uniformly Spaced amal/s Ph.D" Thesis, Unive-rsity of Auckland

(lgES):

of Directlonal

Elements".

l,lANI{,

R. (1968):,'An Integrated-circuit High-speed Analogue-to-Digital

,Gonverterl'

(te,x.as insttnuments Appl i cati'on Note')

MgLAUGHLI'N,

J.C. (1962):. "A Data DfgitizinE

and Pro:cessing System

for a Radio

Telescope". M.Sc. Thesis, Ohio State Univers'itJ'

MSLLARD,

(tgOB): I'Integrated Logic Circuit Applieations, MuIla,rd FJ Ra'nge".

(t*'tutlard, London).

yARRALL,

J.g. (lgOA): "A 42wt!z Radjometer

Au:ckl and.

Using t4etall 0xlde Field-Etfect Transistors an-d trntegrated-Circuits"- M.E. Thesi's, Universlty o'f

157.

CHAPTER 7

The Generation

of Solar

and Sidereal T'ime Coordinates

For the majority of observations of objects outside the solar system' sidereal time i s the rnost meani ngful coord'inate. The rel ati onsh j p bettleen the position of a radiating source and the output of an interferometer as a function of sidereal tjnre has been establjshed in Chapter 3. Hovrever for observations of objects near at hand (.g., the sun), the output of an interferometer has more meaning if considered a function of universal or solar tinte. In Chapter 4 it was specified that both solar and sidereal time should be available for storage as coordinates to the interferometer output data, and that it should be possible to control the acquisition process from either of these tirnes. The generat'ion of time coord'inates is perhaps the nrost important requirement of the entire
system.

As the time coordinates are required in digital form for storage, and in view of the present state-of-the-art of electronic digital clocks (Fisher and Frank, 1965), the choice of a digital clock js obvious for the generatjon of the coordinates. The numerous clock waveforms available from the dividing chains of a digital clock would be invaluable jn the generation of the control

functions for the

system.

preci se I ocal time-keepi ng uti 1 i z'i ng di gi tal techn-iques i nvol

ves (1) a

standard frequency osci'llator, (2) some means of converting the oscillator frequency into the desired time indication, and (3) the use of standard time signals (e.g., those broadcast by I'll,,lV and l,lWVH) to calibrate this indicator (fisher and Frank,1965). These three functions will be specified by respect'ive1y the stabjlity, resolution, and absolute accuracy required of the coordinates.

7.1

Resolution, Stability and Accurac

uirements

of the Coordinates

has been shovln that it is not necessary to record the tinre coord'inate w1th every sample of the interferometer output, but only once wjth each block of data, where a block is a set of a predetermjned number of samples- Hovtever this block size will vary from one experiment to another, and may be as small as one sample. For this limiting case the resolution required of the coordinates would be determined by the sarnple interval . l,lith the sample interva'l specified' 7.5 seconds, a resolutjon of 0.1 seconds will be adequate.

It

158.

of the primary reasons for the development of the data processing system is for use in averaging data obtajned over long periods of t'ime (typically of the order of months) to produce considerable improvement in signal-to-noise ratio. If, as specified, each of these sets of data'is to correspond point for po'int to each other, then the clock must be stable over the entire duration of the observations, or be ca'librated at sufficiently frequent intervals to ensure that any drift does not marr the results. Solar or universal time can of course be caljbrated direct'ly from standard time
One

broadcasts, but sidereal time is not so readi'ly calibrated, and any ca'libration must be made from a solar standard, the corresponding sidereal time being obtained by ca'lculation. For this reason it was specified that the drift in the sidereal clock should be sufficiently small that the clock does not require calibrating more frequently than at monthly 'intervals.
requirement of the sidereal clock js that the maximum accumulated error over an interval of one month be of the order of one second. This can be expressed as a'long-term stability requjrement of approx'imately 7 t3 parts in 10 Although the stability requirements of the solar clock are not as great, it is anticipated that jt wilt be of a similar design, and hence
The

stability

of a similar stabilitY.
The absolute accuracy required

stringent as the stability. to within the resolution of the interferometer itself, and thus the absolute accuracy need only be of the same order as the reso'lution of the clocks

of the time coordinates is not nearly so Pos'itions of sources can be determined only

(i.e.,
7.2

10.1 seconds).

The Generatjon

of Solar and Sidereal T'ime Inlg1yais

As a sidereal day'is 3m 56s shorter than a solar day, a digital clock to give siderea'l time must be based on a frequency 0.27379% higher than the frequency which would give solar tjme from the same system. Aithough the obvjous method of obtain'ing this sidereal frequency vrou'ld be to use a specially ground crystal (Co'|e,1968; Grimsley,1967), two sepanate high stability oscillators would be required for the generation of the solar and s'idereal frequencies. An alternative method which requ'ires only a single oscillator' is to feed a reference solar-based frequency into two separate dividjng chains,
one

the input by 100,000 to give a basic solar interval, and the other r.rh'ich divides by 99,727 to give a basic sidereal 'interval , accurate to within 4 parts in 107 (see Chapter 3). If the reference frequency was lMHz' both solar and siciereal time intervals would be available to a resolut'ion of

of

vrhich divides

159.

As the sidereal frequency is actually 0.00004?i slow, the addition of an extra 0.L sec pulse every 64 hours would improve the accuracy to 1 part in 10e (Cole and Shimmins, 1971).

0.1s.

7.3

The Development

of a

Standard Frequency Oscillator

At the present state-of-the-art, frequency stabil'ities of up to 1. part in 108 can be achieved with quartz crystal oscillators (Stratemeyer, 1964).
Available for use in this project was an obsolete l4arconj TME-Z frequency measuring instrument which conta'ined a 5l4Hz BT quartz crystal unit in a controlled,temperature oven. It was decided that if the desired frequency stability '(t3x10-t) could be achieved with this un'it, then it should be converted to solid-state contro'l and used as the standard frequency oscillator.

7.31 Factors Affecting the Frequency of Quartz Crystal 0scillators Factors affectjng the frequency of quartz crystal oscillators can be divided into tvlo groups:- long-term and short-term effects. These effects may be caused by inherent properties of the crystal itself, or by the associated electronic circuits. Long-term frequency varjation in the crystal can be attributed to aging and temperature variation. Aging is the result of temperature grad'ients, structura'l changes, clranges of mass and stress relief . For vacuum encloseci BT crystals, normally used in standard frequency oscillators, there is an initial aging rate of about 1 part in 108/day, falling off to less than I part in l0e/day after a period of weeks.
affects the frequency of oscillations in that the natura'l frequency js a function of tenrperature. For a BT crystal this function is parabolic in nature, with a positive maximunr, and hence a zero temperature coeffjcient, at a temperature which can be placed practically anywhere in the usable range, depending on the orientation of the quartz plate with respect to the crystallographic axis (Gerber and Sykes, 1966). l,lithin t5oc of the turning point in the characteristic, the grad'ient is typically
Temperature

[jru* |,arl

tzxro-7 loC.

In addition to th'is steady-state temperature-frequency characteristjc, crysta'l un'its shovr a great sens'itivity to temperature gradients. As well as contrjbuting to the aging rate, temperature gradjents within a crystal, created
during transient temperature variations, cause frequency fluctuations much greater than'indicated by the temperature coeffjc'ient. Typ'ica1 fluctuations

160.

during trans'ient temperature varjat'ions are (Pustarfi,

a-

1966)

Lf _ z.5xL0-e/oc/hr. L.J J.lr I vlttl

Considerations of frequency fluctuations arising from thermal noise and driving cupent noise are not real'ly necessary un'less stability over very short periods (<lms) is of interest. Hor^rever, as the aging rate of a crystal is increased at high driving currents (Gerber and Sykes,1966) and similarly the driving current noise (si2), and the thermal noise is inversely proportional

to driving 1evel, jt has been found that driving currents of the order of 50uA lead to the best compromise (Gerber and Sykes,1966; Pustarfi, 1966; Felch and Israel,1955). At this level the thermal noise arising in the crysta'l over a period of 0.ls (the shor"test period of interest) gives rjse to fluctuations of the order of Aflf = 10-12. A variat'ion of driving level of 1dB at 50uA produces

a fluctuation

of Lf/f -

5x10-10 (Stratenleyer, 1964).

Variations in oscillator load can also produce frequency fluctuatjcns in crystal oscillators, even when isolation between the crystal and the load is high. These effects are caused primarily by pick-up of the output current in the oscillator circuit. If the induced voltage and the oscillator vo]tage are not ejther exactly in phase or in antiphase, then changes in the output current will produce a phase shift in the circuit which must be offset by a shift in frequency. tlith 4OdB of isolation between the output and the oscillator this effect can produce frequency fluctuations of up to 0.5x10-8 for large load variations (Stratemeyer, 1964).
For a stability of 3x10-7/month, the specificatjon resulting from these considerations can be summarized as follows:

1.
?.

The

effect of aging should not be significant if it is kept to its value of 1 in l0s/day.

expected

The temperature

of the crystal wi'11 have to be maintained to within tl.5oC at a temperature within soC of the turning point in 'its temperaturefrequency characteristic (-60oc)
.

3.

The maximum

rate of

change

of

temperature

within this environment should

not exceed 1oc/min.

4.

The

driving current should,be of the order of to vlithin tldB of this level.

50uA, and should be maintained

161.

5.

the oscillator and the output should be at'least 40dB' even though the unit will normally be operating into a constant load'

Isolation

betlveen

As

10', i t

the TME-Z oscillator in its opiginal form had a stabifity was decided to convert it for use in th'is proiect.

of i part'in

cut plate supported in an evacuated glass bulb by four springs attached at the points of least motion. The temperature-frequency characteristic of this crystal has a maximum in the vicinity of 600C. The crystal, together w'ith a circuit for coarse frequency control, is contained in an oven which consists of two heavy metal cylindrical pots bolted together end-to-end and heated by a 1000CI non-inductive winding on the outer surface. The temperature of the oven is sensed by a copper-eureka bridge. When the oven is at its correct temperature the brjdge is balanced; when the temperature falls slightly, the resistance of the copper arm fallso while that of the eureka arm rema'ins practical'ly constant. In the original system the error voltage from the bridge was antplified and used to trigger a thyration, rvhich controlled the heating element in an on-off fashion.
The TME-2

oscillator is

based on

SMHz BT

7.32

The Temperature Control System Because

of the rather lrigh temperature gradients and inherent fluctuations of on-off temperature controllers (Kenreny and 0lthoff, 1968), it was decided to convert the oven to a proportional control systern. 0n1y the original sensing bridge and heater element have been used jn this nrodified system.
Measurements conducted on

the oven

shoyred

it to have a single dominant

pole

with an associated time constant of 180 ntinutes. The therrnal resistance of the oven's insulatjon was found to be 2.96oc/watt. The input porver Ps requ'ired to maintain the oven at TooC when the ambient temperatu:e is TuoC'is then
Po =

*#

watts

For To = 600C and Tu = 20oC, a steady-state po\,/er input of 13.5 rvatts is then required, or for the 10004 heater element, a voltage of 116V rms.

the oven is equipped rvith a proportjona'l temperature contro'l system with a ga'in of K vratts/oC, i.e., the powelinput to the oven iS P = Po -KAT' where ATo is the deviation in oven temperature from To, then for a step variation of ambient tentperature ATu, the resultant time variation of tlte oven tenperature

If

vrill

be

162.

mo(t)
where

,flg*

tr.]
[r-.-(t+z'gor)

(7.1)

t is the oven time constant.

in the laboratory

environment, where the equipment is to be used, over a number of weeks shor,led variations of temperature to be in the range 20t5o0. However, in the design of the system a variation of tl0oc was used as a $torst figure, in order to take into account extremes which may occur during heating failures, or in mid-summer. For these variations it t,ras decided that the crystal temperature should be kept to within 10.Loc of its setbmperature, in order to keep variations to a minimum. For these conditions, the gain required of the system is
K > 33.4 rvatts/oC

Measurements taken

A simplified diagram of the control system designed to meet these requ'irements is shown in Figure 7.1.

nsrt rve

Trigger

-5v Steody-Stote

Forword
Regutotion

Offsct

zgo" ton,
Figure

7.1:

The temperature contro'l system

for

the

crysta'l

oven.

The sensing bridge is supp'lied with a mains derived 50Hz 2.5V r.m.s. voltage, and the resultant emor signa1 , 1.625nrV/0C, is amp'lified by amplifier A and rectified in a phase-sensitive detector. This type of detection is necessary in order to establish the sign of the error (Sigdelt, 1968). The

163.

ortprt is positive when the oven temperature is'lovl, and negatjve when the temperature is high. This control voltage is then added to a 50Hz ramp signal, together with an offset voltage and a forward regu'lation signa'I. The resultant sum, which is an offset ramp, is used to trigger a Schmitt trigger circuit, the output of rvhich controls the gate of a silicon=controlled rectifier. This s.c.r.applies a 220Y r.m.s. 50Hz vo'ltage to the oven heater for a portion of a half cycle. Representative waveforms are shown in Figure 7.2.

Romp

Qrtput

Adder

0utput

Triggcr

0utput

Heotcr
Vottoge

Figure
The

7.2:

Temperature

controller

waveforms

resultant poler delivered to the heater for a trigger ang'le x is

v2 Px= 'rms (n-x +
2riR

]'"sinZx)

0.r)
input to the heater

where R

is the resistance of the

heater.

The maxjrnum power

164.

conditions (Ta = ZOoC) the oven will be running at approximately half power. Figure 7.3 shows the relationship between heater power P and trigger ang'le x. Because a linear ramp is used to generate the trigger signal, x is proportional to the control s'ignal, and Figure 7.3 also shows the relationship betureen error temperature and power delivered to the heater.

is then 24.2 watts and under steady-state

Figure

7.3:

The relationsh'ip between the trigger angle and the output power for an s.c.r.

Schemes have been suggested

for the removal of the non-linearity

relationship (Nalesani,1969) but as the normal operating point is centre of the range (x + gOo) where the relatjonship is essentially linear' this non-linearity is not considered detrirnental to the operation of the system.

from this near the

of the inductor L (lmH)'in Figure 7.1 is current in the heater. The choice of this value was based design figure (Zinder, 1967).
The function

to
on

limit the rise of

a manufacturer's

As both the eryor voltage and the heater vo'ltage are mains derived, fluctuations in the mains voltage will have a two-fold effect. The error voltage is proportional to the mains voltage, and for a particular error voltage the error input power AP js proportional to the square of the mains voltage. Thus the gain K of the system can be cons'idered to vary as the cube of the mains voltage. These variations rvill not be significant provided the error is small. The second effect of mains voltage fluctuations is that on the steady-state power Po.

165.

As

this is derived from a constant voltage input to the adder, its variations are proportional to the square of the ntains voltage. A change APo'in Pe will produce a change ATo in the steady state temperature of
a'o ^T
To
APo

offset this effect, forward regulation has been used (Kemeny and 0lthoff' 1968). A sma'll negative voltage proportiona'l to the mains voltage is obtained from the bridge supply and added to the control voltage (see Fjgure 7.1). A drop in mains voltage will then be accornpan'ied by an increase in control voltage' and by careful adiustment of potentjometer Pz, the heater power for zero error (po) can be made to remain essentjally constant for mains variat'ions of t10%'
A gain switch on the error amplifier enables the gain of the system to be set to Z00f{/0C , Z}ll/oc and 2l,l/oC. it was found that it was necessary to use low ga'ins when starting the oven from cold because the large error signals tend to saturate the system. In addjtion, the switch S.,, (Fjgure 7.1) enables the full cycle of the 220V signai to be applied to the heater (-SO vratts) for rapid heating from cold. A fourth posit'ion of the gain switch al'lovrs the amplifier emor input to be set to zero,'in order that P1 dhd P2 may be adiusted for the

steady-state condi ti on.

A meter M, calibrated
when

in oC deviatjon, i s connected to the outPut of

a

phase-sensitive detector. Thjs meter has

full

scale deflection of

the t0.05oC

the

ampl

ifier is set to maximum gain (200t'l/oc).

As the oscillator has been des'igned for stability over periods of months' and as the present power failure rate in the laboratory environment is less than l/year, provision of an emergency power supp'ly to take over in the event of a power failure vras deemed unnecessary. Design of an emergency supply would have been complicated by the fact that the system is dependent on 50Hz voltages'
7

.33

The

Oscillator and Automatic

Gajn

lqtol

the conf.iguration of the orig'ina'l feedback network, wlt'ich contains the crystal control and coarse and fine frequency controls. The crystal and coarse frequency are conta'ined'inside the oven, the remainder of the feedback netvrork being located jn a solid rnetal box adjacent to the oven. The vacuum-tube amplifjer' which together vrith this feedback netvrork formed the original oscillator c'ircuit'

In the nrodificatjon of the oscillator circuit, no attempt vtas made to alter

166.

has been replaced by an integrated circuit cascode-configuration amp'lifier with automatic gain control facility (see F'igure 7.4)

ine

freq.
cont rot

5 MHz

0utput

Figure
The

7.4:

The 5MHz osci I I ator.

oscillator signal is ampfified in two stages. The output from the first stage is rectified and used to control the gain in the osc'i'llator, maintaining a constant drive level of 60uA in the crystal. The second ampfifier stage'is an output buffer, which also has automatic ga'in control to provide a constant output level for a rnride range of 'loads. The output voltage is approximately 2 volts peak-to-peak.

of the Standard frequency 0scillator The completed 51.'lHz oscil'lator unit, shown in Plate 3, is contained in an B" h'igh, 12" deep, standard 19" rack-nourrt dravler. The door in the centre of the front panel provides access to the coarse frequency control, and also to a recess jn the overr wall into rvhjch a thermocouple nray be fitted for monitoring
7.34
T.he Performance

the tempenature. The temperature emor meter and control switches occupy the space to the right of the door, and the control circuitry and pol{er supplies are located behind this meter. 0n the left-hand side of the oven'is the oscillator unit and fine frequency control, whjch may be adjusted from the frontpanel with the aid of a key. The 5MHz output'is availab1e at both the front and rear
panel s.

After an initial

rvarm-up and aging

period of tlvo weeks, the aging rate

fr . afJ 16
5-tJ

is

less than 1 part in 108 per vreek, and

random

variations are less than t2 parts

t67.

]'

.ti

,6,e

+t
G'

o
u th o

a g

o cr o L
E L .q E g tr6 P

.G

o o

+t

rF
t.

o
(l,

fl
l.
'_t

rf-ti
u
si o

G' CL

; I
fri

+t g

L ||
.8

o o

il
H

Jt ;5
i,

9rt

;I
n

.nEt =iO
E

'E$

;1
lrJ
I

t
ll

dl

EI

168.

These measurements lvere made r,r'ith a Hervlett-Packard HP5245L counter' which has an accuracy of 1 part in 10e after 36 hours; all measurelnents vrere averaged over a ten second period. llithjn four hours of sw'itching on from

in 10s.

cold, the oven is stabilized to rvithin t0.010C of variations in environment of up to t4oC.

its set temperature for

The coarse frequencY controlallows adjustments to be made over a range of 750H2; the fine frequency control al'lows for adiustntents over a range of 75Hz

for

L80o

rotation.

7.4

Jhe Solar/Sidereal Digital Clock

The primary requirements of the time keeping system are that both solar and sidereal times be available, in dig'ital form, to a r'esolution of 0.1' seconds. The absolute accuracy requirements of these times (t0.ls) can be satisfied by a direct comparison I'rjth locally received sjgnals of the standard time trans-

missions from t,lhrV. Additional requ'irements of this system are for a d'isplay of the current sidereal and/or solar time (these displays can be combined if desired) and that the system should be capable of contro'l'ling the acquisition process. For calibrating the tinre coordinates, a display of the instantaneous time is essential (f isher and Frank, 1965). llol,rever because of the rapid changes in an indicator of tenths-of-seconds, a visua'l disp'ld.v to a resolution of 0.1 seconds is not vrarranted, and a disp'lay of liours, minutes and seconds will be
adequate.

has been established that the sanrpfing of the interferometer output must be control'led by the timing circuits whjch generate the coordjnates. These timing circuits must also control the storage of the quant'ized samples and the storage of a time coordinate at the end of each block of data.

It

of man-made interference and the strong signals received from the active sun, jt is unlike'ly that observations will often be made during daylight hours with the present system. l,lhen making repeated observations of a particular source, 'it would be des'irable to have some facility to automatically init'iate the acqu1sition process, and to stop it again after the source has passed. This too could be provjded by the timing circu'its, as the times of interest would be determined by the coordinates of the source. Additionally, such operations as the'injection of calibration sjgnals at set intervals (Yang and Srvenson, 1967)
Because

could be control'led by the time-keepi ng systent.

The

c'ircuits for the generation of the two coordjnates required, solar

and

169.

sidereal time, have been combined jn a sing'le unit. A block diagram of this solar/sidereal digital clock js shown jn Figure 7.5. The 5l4Hz output of the standard frequency oscillator is shaped and divided by fjve to give a basic lMHz reference signal. This lMHz signaf is fed into two separate frequency divjder chains whjch produce outputs of 10Hz solar and 10Hz sidereal. These 10Hz signals are supplied to two jdentical time-keeping chains wltich give binary-coded-decjmal (b.c.d.) outputs of tenths-of-seconds, seconCsn m'inutes and hours. The seconds, minutes and hours outputs of each of these chains are connected via a tvrenty-channel tvro-way multiplexer to a six digit nixie-tube display. This display can be switched to show either solar or sidereal t'ime, and the djgi ta'l outputs of both cl ocks are avai I ab1e simul taneously to a reso'luti on of 0. 1 seconds .
There are seven controJ functions which can be operated on either or both of the t;o clocks; start, stop, advance by 0.1 seconds, retard by 0.1 seconds' set, reset to zero, and synchronization with external time signals. These functjons can be actjviated by depr"essing an appropriate push-button together with either the solar or sidereal'interlock button, or by an external pu1se.

At the time construction of the digital clock was begun, r.t.l. (resistortransistor-logic) integrated-circuits were 'less expensive and available in greater abundance in this country than the t.t.l. devices later used in the

analogue-to-digital converter (Chapter 6). For th'is reason, except in the sjdereal d'iv'ider for whjch no suitable r.t.l. devices l'tere available, r.t.l. has been used throughout the clock with its associated negative logic convention (1=lovr levej -0.4 volts;O=hjgh 1eve1 *2 volts). flolever the output buffers supply the necessary invers'i0n for jnterfacing directly vrjth t.t.l. circuits.

7.5

The So]ar and Sidereal frequency dividers

A discrete-component Schmitt trjgger circuit is used to convert the input 2 volt peak-to-peak SllHz sine wave into a Gl2 volt square vrave suitable for triggering the r.t.l. devices. The d'ivide-by-five circujt (Fjgure 7.6a) is a modified rjng counter of three J-K flip-f1ops r'rhich vljll alvrays regroup to a valid sequence if a spurious count should appear (there are eight possible cont-

binations of wh'ich only f ive are used).

inverting buffer (Gr) supplies t,he lMHz rectangu'lar wave (;') to an external connector, and the jntenral ll'lHz clock for the solar and sidereal dividers is derived djrectiy from the Q output of C1.
An

1,70.

20 pote 2 posi

tiorr rnultiplerer

F=igure

7'5;

The

solar/sidereal digital cloek.

lT

c'Ycte-s

c1

%
Input

ca 0u'tprts

l"_-

cfg{g

{b}

Figurre

7,6; (a) The divide-by-five cit'cuJt, and (b). its vraveforms.

171.

7.51

The Solar Divider

solar divider (figure 7.7) consists of a string of five integratedcircujt decade counters which divide the input 1t4Hz frequency by 100'000 to g'ive tenths-of-solar seconds. Buffered outputs of 100KHz, LOKHz, LKHz' 100H2 and 10Hz are available for external use (e.g., the 100KHz output supplies the clock waveform for the analogue-to-digital converter). An RS flip-f1op (Gt,Gt) gates the 10Hz output of the divider through Ge for the solar time-keeping circuits. This provides the start/stop facifity for the solar clock. The control inputs are shown as START and STOP because they require inverted logic levejs.
The

ext. l 0Hz

int. l0 Hz
G8

Figure

7.7:

The

solar frequency divjder

Details of the CuL9958 decade counter used in the d'igital clock are shown in Figure 7.8. The'logic diagram has inversion symbols shot'tn on the reset and tpigger inputs (ft anA i) to convey that these are operated by inverted levels. The outputs are 'in negat'ive logic b.c.d. format and are labelled Zr,72, Zr+ and 7s respectively. Correct counting occurs if each successive decade is triggered d'irectly from the Zs output of tlre preceding one.
7

.5?

The Sidereal D'ivider

divider (Fjgure 7.9) er.rp'lo-vs five decade counters connected in a similar fashion, but gating'is provided to reset all five decades to zero
The sidereal
when

they count 273 short of 100,000, producing the necessary 0.274% h'igher frequency tenths-of-sidereal seconds. The count 99,727 is decoded by gates Gr, Gz and Ga, dfld triggers a 500 nanosecond monostable multivibrator formed by G,-, G5, and Ge . This titultjvibrator drives the reset-to-zero termina]s of the five decades. The monostable is necessary because the count 99777 vrhich triggers the reset pulse disappears as soon as

the count 99,727 appears,

i.e.,

172,

trasct to zcro'l

Tigg,et )

zo FiguTe Sytnbo'lic represe,ntat{on of the integ'rated-ci'rcuit, decade csunter.

7,r8:

10 Hz

G7 I

0ulputs

t
/^ in t.
oB

MF

Figu,re

7.9:

The sideneal frequency dlvlder.

any

of the dreeades reset, and they may not all reset'simultaneously. This reset pulse must be less than one microsecond or the ncxt trtgge.r pulse will be lsst, d,nd the unit will div'ide by 9'9128, The divider actually uses t't,l.
an inverted reset input; the CuL9958 deead:e could not be reset in the short time available.
The gate G:r B.rrovides
Gg

deeadgrs which do no-t trave

a buffered 1,0ttz output for external use, and Gr, and Gro Fro\ride the startlstop facility for the sidereal eloek.
7

.6

Timq.$'eepiryg an{ Diispt qy ,Cfi!^cui ts

The'

identJca'l Solar and si:d'el^eal: tirne-lkeep'ing circuits e'ach provi'de b'G'"d'

173.

outputs (negative logic) of tenths-of-seconds, seconds, minutes and hours, as shown in Figure 7.5. The tenths-of-seconds counter is an integrated-circuit decade connected to provicle the advance and retard control functions discussed in the next section. The seconds and minutes counters each consist of an integrated-circuit decade fo1lorved by three J-K flip-flops connected as a modulo-6 b.c.d. counter (figure 7.10).

To Minu tcs

lHz
Input

Counter

4 ZzZcZa \--\,/---l
bsd. seconds

bsd.

10x seconds

Figure

7.10:

The seconds counter

The invFtf Gr is necessary to supply a G'l transition trigger to C+ vlhen a L+0 transition of Zs occurs. The hours counter (figure 7.11) employs an integrated-circuit decade counter followed by a two stage binary counter (two connected in toggle mode) rvith the two counters gated to resetto-zero when the count 24 appears. A one millisecond monostable multivibrator Mr ensures that each counter resets before the command is lost.

J-K

ffip-flops

z4
10 x

minutes
Gz

4 7z TaZa \---v--J
b-cd. hours

\--v-------l
b.cd. 10

z't

22
x
hours

lmsec

Fiqure

7.II:

The hours counter

The twenty-four outputs from each clock are buffered and taken to two output connectors, either of which may be connected to the tape punch system. These buffers, which are unloaded r.t.l. glates, supply the correct polarity

174.

logic at the correct vo]tages for interconnection with the

t.t.l. circuits

used

in the remainder of the sYstem.

The twenty b'its represent'ing seconds, minutes and hours from each clock are gated through twenty AND-$R switch circuits (figure 7.I2) and the outputs of

these drive

sjx integrated-circuit decoder-drivers, lvhich in turn drive the six

digit nixje disp'lay.

N

ixic

4'
I I

DecoderDr i ver

Tube

1i
I I

z^
to
i

Sotor
I

nputs

Sidereol "-. 'Inputs

G5

S2

Figure
When

7.12:

One

dig'it of the nixie tube display.

the sidereal push-buttor Sr is mornentarily closedr Gr+ goes to I and G5 goes to 0. The nixie tube then djsplays the number indicated by the four sidereal input 'lines. l,Jhen the solar push-button Sz is momentarily cl0sedr Gq goes to 0 and G5 goes to 1. The number indicated by the four solarinput lines

is

then displayed.
Clock Control Circuits
The seven

7.7

control functions ment'ioned 'in section 7.4 each have assoc'iated with them a pulse source of the form sholn in Figure 7.13. Each function is activated by depressing a funct'ion button (Sr), while either the solar or sidereal interlock button (Sz, Sr) is held dorvn. These slitcheso although on the front panel of the clocl<, are normally protected by a cover and as an interlock button must be held dor.rn while a function button'is pressed jt takes very deliberate operator action to upset the times kept by the clock.

L75.

Sotor

Sidereot
Reset
+

fuset

lrv

ExternoI '-->

Inputs

side?eor rr)i _i( sr L---r

Sotor Interlock
777r7r

SidereoI

Interlock

tiggre.Z_l3-: The reset pulse

Each funct'ion may

source.

also be triggerecl by a negative-going pulse; two separate 'inputs (solar and sjdereal) are provided for each function. Connections to these inputs can be made on'ly with the protecting cover removeci' and when the cover is back'in place both interlock buttons are automatically depressed, rendering the inputs active. driv'ing gates G1 and Gz nornlally have both'inputs high (0) and thus their outputs are normally low (t). When Sz(Ss) is held down, and Sr depressed' then Gr (Gz) momentarily goes to 0n then returns to I as the capacitor C charges.* This positive (1*0) output pulse is of the right form to drive the start/stop RS flip-f1ops mentioned in sectjons 7.51 and 7.52, and a'lso the set' reset, advance, retard and synchronize functions discussed in detail in the following sections.
The

7.71 Start and StoP Facilities

Either clock can be started or stopped to a resolut'ion of 0.1 seconds by control functjon push-buttons or external pulses as described in the previous section. The start/stop RS flip-f1ops, shown in Figures 7.7 and 7'9,gate the 10Hz clock puise at the output of the frequency divfder sectjon, and thus the external LMHz,100KHz,10KHz, lKHz, l,OOflz and 10Hz solar and 10Hz sidereal out-

Note that with the negative coup'led gate_of the forn used

logic convention of r.t.l

in Figure

7.13 rePresents

gates, the caPacitivelY Q = 6A + B, as opposed

to q = 6A + B for the t.t.1. qate.

176.

puts are not affected by the starting or stopping of the c1ocks.

7.72 Set and Reset Facilit'ies

set facility allows the visual register (hours, minutes, and seconds) to be set to any time of day. The appropriate time jn hours, minutes and
The

selected on six front-panel-mounted thumbwheel switches, and when the set function button is depressed together with the desired interlock button' this time js transferred into the time-keeping counters. The circujt configuration of the thumbvrheel swjtch and djode setting gates is shown jn Fjgure 7.14'
seconds

is

Sotor
Seconds Set

*i'lii"
Fiqure
decade

+t+u

7.14: Circuit for setting the solar seconds

counter. Switch position sholvn will set decade to 0100.

Although the J-K ff ip-f1ops used in the tens-of-seconds, tens-of-minutes, and tens-of-hours counters are provided r.rith both set and clear inputs which are activated by positive (1*0) pulses, the integrated-circuit decades used for the units counters have only a single clearinput. Hot'rever if the decade is first cleared to zero (all outputs hiqh), the jndividual bits can be'pu1'led' down to 1.. This setting of the decades can be achjeved by providing four transistors per decade as shovln'in Fjgure 7.15. For these counters, a diodetransjstor-logic integrated-circurit expander gate cornbines the diode gate of Figure 7.14 and the transistor of Fjgure 7.15 jn a single integrated unit.

177 .

z2
z4

Sett in9 Inputs

z8

b.qd.
0utputs

21

22

24

Figure

7.15:

The Provision of a setting facilitY i ntegrated-c'i rcu i t decade counters.

for

the

positive pulse generated by the reset pulse source (Figure 7.13) drives the reset terminals of the ent'ire time-keep'ing chain from 0.1 seconds upwards. Because of the peculiar faci'lity for setting the decade counters, the time-keeping chain must be reset-to-zero before it can be set to a Parti cular time.
The

7.73

The Tenths

of

SeconOs Cognters and

the

Advan

The advance and retard functions allow respectively one count to be added or one count to be subtracted from the tenths-of-seconds counter, while the clock is running, for each pulse generated by the function pulse source' Thus the indicated tinre of either clock can be advanced or retarded by 1/10th of a the second at a time. The c'ircuit of the tenths-of-seconds counter, with advance/retard facility, is shown in Figure 7.16'

retard function js activated, the trvo J-K flip-f'lops c1 and cz are reset-to-zero and the triggerinput to Dr, Gz is 1 (low) regardless of the state of the 10Hz input. 0n the next 1*0 transition of the input' which rvould 1' 0n have normally triggered Dr, d 0+1 transition of Gr causes Cr to become the subsequent G'1 transit'ion of the input, cz becomes 1, enabl'ing Gz to follorv the input once again. One 1*0 transition of the'input has been prevented from triggering Dr, and so the clock has been retarded by 0.1 seconds'
}lhen the

A positive pu'lse on the advance

line

sets the RS

fliP-floP

Gs, Gz and

on

178.

10.H2

lnpui 21

retord

r-r/

7ZA Za
output
odvonae

c6

bp.d.

Fiqure

7.16:

The tenths-of-seconds counter shovring'the advance

l-l-;-br-.-.

.-

(o)

(b)

(e)

l,Javeform in the tenths-0f,-seconds counters' (a) normal operatio:n, (b) with retard function

iriggered ani (c) wi[h advance function triggered.

179.

the next occurrence of the count 9 jn the decade counter Drn the ntonostable multivibrator formed by Gu and Gs is triggered, resetting Dr to zero, and also resetting the RS flip-flop. Dr has then counted short by one count, and as a result the clock has been advanced by 0.L seconds. The Zr line is capacitively coupled to G31 pfVenting the reset pu'lse from being triggered if the advance function js activated when the count 9 is present.

In Figure 7.17, typical traces of the waveforms in the tenths-of-seconds

counters are shown. Figure 7.17(a) shows a counter operating under normal conditions. The upper trace is the 10Hz input, and below this are the Zr,7z, Zq and Za outputs of Dr. Log'ic 0 is the high 1evel, and logic f. is the low level Triggering occurs on the 1*0 transition of the input. Figure 7.17(b) shows the waveforms at the same terminals when the retard funct'ion is triggered by the 9'0 transition of the counter. The count 0 (0000) then retnains for two periods of the input waveform before changing to 1. Figure 7.17(c) shovls these same waveforms rvhen the advance function is triggered once during each cyc1e. The decade then recycles directly from B to 0.

7.74

Synchronisat'ion l^lith External time signals

The synchronising function allols the one second 'tick'of either clock to be synchronised to w'ithin one microsecond of a standard time s'igna1 as received. The circuit wh1ch performs this function (F'igure 7.18) gates the 1l'lllz input to the appropriate frequency divider through gates Gs and Gg. tlhen the synchroni-

sing function is activated, the RS flip-floP Gen Gz is set, and the command stored until the next 1+0 transition of the internal one second waveform- The Zs output of the tenths-of-second counter whjch produces this waveform, marks the end of each second with a L*0 transit'ion. When this transition occurs' a one microsecond pu'lse (56r) sets the RS flip-flop of G,,, Gr. Gs then goes to 0' and the lMHz clock is cut-off from the divider. 0n the follolving G'1 transjtion of the standard time signal, a lus pulse 6G, resets botlr RS flip-flopsn return'ing the system to normal. The clock's jnternal one-per-second ttaveform has been slowed dovrn so that the end of a one second period coincides with the falling edge of the external standard. If the clock was original'ly a fraction of a second slow, it is now exactly one second slow, and can be brought into'line by depressing the advance button ten times.
A
shown

typical osc'illoscope trace demonstrating the action of this function is

in Figure 7.19.

180'.

l.r1sac

Itr

Int,

.r
J

s,ilnC-

lMHa

ln

lMl'lz 0ut

Figyre

7.18:

The

cireuitry of the

synehlnon'izin'g

control functi'on.

Ftgltre

Ll9-: The opepation of the synchroniztng' function.

s;tandard

(a) The activatjng 'purlse, (b) the external

'tiickrr dhd (c) ttre internal 'tick'.

qf lhe Acquisili0n Fr0cess The pno.gr.arnned contnol of the acqnrisitiorr syst'em'is perfo'rnred b,y two units, a cloc,k3pulse source and, a time interval gener:ator' vlhich are separate

7.8

0o'ntrg:!

distinc,t frsm the clock. The clock-puls soupc is pl',ovided with buffered outp-u'ts of the lorv frequency clock prirlses from the solf,rlsiderEal clock
and

181.

(tenths-of-seconds, seconds, tens-of-seconds, ntinutes, tens-of-minutes, hours and days, both solar and sidereal), and also with either the solar or sidereal b.c.d. hours. At a programmed time (integer hours), clock pulses at one of these frequencies are supplied to the time interval generator vrhich produces both sample and block-mark instructions at preset intervals unti1, at a later time (also progranrned), the clock pulses are stopped by the clock-pulse source-

7.81

The Time

Interval

Generator

This unit, which generates both sample and b'lock-mark instructions, is patch-programmed to maintain a certain flexibility. l,lith normal patching it will generate sample instructions at intervals of I to 99 input pulses (in unit steps), and at the same time generate block-mark instructions at intervals of I to 9 samples in unit steps, or 10 to 90 sampies'in decade steps. t,lith alternatrve patching it can produce single pulses at intervals of I to 999 input pulses. A variety of other sequencies can also be programmed.
The

unit is

based on

fourintegrated-circuit

which are connected'internally Figure 7 .20.

to

decade counters' three of thumbwheel decodjng switches as shown in

0123t

567

89
Cotnct dence

0utput

Thumbwhee

Switch

Decodtng

Figure 7.20:

of

A progranimable decade counter the time interval generator.

182.

a I output (negative logic) when the state of the decade counter coincides lvith the number set on the switch. The ind'icated termina]s (T, R, Za and S) of these three clecades, all functional terminals of the fourth decade, and input/output connections of severa'l gates and monostable multivibrators, are connected to a 7x7 terminal patch pane1. Interconnectjons for the normal ntode mentioned are silown in Figure 7.2I.
The thumbwheel switches give

D3

D4

Inpu t
C

tock

not required for block tengths less thon 10

i

Somp [e

lnstruc tion

Btock Mork Instruc tion

Fi

gure

.21:

l,lormal i nterconnecti ons interval generator.

for the time

triggering the mcnostable l'1r from the AND combination of the coincidence signa'ls from Dr and Dr, tlre resetting of these two decades occurs only when both are coincident with their resDect'ive switches, j.e., if the Dr switch is set to Nr(decimal) and the Dz switch to Nz, then the sample interval will be NzNr (decimal) periods of the input clock signal. The reset pulse'is pos'itivegoing and of the correct form for the sarnple'instruction to the analogue-tod'igital converter. This reset pu'lse also triggers another counter' formed by Ds a.nd D,*, which generates the block-mark instruct'ion. If the D'+ switclt is set to N (decimal) then the block length wj11 be N0 (decimal) samples' or if Ds i s omi tted , mere'ly l,l samp'les .
By

7.82

The Clock-Pulse Source*

The clock-pu1se source suppljes the basic clock pulses to the time interval generator and gates these on and off at programmed hours of the day. The starting and stopping of the acquisition process can also be performed manua'lly. The six

* This unit uses t.t.l.

gates and thus a pos'itive logic convention

183.

lines bearing the b.c.d. hours infornration from one of the clocks are supplied to t;o 32-way circuit-board connectors (figure 7.22) together their conrplements. By using progranrming cards to connect a particular combinatjon of these twelve quant'ities to the sjx inputs of Gr (or Gz), a 0 level wjll occur at the output at one hour duping the day. Twenty four prewired cards are available, enabling
any two hours during the day acquisition of data.

to

be selected

to initiate

and terminate the

b.cd. Inpuls

Progrom

Progrom

From Clock

AB

Progrom

Out

Progrom B Out

Progronr Cord
Socke ts

Figure

7.22:

The

start/stop

programming

faci'lity of

the

c'lock-pul se source.*

circujt vrhjch selects and gates the desired clock pulses to the time interval generator is shown jn F'igure 7.23. The tr^ro svrjtches Sr and Sz select one of the fourteen clock frequencies avajlable for use as a basic t'iming
The

waveform. Gr generates a short positive pulse from the negative-go'ing trattsition of the waveform, the transition which narks the beginning of a clock interval when the clock waveforms are in this positive logic form. Gs is controlled by the RS flip-f1op formed by Gr and Gs. When the outputs from the coincidence gates G1 and Gz (Figure 7.22) are connected to the set and reset term'inals of thjs flip-f1op, then program A r,rill start the system' and it will be stopped by program B. At the beginning of any acquisition period, vrhen G+

184.

supp'lied to one of the patch-pane'l connectors of the time interval generator, and causes all of the monostables in this unjt to be triggered. The counters are then all initially reset-to-zero, and as both sample and bloclt-nrark instructions will be generated, the beginning of the acquis'ition period will be marked by a sampie and i ts coord'inate.
The acquisition process can also be started and stopped manually by the trvo push-buttons,

is first set to 1, G5 generates a short positive pulse whjch is

S: drd

Sq.

t_
0.1s 1s
I

s ----o
-------{
-------{
-[-ctoctr Purr.

10s
1m

Solor Ctock Put ,*{

10m #

th --------- 1d ---4
0.1s 1s

t \o^ 7? tt
m7T

START

Reset Time lntervol

----o

----------

f ctocr eursesl
,id"r."t

i.;
.sq

Generotor

10s
1m

'l0m

----------o

-----{

"l
STOP

77V/r

lh -------4
1d

--{

Figure

7.23:

The selector and gating portion of the clock-pulse source.*

In addition, an event marl(er is included in thjs unit, provided primariiy to produce sjdereal hour marks on the analogue chart record of the interferometer outpui. This circuit provides a contact closure at the 1*0 (end of clock period) transition of any one of the fourteen basic clock frequencies. 7..9 Physjcal Characteristics of the Solar/Sidereal Clock The solar/sidereal digital clock (Plate 4) is housed in a standard 19" vride rack unit,7" high and 12" deep. The most prom'inent feature on the front panel is the six djgit in-l'ine nixie tube display of hours, minutes and seconds. At the right-hand side of the front pane'l are the six thumbvlheel switches used in

* This unit

uses

t.t.].

gates and thus a positive logic convention.

185.

setting the c]ocks. The only other controls normal'ly exposed are the disp] ay-select slitches (St and Sz, Figure 7 .tZ), wh'ich together with their indicator lamps are located betvreen the dispiay and the setting switches. Also on the front panel are the two recorder connection larnps, which indjcate which of the two c'locks currently has its b.c.d. output connected to the tape punch systern, and three mjniature sockets, two of r.lhich give outputs of the solar and sidereal one second 'ticks', the third being the input for the standard time signal required by the synchronjzing function.

affect the clocks'accumulated times, shown exposed in Plate 4, are normally protected by a cover p1ate. These controls are the solar
The controls vrhich

interlock buttons, the seven control function buttons, and an aux'iliary pulse source button. This auxiliary pulse source can be used to manually generate control pulses for other parts of the system' The plate also covers the solar and sidereal inputs for tlre external triggering of these functions. Connections to these inputs can be made only with the cover removed, and when the cover js back in p1ace, the solar and sidereal interlock buttons are both depressed, rendering the inputs active.
and sidereal The SMHz input connectiorr, and the 1llHz, 100KHz 10Hz outputs are available at rear panel coaxial connectors. The tvrenty-four-bit b.c.d. outputs of each clock and the fourteen basic lorv frequency block waveforms supp'lied to the clock pulse source are also available at the rear pane1. The power supply connectjons,4 volts for the logic circuits and 200V for the display tubes' are

on the rear pane'l

The djsplay and control unjts are accessed from the front of the clock; the front pane'l can be h'inged forlard. The dispiay unit (Plate 5a) consists of a single plug-in printed circuit board vrhich contains the t|enty AND-0R

gates

six decoder-drivers for the nixje tubes, the sockets of which are attached to the board. The control function pu]se generator circuits are mounted on small printed circuit boards attached directly to the rear of the control subpane'I, and this entire unit can also be

of the display-se'lect slitch,

and the

removed from the main frame.

The rema'inden of the clocks'circuits are contained on twelve p'lug-in circuit boards r.rhich can be reached from the rear pane1. The connectors for these boards are readily accessible from the front pane'l when the display and

control units are

rentoved.

186.

;o

Orl:8;
( ';J o

,C,O,

'i*
..t !D

i{; ti
Grl
ft,
tur,
*.;

()
+J
G'

aH

o)
T'
G'

(l,

o
an

G'

o tn
c,

+,
rF

,lt.!

o
q, .u

ilpi
.o

CL

+t
lF

o L
q,

.C

+1

sl
o

kl JI

lrJ

cLl

..

-r-H#idilr,i..rJil[L'.i .

187.

(a)

,_.,sk

r
r

! r} rf
soL
srD

c.rs

rs
ros

t
o

r!

rr

cr||f

nJ
E

ot'.o

*]a

f
C

O I

Or,roa

-l{},}{t

#* lryl

rf.ron

t
o I
,.1.

r? r!

rx

ro

ol
(c)

b)
PLATE 5: (a The

(u
and

(c

digital clock display board, the time interval generator front panel, the clock-pulse source front panel.

1BB.

Plate 5b and c shovrs the front panels;of the tjme interval generator and the clock-pulse source. The time interval generator occupies a portjon of the 7" high frame r,rhich contains the analogue-to-digital converter. The gates and counters rvhich make up thjs unjt have all their funct'ional connections brought out to the 49 socket patch-pane'|, and are clearly labelled. The clock-puise source occupies part of a 5%" high unit which l'li'll later accomtnodate a recejver for standard time signals. The programming card sockets are on the right, and on the left are the selector switches and the start/stop unit. The indjcator lamp below the start and stop controls indicates vrhen the unit is actually transmitting clock pu'lses to the time interval generator.

of the solar/sidereal Ditt'ital clock With the observed drift rate of the crysta'l oscillator (1 part in 108/week) the solar clock vrould take fifteen weeks to accuntulate an error of 0.1 seconds. The sjdereal divisor of 99 ,727 gives an approximation to sidereal frequency accurate to 4 parts in 107. No provision has been made to correct this error which amounts to 0.1 seconds every 70 hoursn houtever by advanc'ing the sidereal

7'10

The Performance

clock by 0.1 seconds every three days, th;'s systematic error can be removed.

REFEREIICES

CSLE,

D.J. (1968): "Solar and S'idereal Time from a Single Crystal". Electron'ics Aust. , 30 P. 77 .

c0LE,

D.J.,

and SHII"IMINS, A.J.

(197i):

"A Time and Frequency system

the Australian Nat'ional Radio Astronomy 0bsei vatory".

use at Proc. I.R.E.E.

for

Aust., 32 PP. 12-L6.

FELCll,

E.p., and ISRAEL, J.0. (1955): "A Simp'le Circuit for Frequency Standards Employino 0vertone Crysta] s". Proc. I.R.E. , 43 pp' 596-603' D.0., and FRANK, R.lJ. (1965): "A Nerv Approach to Precision Time l'leasurements". G.R. Experinrenter, 39, llo. 2 and 3, pp. 3-13'
E.A., and SYKES, R.A.
and
(1OOO;

FISHER,

GERBER,

"State of the Art-Quartz Crysta'l Un'its

Oscillators". Proc. I.E.E.E., 54 pp. 103-116.

GRIMSLEY, S.1,,l. (tgOZ )

"A Transi stori zed l'lean Trrle Proc. I.R.E.E. Aust.,28 PP. 92'95.

to S jdereal

Tirne Converter"

189.

KEl,lEl\tyr

G.r 8n

0LTtt0FF, l|l..

(rsggl: n'Tanperature
Delay:

Time and High

MALESANtr'

Resolutio,n"' Conttrolt !9

con,trollen with small DeadpB' 786-790'

Powe,n

L. (1g6g1: f,ImpnOved
Electronic Eng.,

eircuit for" Thyristor" Linear

0ontrolil'

4i

PP. 84-89.

PUSTARFI,

H.S. (1966): "An Irrproved 5l'trHz Reference oscillator for Time and pp" l'96-202' Frsquency Sta,ndard Applicatr'ons". Trans, I.E.E.E", tr$,-tri!
Sorlid State CIircuits, SC-3 pp, Z$L-ZQZ.

SIeDELL,

J.E. (1968): "A New Simple PhaSe Dependent Detector". I.E.E.E' J' of
H.p. (Xg64)rrJftq

STRATEMEyER,

Q.R. ExperJmentet^n

Stability of Standard Frequency 0scil']ators" 3,8-, No. 6, pp- 1-8'

YANG, K..S,n and S}lENsoNl G,.lil.

('1967): ''The IIJi'nois 400ft Radig Teleseopei 2 pp. 147-159' Fer formano dhd Electronic Egulpment". Radio Sci.,

ZINDER, D.R.

(1967): i'suppressing R,F.L in Thyristo'r Cit'cuits"'

eatl on Note. Al'l-295 ) .

(Motono'la

APPI i

190.

CHAPTER

The Paper TaPe Record'in(l SYstent

the generai specification developed in Chapter 4, the function of the paper tape recorrling system can be split into tvro parts; a un'it vlhich accepts data to be punchecl and groups this into ejght-bit bytes, and a unit which The punches each of these bytes on to paper tape as a sing'le tape character' to perform development of a djgital multiplexer and a paper tane punch unit these functions js discussecl in this chapter, together with the phi'losophy
From

behind

their design. of the Multiplexing

Systent

8.1

Requirements

Data from one sample of the interferometer output will occupy nine binary digits anci cannot be acconmodated in a single tape character of eight bits' and in The sample data must thus be grouped into at'least tvto tape characters, pa'ir must be any sequence of such characters appearing on the paper tape, each distinct. Similariy the data from a time coordinate occup'ies tnenty-four bits, be grouped and will require at least three tape characters. Again the data must into these cltaracters and in any sequence of tape characters, the order must be pairs of obvious, and the tirne coordinate data must be distjnguishable from the
sample data characters.

unjt which groups the input data into eight-bit bytes and controls the The sequential punching of these tape characters is the digital multiplexer' of characteristics of this unjt are completely specified by the requirentents the input data to Lre punched and the characteristics of the output unit' the
The

paper tape punch.

8.11 Characteristjcs of the Paper Tape Punch

in this An I|IVAC P-135-20 paper tape punch lvas nnde available for use system. Th'is punch can be operatecl asynchronously at speeds of up to ttuenty to characters per seconcl. It punches one-jnch wicle, eight channel paper tape specifications cor]laatible with those of the 1134 tape reader of the IBM 1130 punch computer. 0f the fifty m'illiseconds required to punch one character, the involves on'ly eleven millisecottds, tlte remajnder of the period being
actjon
taken up by tape trarrsport action-

191.

B.I2

General Requirenrents

of the Input Data

a sample of the interferometer output has been taken and the nine-bit vrord transferred into the buffer register of the ana'logue'to-dig'ita1 converter, tlre instruct.ion to the recording system that the data should be punched rvill be conveyed by the end-of-conversion nressage, or'flag', mentioned in Chapter 6. l.lhen the data has been punched this flag shoulcl be reset by a'data punched' instruction from the tape punch unit. l',lhen a block is declared and the t'ime coordinate is to be recorded, the block-mark instruction from the tirne interval generator (section 7.81) will convey this informatjon to the recordittg systent and set a 'block-flag', vrhich will be reset vrhen the coord'inate data lras been
When

punched.

8.13 Specjal

coordinate data, jt is 1ike1y that more than three characters will be required for tSis data in order tlrat identity and sequence can be established. At least 200 milliseccncls w'ijl then be requirecl for the punch'ing of this cjata, attd as the data will change during this period, a buffer register rvil1 be required to hold the coordinate data durjng the punch operation. Noting that vrhen a block

of the Coordjnate Data As three tape characters can cnly just acconntodate the tvrenty-four bits of
Requirerlents

with a

sample

is declared it will be declared sitttu'ltaneously instruction, and as there r.till be a delay of at least eighty
instruction and the end-of-conversion message'

microseconds betvreen the sample

then the request that the coordinate be punched rvi11 be received before the request to punch the sarnple to r,rhich it refers. If it is desired that the coordinate data aDpear on the tape inmecliately after the data to which it refers, then a delay nrust be incorporated 'in the 'block-flag' ttressage.

8.14 Indexjng of

Paper Tape Files

The output from the acquis'it'ion system will be a series of lengths of punched paper tape, or paper tape fi1es. It is proposed that each of these files should begin with sorne ident'ifjcation of the data contained on the tape'

to prevent confusion of data during analysis. A standard lreading format has been developeci (Ciscussed later in the description of the software systenr) which includes a fjle number and infornrat'ion pertaining to the conditions under vrhich the data r,ras recorded. In aclclition to the provision of a manual data entry faciljty (a switch-register), add'itional cltaracter identification must be allocated for this heading data.

r92.

B.1s@
In view of the inherent unreljability of mechanical paper tape equ'ipment' was decided to generate and punch a parity b'it rvith each tape character. Data
once

in the computer could then be checked for errors occurring in e'ither the punch or the reader. One of the available eight tape channels must therefore be set aside for use as a panity-check channel.

8.2

Grouping

of the Data jnto Eight-Bit Bytes From the requirenrents enumerated or implied jn section 8.1, it is

obvious

that some standard tape character format must be developed. The paper tape is primari]y intended as a recording medium for data from the interferoneter and its coordinates. Ho1evelif parity checking is to be jncluded in the computer analysis, and if more than one kind of character is to be punclted (a first
sample data

clraracter, a second sample data character, etc.), then some of the data area on the tape must be sacr'ificed for identification and parity bits. In the preceding discussion, three types of clata have been ment'ioned; sample data, coordinate data, arrd heacling data. If each of these types of data is to be distinctll, jdentifjedn then three djfferent jdentificatjon codes vrill be required. Thjs inrnlies that tvro bits'in each tape character must be set aside folidentificati0n purposes, and if one further bit js to be used for parity checl<ing, only five bi'ts jn each character vtill be ava'ilable for data. The tape channel allocation devisecl to meet these requirentents is sholn jn F'igure 8.1".
Tope Chonnels
1

2 3

sprocke t
lr
5 6 7

o ooo oooo oooooooooo oo ooo ooo oo o o oo

___=->

2
3

I
I

Dotq

Chonnets

t,
5

i
)

o o

t
2

Pority Chonnel
Identif rcot ion Chonnets

)I

Tope Motion

Figure

8.1:

Tape channel

allocation

only five b'its in each taPe character are available for data, then each sar,rple of the jnterferonteter output (g Uits) vrill occupy two tape characters' and each coord j nate (24 b j ts) wi'll occupy five tape characters. If manual data entry is to be five bits at a time, then eight different kinds of character

If

193.

vlill

be encountered. In order to retain dist'inction betvleen the first character of a set and the remaining characters, the identification code appropriate to the data is used only vrith the first character, and the renraining characters are identified by a continuation code, the fourth combination of the two identificatjon bits. The allocation of the input data into eight eight-bit bytes is shown jn Figure 8.2

tiioRD a
1
1

ht

4
:1Jn 27
?

n J

2
A

{'

o
\J
F]

2"
21

2s
2a

21

z
e

2"

22

I )

T'\fn^ vntll

L/D

0
1

I
1

t'l

z
-( ()
it H H
P{

MA}IUAL DATA E};TRY

Z2
Z1
|.

4
ra

Zs
1

Za

Z2

L0xh
ul Za .t.,Z1

0:<r
Lt, Z2 t -.^.

r:h
2

1-xh
'L1

0
U

1xh lCxn
J. /|..Ll

C:rm
Z1
J. ..'-

lf)vr
Za
I

1:rh Z6

1x;i
Z2
tv!UUA

0
7
B
Ll

lu

Cxs
z2

L0r s
Z1
1

DATA

o
0

L8
1vc Za

rj

Zt

l'0xs
z8

1xs
z2

1xs
z1 r I IJ

>:s

1xs . 1xg

1r:s
T\ l'n jt t J.

r.
Figure
l,lhen

D.

l-rtl

8.2:

The

allocation of the input data into eight-bit

bytes

the computer, channel I is regarded as the least signifjcant bit of each character. For this reason the data has been allocated to channels 1 to 5, wjth the nost significant bit of each fivebit data byte in channel 5. The identification codes have been set at 01 for heading data, 1.0 for sample data, and 11 for coordinate data. The code 00 is used to indicate continuation.
data from paper tape

is read into

input data r.,ord has been split'into five-bit bytes vrjthout concern for grouping (e.g., the tlrree most significant bits of the b.c.d. unit hours information are contained in the fourth character, and the least significant bit of this group appears in the next character). This is in accordance with the
Each

requirement for hjgh data packing density vrithout consjderation decodjng the information.

of complexity'in

194.

8.3

of the Digital Multjplexer The functjon of the digital nrult'iplexer can be best established by observing the action required. This can be described as follols.
The Development

the unit should provide the five data bits' two identificatjon bits, and parity bit of t'lord 1 (Fjgure B'2) to the tape punch, and transmit a 'punch'signai. l/hen the punch replies to this signal with a 'data punched'message, the unit should supply the eight b'its of Word 2 to the tape punch, and once again transmit a 'punch' jnstruction' 0n the receipt of the follotving 'data punched'ntessage from the tape punch the unjt should reset the sarnple'f1ag'to 0, and then return to a qu'iescent state until
When

the sample 'f1ag'

is set,

the next 'fl ag' occurs.

the nlanual data entrY 'f l ag ' is set, the unit should provide to the punch the f i ve sw j tch-regj ster bi ts , and the appropriate identification and parity b'its (tlord 3), and transmjt a 'punch' instruction. 0n the receipt of the 'data punched' message tlte 'f1ag' should be reset to 0 and the un'it return

If

to i ts

qu'iescent state

Similarly if the block'f'lag'is set, l'lord 4 should be first provided to the punch and tlre 'punch' jnstruction transnrjtted. tJhen the 'data punched' process message is received, l'.iord 5 should be supplied to the punch and tlte repeated, until with l'lord 8 supplied to the punch the'data punched'message is received, vrhen the bloclt'flag'should be reset to 0 and the unit return t0

its

quiescent state

or more flags are set simultaneously, the unit should provide each word concerned to the punch in strict numerical sequence, resetting each flag when all words from that source have been punched, and returning to its quiescent state only after al'l flags have been reset to 0. To avoid interruption of the vrord sequence, after any f]ags have been set, further flags should be ignored until all data perta'ining to the original flags has been punched'

If

tvro

multiplexer cjrcuitry clesigned to perform these functions can be categor i sed i nto the fol I ol'ri ng u n'i ts .
The
1.

A seven-pole eight-Position srvjtch to select the appropriate five data bi ts and trvo i denti f i cati on bi ts,

195.

?,

a seven-input parity-bit generator, to supply the eighth b'it to the as a result of the seven data bits selected,
,f1ag, circuits for each of the three data sources, and,

punch

3.
4.

a switch-drive system to respond to these flags and instructjons from the punch system, and to select the appropriate data and identification via the seven-pole eight-position switch.

In addition, from section 8.1, d tvrenty-four-bjt parallef input buffer register is required for the coordinate data, and a five-bit switch-reg'ister for manually entering data on to the tape must be prov'ided'
The development

of these circujts is

discussed

in the following sections.

8.31

The Seven-Pole Eight-Posit'ion Switcll

of the seven-po1e eight-pos'ition switch is shovtn in Figure 8.3. Each switch bank comprises an eight x ?-input AllD-OR network. When the srv'itch select l'ine n is 1, and all others are 0, the output is l'ln' Thus each of the
One bank

eight.inputs can be indivjdually selectecl by making the appropriate switch line hjgh. The switch select lines are drjven by the sr,r'itch-drive circuit descrjbed in sectjon 8.34. There are seven banks of the fornt of Figure B'3, one for each of the five data channels and two for the identification channels.

8.32

The
From

Parity-Bit

Generator

the seven outputs of the eight-position switch, the parity-bit generator produces the eighth bit of the tape character as one which makes the total number of 1's in any tape character an even number, i.e., the tape characters

this bit (Figure 8'4) utjlizessixexclus.ive-orqatestoproducetheleast-sjgnifjcant-bitofthe the bits'is sum of the seven binary inputs. If thjs bit is 0, then the sum of even, and hence the parity bit should also be 0. If thjs bjt is 1, then the sum of the bits is odd, and the parity bit should also be 1 -'i'e, the output is in the correct form to produce 'even parity' tape characters'
have'even

parity'.

The

circuit used to

generate

8.33

The Flaq

Circuits and the Clock Buflg1

The samp'le data flag is included jn the analogue-to-dig'ita1 converter buffer cjrcuit, So only the circuits for the block and ntanual data entry flags are requi red. The twenty-four-bit buffer register for the coordinate data

196.

Chqnnel 1 Inpqts From EEch Word

wl
,116

w3
vr{

Ilb

Chonnel, 'l Out To Punch

r23.4S678

Swirtch Setsct Lines

Fjgu.re,

8,.3,;

One bank

of

t,he- seven-pole

eig:ht,-position stlitch

lvlu,tti;p
1

lcrcr Outputs

7
3

l.
5

Porlty Ei't ,0ur ( Chonnel 6 )

T.

I
Fisure .4,: The parity,-bit generatotn

ilatch'ci,rculits Wtnich can each be considerd as fbun type D flip-flops (s,ee Ohapter 6) eontained in a si,ng;tre package with a,comlon
consist,

of six

rcluad

t97. clock input and only the Q outputs available. on a positive (G'1) transition of the clock.
The

Data

is read into

these latches

circuit vlhich suppljes the clock pulse to this buffer from the blockmark instruction, and a'lso acts as the block flag' is shown in Figure 8.5a.
The capacitive coupfing betrveen G, and G2 produces the short clock Pulse of
Btock Mork

Btock
Mork

Bu

ffer

Tri gger

q
G2

Block
Ftog

--'
-.'
Tt

rF
(b)

Btock Ftog
Resst
G3

(o)

Figure

8.5:

The b'lock

flag circuit (a)

and

its v/aveforms

(b)

length T1 for the buffer circuit. Because Gz is also capacitively coupled to the flag RS flip-f1op Ge, G4, the flag is set by the fal'ling edge of the clock pu1se, and is thus delayed by tir",re Tr fronr the block-mark instruction. This delay is set to 100 microseconds to ensure that the b'lock flag is always set after the comesponding sanrp'le f1ag. The waveforms of this circujt are shown in Figure 8.5b.

entry flag (F'igure 8.6) can be set either electrically by an externa] pu1se, or manually by the sr.ritch Sr. A similar delay circuit to that used in the block-mark flag has been provided for the external input. This de'lay has been included in order that the flag may be set by a sample instruction yet the correct character sequence be nraintained.
The manual data

Externql
Ftog FLAG

Reset

9rn9te

con t I nuou5

Figure 8.6:

The manual data

entry flag circuit

198.

set manually in two different klays. If Sr is closed to the left (position 1) then a short pu'lse sets the f1ag, which is reset after the switch-register data has been punched. If Sr is closed to the right (position 2) then the flag is set and remains set, even after a reset pu1se, unti'l the switch is opened and a reset pulse occurs. This continuous flag can be used for punching blank leader and trailer tapes. If the switch register and its identification bjts are all set to 0 and Sr held in position 2, then the punch r,ril1 produce blank tape (sprocket punching on'ly) at its maximum speed (20 characters/second) untjl Sr is opened.
The

flag

may be

8.34

The Multiplexer Svritch-Drive

function of the recording system, that of grouping the data into eight-b'it bytes and arranging these bytes on to paper tape, is controlled by the mu'ltiplexer sr'ritch-drive. Briefly, fts operat'ion can be described as folIols.
The most important

When data

is ready for punching, a flag bit is set for

When

cerned.

a 1 is read into a memory location, the interrogation ceases, and the lowest indexed vtord of vthich the f'lag-memory is a l is written by the punch. I,lhen a 'data punched'signal is received from the punch, that menlory location is reset to 0 and the next lowest indexed word of which the flag-memory is I is written, and so on. 0n1y when all f'lag-memories are 0 does the f'lag.interrogat'ion recommence' so that ajl characters of which the flags were set at one instant are punched in numerical sequence and subsequently set flags are not acknovrledged until all of that data
has been punched. which controls this operation is sholn in Figure B.B' Before its operation can be described in detail it r.lill be necessary to establislr the functfon of the gates Ay*6 in delaying the inverted outputs of the memory fiipglop:, Dr*.. Consider the circuit shovrn in Figure 8.7a vlith Q initially at 0 and Q at 1. If thjs state has persisted for some time then X will be at 1 and
The

flag b'its bit memory in the unit, 1000 times/second.

These

each character conare continuous'ly interrogated and read into an eight-

circuit

(see waveforms, Figure B.7b). Novl assume that the ffip-f1op is triggered with D a 1, and thus Q goes to 1 and d to t..o. As X is unaffected' Y will follow Q and go to 0. At some'later t'ime assume that the fl'ip-flop is triggered rvith D a 0, so that Q returns to 0 and d to t. The input X momentariiy fo1lows Q to 0, returning to I after an interval T. Y then becomes a 1, and Y(=d.X) be

will

thus the G>l transition of 0 has been delayed by an interval T.

199.

(o)

Figure

8.7:

The a

delay

circuit (a) and its

waveforms (b)

It is assumed of the paper tape punch that a punch action will be initiated by a 'punch enable, ljne becoming a L, and jf this line is stil'l 1 at the end of a punch cycle, another will be init'iated. The 'data punched' signal is transmitted after the punch action but before the punch cycle is comp'lete'
Referring now to Figure 8.8, after any transient delays have passed, the logical expressions for each of the switch-drive lines Sr*, can be written

Sn=Dn.Dn-r.Dn-,

.Dl

(8.1)

as the output of gate An (11n<8) it q. Thus if any of the D's are 1, the switch drive Iine corresponding to the. -'lowest indexed D which is a 1 will be high, and all others wi]l be lovt.
The

resetting'lines N,*, of the eight

flag-memories can be expressed

as

Nn = Sn.E, (1:n<B) where 'E represents the 'data punched' I ine, and as bV Nn becoming a 1, this can be better written as

the fl ip-f

'lops

will

be reset

4- = sn'E

(8.2)

Thus, when a 'data punched' pulse occurs, the memory locatjon corresponding to the currently selected svlitch line will be reset to 0, and from equation 8"1 the next lovrest indexed word for r'rhich D is a l wil] then be selected. However' switchbecause An does not become a L immed'iately that {So.t to a 1, the next drjve is not selected'immediately that Dn is returned to 0, but after a de'lay T'

200.
Switch
Drive

Somple
F tog

+)l

Lines

Sompte Ftog
Rese

Msnuol Entry Ftog Monuol Flog Reset Btock

Ftog

Btock F
Resct

Ctock

Enoble
Punch

Enoble

Figure

8.8:

The

multiplexer switch-drive unit.

201.

ensuring that the resetting signal E has returned to 0.

As the output of gate A, is D, .02 . 6-e, then the outPut of gate l'lg, the 'punch

\,
enab'l

and the outPut

of gate A,

1S

e' 1ine, is

(s.3)

and the'output

of

Gate N1s,

the 'clock enable' line' is

Nro = Ng =
Thus

t)-r.D'.Dr

.D't

(8'4)

if a'll D's are 0, the 'punch enable' line Ng is 0 and the 'clock enable''line is 1, al]owing the interrogation of the three flag inputs by the lKHz clock. If any D goes to t, i:hen lle becomes a ]. and Nro a 0' The interrogation then ceases because the clock'is inhibited, and a punch action is initjated by the 3.+1 transition of Ne. No delay is assocjat,ed t'rith this action' as
only 1-r0 transitions of the D's are 'involved (see Figure B.7b).

unjt initially in its quiescent state (continuous'interrogation) and the samp'le f'lag suddenly becomes 1. 0n the next 0+1 transitjon of the lKHz clock, both Dr and Dz wil] go to 1. As a result of tltis, from equation B.l'' 51 goes to 1 and all other S's remain 0. From equations 8.3 and B'4' Nro 905 to 0, inhjbiting the clock, and Ne goeg to L, starting a punch action' At some
Consider the

'later time a short 0*1 pulse r,ri'll occur on the 'data punched' line, indicating that Word t has been punched. Fron equation 8.2, this will cause Dr to be reset to 0 (Sr vril'l also fall to 0), and after a deldY T, from equation B'1, Sz will go to 1. As D2 is still a 1, l{g and tlls Femdin in their present states, and at the end of the first punch cyc1e, a second will commence. l.lhen the 0+l' transjtion of tlre'data punched' ljne occurs indicating that I'lord 2 has been punchbcl, from equation 8.2, Dz will be reset to 0, and also the sample flag as it also is connected to Nz. lJhen Dz is reset to 0, Sz will also return to 0' After an'interval T, ilg w'ill return to 0 and llro to 1, allorving the flag interrogation to recommence. tlhen the second punch cycle ends, aS Ng is'0' no new cycle will be initiated until further flags are read into the memory'

8.35 Provision

For Reduced tJord Length

As the analogue-to-dig'ita1 converter rvord length can be shortened to five bits, provisjon has been made to ounch only l^lord l vthen a samp'le flag occurs'

202.

taken at should a reduced resolution be desired. Sirnilarly if samples are integer seconds jt jS not necessary to punch l{ord B when a block flag occurs' are taken as this word conveys only fractional-second information. If samples at integer minutes, then trlord 7 also is not required' as it conveys only second informatjon. The circuits which provide for these reduced word lengths are
shown

in Figure 8.9.
Seconds 5 bit
0.1

x Seconds
Do,Ds'De.)

01 InPut
D2 InPut
N1 an

Sompte
Ftog

07
),nou,,
out

r---_->

7,9 bit

frln

D8
N6

-,'

N7

*
(o)

7,9 bit

N2

(b)

q %tNs

Figure8.9:Theprovjsionforreducedwordlength. (a) ffre sample data circuit, and (b) the clock data circuit'

five-bjt sample resolution'is used, the sample flag sets only D1' l'Jhe seconds and the flag is reset from flr trhen Dr is reset (see Figure 8'9a)' and Dz (see coordinate resolution is used, the block flag sets only D+, Ds, De Figure B.9b) and the flag is reset from l'lz vthen Dz is reset' If mjnutes resolution'is used, the block flag sets on'ly D,*, Ds dhd Ds, dfld the flag is
When

reset from lle

8.4

when Do

is

reset.

Characteri sti cs

front panel The Dig.ital Mult.iplexer (Plate 6) occupies the remain'ing B" of conspace.in the 7,,high,19" wide frame which houses the analogue-to-digjtal Sa verter and the time interval generator. In addition to the sw'itches St' Szn (Figure 8.9) for reduc'ing the sample and coordjnate vrord lengths, switches are jncluded which allow the identification codes of lrlords 1 and 4 to be supplied
partjcular' from an external source. This facility rvas included for tlord l in to enable different identification codes to be used for the sample data if the input analogue signal was mul tiplexed

f ive data b'its' The seven-bit switch-register allorvs for the manual entry of The centre-off and also enables the identificat'ion of l'lord 3 to be programmed.

203.

#*
DIGITAL MUlTIPtEXTR

e
LENGTH FLAG

oo
I.O

A/D

DATA

LINGTH

FIAG

ooo
I.O.

CTOCX OATA

rr:r,:,lll,f, ;.ir,::f,tlO;
stc

o o
AUX
DATA

oa
0.1

sEc

,trililf,m|f,r
-to.DATA
INT

oo ooooo
_

coirr.

(b)
PLATE 6:

(a) The digital multiplexer front pane1, and (b) a view with the side panel removed.

2A4.

swjtch to the right of the switch-register provides a single flag setting in the position (Sr upward position and a continuous flag setting in the downward Figure 8.6). Data from an external source can also be entered to Word 3 via the seven input sockets below the switch-register. The eighth switch on the right-hand end of the register selects data from ejther the switch-register or the iriput sockets (see Figure 8.10). When in the external pos'ition the switchregister is disabled and its setting does not affect the input data.

F s*ii.r,.f-

t.o.

Doto

Swttches

_*t

Figure 8.1.0: The

swi

tch-reg'ister for manual data entry.

The three indicator lamps are illuminated vrhen their respective flags are set to shovr from which source data'is being punched. As a flag may be set fot: as little as ten milliseconds before be'ing reset, a monostable circuit has at been incorporated in the lamp drivers to ensure that the lamps stay on for

least

200 mi'll iseconds, the nrinimum period requ'ired

for

adequate indication.

input connections from the analogue-to-digita'l converter and from the digital clock are located on the rear pane1. The lKHz'f1ag interrogate'signal which is obtained from the lKHz output of the clock, js also connected via a rear panel B.N.C. connector. The various circuits of the multiplexer are contained on ten plug-in plinted-circuit boards' arranged in two rows as shown in plate 6b. Access to the circuit board connectors can be obtained from the front, by hinging the front panel forward, and frorn the side by removing the side panel as in Plate 6b.
The

205.

8.5

The Requirements

of the Tape Punch

Un'it

The INVAC P-135-20 paper tape punch, briefly described in section 8.11, was purchased as a basic unjt, without control and driving circuits, power supplies or tape-spooling equipment. The requirements of these units will be specified by the characteristics of the signals from the digjtal multiplexer'
and the requirements

of the punch itself. of the Control

and Dniving Circujts

8.51

The Requirements

The P-135-20 js a solenoid-actuated e'ight-channe'l tape perforator. Thirteen solenoids are used to operate the unit, eight for the data channe'ls and one to punch the sprocket hole (the'punch'action), tlo for retracting the punch pins from the die (the 'bail'action) and two for advancing the tape by one character

(the'transport'action). Each solenoid has a resistance of 23CI, and requires a twenty-seven volt pulse to actuate it (INVAC,1965). The inductance of these
solenoids has been measured as approx'imately 20 mjllihenrys.

the punch action are shown in Figure 8.11. a 27t2 volt pulse of 10.5t.5 milljseconds duration must be applied to the appropriate data solenoids and the sprocket hole solenoid. After this pulse, an 11.5r0.5 rnillisecond 27tZ volt pu]se is app'lied to the bail soleno'ids, retracting the punch pins from the die. This is followed by a further ?7tZ volt pulse of 12.510.5 m'illiseconds duratjon applied to the transport solenojds, moving the tape forward by 0.1 inches. A further punch cycie cannot be initiated until at least fifty milliseconds have elapsed since' the previous action began (lNVAC, 1965).
The timing requ'irements for LJhen a punch action is required,
B4rnnrng

of

Punch
50 mittiseconds

Action mlntrnum

Sorocket ond Doto Sotenoids

11-12ms

Tronsport Solenotds

Figure

8.11:

T'iming requirements

of the P-135-20

punch.

206.

A circuit will be required to control this punch cycle jn accordance with the requirements of the multiplexer. These requirements are (1) tfrat a punch cycle should be initiated by the'punch enable'line becom'ing a 1 or by the end of the prev'ious punch cycle (50 mjlliseconds after it started) if the 'punch enable'line is already a 1, and (Z) tfrat a'data punched'signal should be

transmitted as soon as the input data has been punched, first 10.5 mi I I i second pul se.

j.., at the end of the

In'addition, interface circuits will be requ'ired to convert the G'5 volt logic levels of the multiplexer's t.t.l. integrated-circuits to the 27 volt, 1.2 amp signa'ls required by the data solenoids. The outputs of the controlling circuit for the sprocket, bail and transport solenoids will also need to be at this 27 volt level, and 2.4 amps will be required of both the bail and transport
pul ses
.

8.52

Power Supply Requirements

The power supp'ly requirements can be estimated from the punch cycle described in section 8.51. Taking the maximum load conditions, when al'l channels are punched at the maximum rate, and noting that the time constant t of the

solenoids (=L/R) is approximately one millisecond, the variation of load current with time is shovrn in Figure 8.12a. The power supply will be required to deliver a maximum current of 10.6 amps, and a max'imum average current of 3.1 amps. The maximum current will never be drawn for periods longer than 10.5 milliseconds.
comb'inations of the eight inputs are equally probable' only four data channe'ls will be punched on the average, and thus the average maximum variation of loari current with time will be as shown in Figure 8.12b. The 'average average' current required from the supply will then be 2.2 amps
Assuming when

that all

the punch is operating at 'its

From

maximum speed.

the punch manufacturers' spec'ification, (INVAC, 1965), voltage variations in the range 27xZ uolts are perm'issible, although this js the voltage across the solenoids, and voltage drops across the switches must be taken into cons i dera ti on .

8.53

The Provision

of

Tape Spooling Equipment

As it is envisaged that the acquisitjon system should be able to run for weeks r.rithout attentjon, and as approximate'ly forty feet of tape may be punched

206a.

--++--:--

(mil,liscconds)

z.zc'qel_

_
5o (mittiscconds)

Figure

8,12:

Punch power supply toaa r.equirenents. Peak maximum requirements, and averaEe mttximum requirements.

(a) (b)

per day (six hours' acquisition at one sample in ten seqonds' thirty samples pen block)o s,ome provision fon the autornatic sfiooli'nE o,f this tape should be provld,ed. Under the conditions des,cribed, the l.ate o tape flow would be e.r'ratic fon a preriod o'f six hoursn and no tape at all would flow for eiEhteen hoursn so it wils ptoposed that some fonn ofon-off ta(e-up mstor would be used rather than one incorporating a slipping clutch.

In this
punch

spooling

unit

should also be fncluderd

facilitJ

to inhibit the
Jam

action dnd produce a fauTt lndtcatjon if the taFe:sttould the punch, or if'the end of the tape. is encou'ntered.

in front of

207.

8.6

The Develooment
From

of a Punch Control

Unit

the control s'ignals available at the multip'lexer, the spec'ification of a sequencer to control the punch cycle is as follows. When the'punch enable'line becomes a 1, the sequencer should generate a'punch'pulse of 10.5 milliseconds duration, which gates the eight data inputs from the multiplexer into buffer circuits, applying 27 volts to the data solenoids. This pu'lse should also drive the sprocket punch solenoid through a similar buffer circuit.. Following the 'punch' pu'lse, a second pulse of 11.5 mill'iseconds duration should be generated to drive the bail solenojds. This pulse should be follovred by yet another of 12.5 mill'iseconds duration which drives the transport solenoids. 15.5 milliseconds after the end of this pulse, if the'punch enable' line is a 1, the cycle should recommence with another 10.5 millisecond'punch' pulse. If the ,punch enab'le' line js 0 after the 15.5 millisecond period, the sequencer should remain dormant until a Grl transition occurs on thjs line'

8.61

The Punch Sequencer Unit

(F'igure 8.13) js based on four monostable multivibrator circuits which sequentially generate periods of 10.5 ms,11.5 ms, 12.5 ms and 15.5 nts, for the punch, bail, transport and rest periods' This preference asynchronous system of sequencing the pUnch operat'ion l,\las chosen in to a c'lock-based synchronous system because of jts simplicjty' The FCK1Oi monostable units used have a dual I'lAllD input, and are triggered by a negative going (1*0) transitjon at either of the- inputs. Timing'is controlled by an external capacitor and resistor; variable resistors have been used to provide fine adjustment of the monostable pepiod. The pulse outputs of the punch, bail
The punch sequencer

unit

and transport periods are at pos'itive logic t.t.1. levels, enabling similar buffer circuits to be used for all of the solenoids.

Punch
Enoble

Rest
G7

Punch
Fi gure

Doto

Borl

Tronsport

Punched

8.13:

The punch sequencer

circuit.

208.

G'l transjtion of the'punch enable''line, Gz is set to a 1 and stays there regardless of the future of the'punch enable'line. At the same time a L-rO transition occurs at the output of G,*, and this triggers the monostable l4r, causing the output'punch' to become L for a period of 10.5 milliseconds. At the end of this period Mr returns to 0, and Mz is triggered by thjs l+0 transition. The'bail'output then becomes L for a period of 11.5 milliseconds. At the same time Gz goes momentarily to 1, then returns to 0, generating the 'data punched' signal . l'lhen t{2 returns to 0, l'la is triggered' and the 'transport'output goes to 1 for 12.5 milliseconds. The 1*0 transition of M3 at the end of this period in turn triggers Mq whjch causes the 'rest' line to go to 1 for a period of 15.5 milliseconds. If the 'punch enab1e' line is 0 at the end of this period, the 1-+0 transition resets the Gz, Gg RS flipflop, and the circuit becomes dormant until another G>l transition of the
0n a
,punch

enable'line causes the cycle to reconrnence. If the'punch enable'line is 1 at the end of the rest pepiod, then Gz, Gr will not be reset, but the negative (t*O) transition wj'll be conveyed through Gs and Ge to trigger Mr ollce again, causing the cYcle to rePeat.
The purpose

the'punch enable'ljne from triggeping l{1 trhen a cycle is in progress' This circuit effectively locks out the punch enable line during the 50 millisecond
cycl e.

of the RS flip fioP Gz, Gg, is to

prevent G>l' transitjons

on

The punch, bail, transpor! and r.it wuu.forms are Shown 1n Figure 8.14. The 500 nanosecond'data punched'pulse js too short to show up on this low-speed

trace.

Figure 8.14: Osci1 loscope traces of the punch, bai1, transPort

and

rest

Dulses.

209.

8.6?

The Solenoid Drive Circuits

Eleven solenoid drivers are required for the punch; nine to drive the punch solenojds (27 vo1ts,1.2 amps each) and one each for the bail and transport so1enoid pairs (27 volts, 2.4 amps per pair). All of these must be operated from t,t.'1. iogic levels. The eight data solenoids are required to have a dual AND input, 'in order that the sequencer 'puncH pulse may gate the

data outputs from the multiplexer. In addition, a means of inhibiting al'l of the punch actions from a logic signal is requ'ired in case of mechanical faults (see section 8.53).

drjver circuit developed to satisfy these requirements is shown in Figure g.15. Each driver uses a three-jnput t.t.l. gate to provide the necessary gating of the data, control pulse and inhibit signals. 0nly two inputs are used on the sprocket, bail and transport drivers as no data input'is requ'ired.
The
When

supplies

will

current to the 40310 output transistor, ensuring that draw at least 2.5 amps collector current (B*rn+ZS for Ic = 2A)'
100mA base

a'll

three i nputs are

L, the 2N706 does not conduct,

and the

2N697

it

The diode D and res'istance R form a trans'ient suppression network which prevents reverse-biased-second-breakdown from occuring in the output transistor (Lochern lg70). As the solenoid tjme constant is -L millisecond, after a ten

+27v

iR
lr.7
KN
i

Sotenoid

dqto
con t

40310

innioit

.Figure 8.15:

The solenoid-drive

circuit.

2lo. mjllisecond 'on'period the load current will have practically reached its steady-state value IO., and when the transistor turns off this current will contjnue to flow through the inductor. If no a1ternative path is provided for this current, the collector voltage of the output transistor wi'll rise to the collector-emitter breakdown voltage VCE', and the stored energy in the inductor will be dissipated in the transistor. If the inductor current is high' this can lead to reverse-biased-second-breakdown (Locher, 1970).
The diode D and resistance R provide an alternative path for this current, which then decays with a time constant t' = L/(R+R'), and hence the'larger the value of R, the more quickly the current decays. The removal of this current is important for the rapid operation of the punch. When the transistor turns

off,

the collector vo'ltage (see Figure 8.16)

is

g'iven by

v..
where VO

zl + vD* Id. Re-t/T'

(8.5)

is the forward voltage drop across the diode.

Figure 8.16: (a) The vo'ltage waveform at the collector of the output transistor, and (b) the current through the so'lenoid.
be determ'ined by the collectoremitter breakdown voltage VCE' of the transistor. For the 40310, if the collector voltage is not to exceed the collector-enritter breakdown voltage (VCSO = 35 volts) then Rru* = 5.96e for the punch solenoids and 2.980 for the bail and transport so'lenoid pairs assuming a forward voltage drop VO across the diode of L volt.
The maximum vajue

of

R which may be used

will

zLL. The average povler diss'ipationsin these resistances when the punch is operating at its maximum speed are 0.05 and 0.1 watts respectively. Preferred value resistances of 5.6Q and 2.7a at )-" watt rating vtere used in these networks'

of the diodes, that they r+ithstand a peak current of L.2 amps (or 2.4 arnps for the bajl and transport solenoid pa'irs) and ihat they carry a mean current of B.3mA (or 33.2mA for the bail and transport solenojd pairs),
The requirements

were readi'ly nret by the

MB03

diodes used.

8,7

The Tape Punch Power SuPPIY The design

of voltage regu'lator c'ircuits is t'rell covered in the literature, but the specification of transformers, rectifiers and'i'jlters to supp'ly the input to such units is not (Pownall,1969). The requirements of thjs supply are that it provide currents of up to 10.5 amps for periods of 10 mjlliseconds, and a maxjmum average current of 3.1 amps. These requirements introduce unusual features to the design of both the unregulated supply and the vo]tage regulator. 8.71 of the Unregulated Suppl.v The typical circujt of a full wave rectifier unregu'lated supp'ly is shown in Figure 8.17. The transformer winding has been assumed to be lossless, all voltage drops be'ing accounted for by the resistance R.
The Design

A
I

u*l

F'igure

8.17:

The unregul ated supply

The requirements of this regulator were determined by the diodes available (40110) and the transistor to be used in the regulator (2N2773). As this transistor has a maximum dissipat'ion of 150 utatts, the output voltage of the unregulated supply should never exceed 42 volts (27+15). The regulator will requ.ire some vo]tage droo across it in order to function, and it lvas specified

that the output voltage should never fall

below 32

volts (Zt+S).

These require-

2L2.

ments are satisfied by a 30-0-30 volt r.m.s. transformer winding and a capac'r tance C of 10,000UF. The total rvinding resistance R, jn order that the peak surge cument of the diodes (t40 amps) is not exceeded, should be at least 0.3n.

of this unregu'tated supply was constructed (both voitage and.current were scaled) in order to evaluate the r.m.s. transformer cument. The maxjmum load conditions of Figure 8.12a were sjmulated, and the fol'lovring voltages and
A model

cunents determi

ned:

Average ful'l -l oad output vol tage: Mi nimum ful I -'l oad output vol tage:

35 volts 32 volts
:

r.m.s. transformer current (through centre-tap)

Average transformer current: Peak repetitive diode cument: The peak

6.5 amps 3 amps

23
amps

repetitive diode current of 23 amps is well within the 40 amPs maximum of the 40110, and the 6.5 amps r.m.s. current in the transformer calls for a transformer with a 200 watt rating.

8.72

The Voltage Regulator

The vo'ltage regulator (Figure 8.18) uses a conventjonal series regulator circuit with a pre-regulator constant-current source. The transistor Tr forms the pre-regulator, supplying a constant current to the control transistor Tz. The error current is amplified through-Ta, Tu and Ts and applied to the load.
R2

Rl

Unregu toted

o.105n

o.o7n

27 Yolt OutPut

Input

lOpF
T1

40319

TzJ:,TaIz
3.3 O-O1pF

10314

To

; 40310

T5;2N2773

lKn
3.3Kn

Figure

8.18:

The 27

volt regulator circuit

213.

The unusual feature of this requlator is the time dependent overload protectjon prov'iclr:d by transjstors To and Tz.. The unregulated supply and the output transjstor T, have been designed to supply a maximum average current of 3.1 amps, Vet they must also supply up to 10.5 amps for intervals of 10 milli-

seconds. Transistors T6 and T7 flSUfe that these conditions are not

exceeded.

load js such that the maximum rating of 10.5 amps is exceeded, then the voltage deve'loped across resjstanc R1 causes Tz to turn on, reducing the output voltage and converting the supply to a constant current source of 10.5 arnps. Holever if the load is slight]y less than this, say 10 amps' then T, does not turn on, but the voltage devetoped across Rr+Rz (t.ZS volts) will charge the capacftor Cr through resistance Rg, and after approximately 13 mil'liseconds, transistor Te will turn on. This will cause the output vo'ltage to drop, and the supp'ly to change to a constant current source of 4 amps. In the first case vrhere the instantaneous current rating was exceeded, after about 10 milliseconds, the constant currenI source would drop from 10.5 amps to 4 amps'

If the instantaneous

as Cr was charged.

Transisior Tz thus prevents the instantaneous current from exceeding 10.5 amps, and T5 prevents the s'beady-state current from exceeding 4 amps. The duration for rvhich a current greater than 4 amps w'i11 be supplied is inversely proportional to the extent by which it exceeds 4 amps.
As the reference voltage supply is obtained from the regulator output, if under overload condjtions the output vo-ltage fa'lls below this reference voltage (15v) then the reguiator will shut dovrn, and will not restart even when the over'load cond'ition is removed. To reset the regulator from this state, switch Sr has been included to apply a short cument pulse to the zener d'iode from the unregulated supply.

8.73

of the Punch Porver Supply The following characterjst'ics of the power supply have been measured:
The Perfornrance

0utput impedance (loads of up to 10A): Input regulation under full load conditions (3.1A, mains variations t10%): No-l oad ri pp1 e: Full-load ripple:

.05n

2%

<2mV
SnrV

pk-pk

pk-pk

2t4.
The operation

of the overload protection circuits is

shown

in Figure 8.19.

the load current (5A/division) and the upper trace the load voltage variation (10 volts/djvision). The horizontal sensitivity is l0msec/division. l,lhen a load of 2.70 is connected across the regulator it initial'ly supp'lies 10A witir no appreciable vo'ltage drop, but after 16 mil'liseconds the output voltage begins to drop as T5 (Figure B.1S) begins to conduct. After a further 10 rnilliseconds the voltage has dropped by 16 volts, and the cument has reached its limiting value of 4 amps.
The lower trace shor^rs

(o)

(b)

Figure

8.19:

The operation

of the overload protection circuit.

(a) fne load voltage variation (tov/aivision) (b) The load current variation (sA/division) Horizontal sens'it'ivjty is lOmsec/division

8.8
I

Tape Punch Mechanical Details The

Ta

.81

pe Spool i ng

Equ

i P!'Len!

The tape hand]ing unit developed to satisfy the requirements listed in section 8.53 is shown in Plate 7. It occupies 10%" of front panel space 19" wide, The punch control electron'ics are contained behjnd the front panel. The supply drawer (1) on the left of the un'it is designed to accommodate an eightinch diameter 1000 foot reel of unpunched tape. The tape passes out through the bottom of thjs drar.rer and over the 'tape tjght' arm (2), before entering the

punch. If the tape jams in the supp'ly drawer, this arm actuates a microswitch vrlrich inhib'its the punch act'ion and iJlunrinates the'tape t'ight'indicator (top right). The'end of tape' switch (3) is part of the punch unit; this inhibits the nunch actjon and illuminates the 'end of tape' ind'icator when only

275.

s'b,t
:,N, T ,:#, #,t
+t

c (lJ

CL

E
(U

5 g

q)

O! t,u*

o o o
an

o o+,
,!

o
+t .F

o
tn

'lt +)

It

o
tt)

s o = s
tn

3
TJ

=t c
C,

A
+,
R'

o CL
.E CL

;,#

5l

2t6.

2" of

unpunched tape remain

in front of the punch head (4).

The punched tape passes over the two capstans (5) and under the tension arrn (O) before being wound on to the take-up spool (7). l^lhen the tension arm arrives at the bottom of its travel it actuates a microsvlitch which starts the take-up motor. As the tape is wound in, the tension arm travels upwards until it reaches the top of its travel and actuates another microswitch which stops

the take-up motor. The 5-inch diameter take-up spool has a standard 2-inch diameter hub, and can accommodate 350 feet of punched tape. It is driven by a governor-control'led gramaphone motor wh'ich has its peed adiusted to be sufficiently fast to cope with the maximum tape speed (2"/sec) when the take-up spool

is

empty

no tape tension then the tension arm falls to the bottom of its travel, and does not rjse vrhen the take-up motor starts. To prevent the motor from running continously under this 'tape break' condition, a further microswitch stops the motor if the tcnsion arm does not commence to rise when the take-up motor starts. As this condition sometjmes occurs when a new tape is being threaded, an override button is prov'ided vrhich keeps the motor go'ing until the

If

there

is

slack tape

is

taken up.

The tape punchings accumulate The

in the chad drarver (8).

The

circuit details of the tape handler unit are given in Appendix 9.

circuits associated with the motor control are mounted inunediately behind the motor, along with the self-locking relay which starts and stops the motor. Arc suppressors have been provided on all breaking contacts to prevent the generation of str:ay pulses'in the'logic circu'itry. The circuits associated with the control of the punch, i.e., the'tape tight'and'end of tape'c'ircuits, are contained in the punch control unit, d'iscussed in the next section. When either of these faultS occurs, the 'punch inhibit' line (see section 8.6) falls to a logical 0' and no energy'is suppiied to the solenoids of the punch.
B.BZ The Punch Control Electronics

control electron'ics (Plate 8a),1ocated at the rear of the tape handler unit, contain the punch sequencer circuit, the solenoid drjve bufferst and the punch control circu'its associated with the tape handler. These circu'its are contained on six plug-'in printed-circujt boards. The eleven output transistors of the solenoid drive buffers are ntounted on a common heat sink which forms
The punch

217.

d
t'
5
j

t t I
3

st

*fi' gfi

es$

o.

=l v
(l, '3 tJ

e
c,

=L C
cJ

cl ct
(t,

.o E g
(O

tn

fJ

+,
I (lJ

o L
(u

+t g

o t. o I
u c = o
o.
(u

+,

ro

o
F
(tt

*l
FI <l Jl GI
rJl

218.

power suppfies the base of the unit. Connections froln the 27 volt and 5 volt from the multiplexer' are made to this pane'I, together with the eight data inputs connector. connection to the punch is nrade vja a Z8-rvjre cable and l,r'inchester provides the control The eight-way connector on the left hand side of the unit functions from the tape handler.

in the The outputs of the punch, bail, transport and rest monostables on the left hand side of sequencer can be monjtored at the four sockets located by the unit. l,lith the multip'lexer disconnected the punch can be tested the unit to be depressing the punch activate button. The toggle swjtch allows panel on-off switch' turned on when disconnected from the handler and the front
8.83
The Punch Porver
SUPPIY

an B-3/4',high' The punch power supp'ly (Plate Bb) occupies a T" vlidth of genera'l 1ogjc power l.9,,wide rack mounted dravter. The clock power supply and this drat'rer' supply (see Chapter 9 and Appendix 9) occupy the remajnder of (To) are mounted on an The outout transistor (Ts, Figure B.18) and its driver the unit' The extruded aluminjum heat sink which fonns tire rear pane'l of panel' Access to the adjustment connec^uion to the punch is located on th'is rear obtained through a hole in the front panel' (Ru,

Fjgure 8.18)'is potentiometer and two sockets are avajlable on the front panel vol tage.

for monjtoring the output

REFEdENCES

INVAC,

(fgOs):
1e65)
.

"TaPe Punch Model P-135

Instruction

Manual

".

(Massachusetts

'

LOCHER,

'

pj R.E. (1970): "0n Switching Inductive Loads 1[ Trans. I.E.E.E. ' IECi-17 pp. 256-262.

P,or'ler Trans i

stors"

P0I^JNALL,

M.J. (1969) : "A Data Processi ng System for a Rotating Interferometer"' M.E. Thesis, University of Auckland'

2L9.

CHAPTER 9

A General Description

of the Data Acquisition System

In the previous three chapters the developnrent of the three basic elements of the acquisition portion of a digital data processing system for a radio
telescope has been described. The elements are an analogue-to-digital conversion unjt, for digitizing the input analogue signal, a solar/sidereal digital clock, to provide coordinates for the digitized data, and a paper tape recording system which stores the digitized data and jts coordinates on a machine readable medium. These elements form a system which prepares the input analogue data for conrputer analysis. In this chapter the coordinatjon of these three elements and the operation of the resu'ltant system are described.

9.1

The Complete Acquisition System The block diagram

of Figure 9.1 shows the relationships between the three basic elements and their ancillary units. The digital clock simultaneously produces both solar and sidereal times in b.c.d. format. Between two programmed hours of the day clock pulses at one of the availab'le periods (0.1s to 1 day) are fed into the time interval generator. This unit produces sample instructions at a programmed multiple of the input clock period, and block-mark instructions at a programmed multiple of the sample period. Sample instructions cause the anaiogue-to-digital converter to take a sample of the input analogue voltage and transmit a 'f1ag'message to the digital multiplexer indicating that data is ready to be recorded. The block-mark instructions resu'lt in the digital output of one of the clocks (either solar or sidereal) being transferred into a buffer register, and a 'flag'message is transmitted to the multiplexer indicating that a coordi nate i s ready to be recorded
a flag is received by the multiplexer, the input digital data concerned is divided up into five-bit bytes which are punched together with two identification bits and a parity bit as one eight-bit character on the paper tape. These groups of data are punched in a preferred sequence, and when all of the data from one source has been punched, the f'tag concerned is reset. A seven-bit switch-register can be used to enter data manua'l1y on to the tape.
When

The operation can be programmed

to start

and stop

the

day.

Samples can be taken

at

100

millisecond to

any tvro hours during 99 day periods. The time

at

224.

F H9 F si
.6

'I

o-

q)

o
F-.

o o c ., c
()

t)

:t

o
o

Fcoz UJ

(9

trl J Ftd (9tL

E,

E (l)
vl
tn

r-.:

c o
+,
a q
(d

(,
(o

i
I I I

rtt E

+)

Ld :)

9i$s 2
=2.

(r -r !J

--t E
tr-l

>ft<

> rz. z, H
IIJ

<o

-t!,8 FFITJ

btdck m$rk
I I

:<
J

()

o
C)

-E cr
FF

o)
LTJ

+J

ur

q-

(,

util =i; E

o
E (o

I
I I

JUl (6

'o
- - - - -v. (J

t--

F^, gAttJ
:f (,
lrl

I I

#;3
J
LLI

ct't

rt
rl
I

o ) z E!
:<

qgH ,:Ld
m

r-u

E.J

H s{ ',rl
.J

oF(J .a(9= \= E
.J

l-rl

o-

c)

a o

o a

2?1.

coordinate can be recorded with 1 to 90 sample groups. The system normally has a resolution of nine bits for the data 'input, and coordinates can be recorded to 0.1 second resolution. The input resolution can be reduced to five bits and the coordinate resolution to 1 minute if desired.
9

.2

The Operati on

of the Acqui si ti q!__f5_teq

A description of the typical operation of the acquisitjon system is best divided into two parts; the operation of the clock-pu1se source-time interval generator system, which actua'lly controls the acquisition process, and the operation of the multip'lexer-tape punch system which responds to the requirements of

the former.

9.?L

The 0peration

of the Clgck-Pulse

Source and Time

Interval

Generator

circuit diagram of the clock-pu1se source (Figure 7.23) has been reproduced in Figure 9.2 for reference. The inputs to the selector switches Si and Sz are the positive logic, most-significant-bit outputs of each of the counters in the time-keeping circuits of the clock. The timing information is actually contai.ned in the falling edge (1*0 transition) of these waveforms.
The
s1
0.1s 1s

-----0 ---

Sotor
Ctock Pulses

10s

lm
'l0m

-----{

Ctock Putse

------{ ------{

0ut
START

t
Si dereol

th
1d

-----{ -- + -

0.1s

1s

10s

Ctock Pu lses

lm

iH l*-J'
$0P

- Reset ilme
In

tervot Gcnero tor

10m

------{

nln'

th

-----<

ld .H

Figure

9.2:

The clock-pu1se source

In Figure 9.3, typical control vraveforms at the beginning of an acquisitjon period are shovrn. The sample interval is set to four clock periods, and the block interval to five sample'iqtervals. At time trr coincidence occurs in the

?22.

result the RS fl'ip-flop formed by G2 and Gg (Figure 9.2) is set. Gr then starts generating clock pulses from the falling edge of the selected clock pu'lse. Hovlever when Gz is set to 1, Gu generates a positive reset pulse, which resets both the sample and block counters to zero, and generates both sarnpie and block-mark instructions. This pu'lse also prevents the first clock pulse out of G1 from entering the counters. 0n the fourth clock pulse after the reset pulse from G,*, the samp'le interval counter resets and generates another sample instruction, as it continues to do every fourth clock pulse after this until at some later time cojncidence occurs in the stop program (Figure 7.?2) and Gz returns to zero.

start

program (Figure 7.22) and as a

Timc Informo t ron

l,

t1

Clock Putse

Out FromS;
G2

Gl

G4

Somple

Instruct

Btock Mork

Instruct ion

Figure

9.3:

Contro'l waveforms at the beginning of an acquisition period.

instruction, as well as being suppljed to the analogue-todigital converter, is fed jnto the block interval counter. 0n the fifth samp'le after the reset pulse from Gq, the block jnterval counter resets and generates a block-mark instruction, as it continues to do every fifth sample instruction after this unti'l Gz returns to zero.
Each sample
tJhen cojncidence does occur

the acquisjtion instructions are generated.

program and Gz Feturns t0 zero' process stops merely because no further sample or block-mark

in the stop

9.22

The 0peration

of the Multiplexer

and Punch

Typical multip'lexer and punch waveforms during an acquisition period are

223.

Figure 9.4. Initially the three flags (sample, manual data entry, and block) are at 0, jmplying that no data is waiting to be punched, and thus the flags are bejng continuously'interrogated by the lKHz clock. At time t1 hovrever, the manual data entry f'lag is set, indjcating that the data at present showing in the switch register should be punched. 0n the follorvjng rising edge of the interrogate's'igna1, this flag js transferred into flip-f1oP Ds, (Figure
shown

in

'flag

S.S) with three immediate direct results; the'svritch-drjve

3'line

becomes a

1, the ,punch enable'line becomes a 1, and the'clock enable' line goes to 0. thus preventing further flag interrogation. As a result of the'punch enable' line becoming a 1, the first monostable of the punch sequence generator (Ml,

Figure 8.13) is triggered, initiating a punch cycle. As 'switch-drive 3' is 1', the data from the switch register is gated through the multiplexer sw'itch, and by the ,punch'pulse, into the solenoids of the punch. At the end of the'punch' pulse, a 'data punched'pulse is generated which resets both flip-f1op Da and the manual data entry f'lag. D3 returning to 0 results in the 'switch-drive 3' and'pun6h enable'lines returning to zero, and the'clock enable'line returning to L, restarting the 'f1ag interrogate' signal. The system has now returned to quiescent state although the'bail','transport'and'rest'periods continue in the punch, and at the end of the'rest'period, as the'punch enable' line is 0, the sequencer also ceases to cycle.

its initjal

At a later time tz, both the sample and b'lock flags are set simultaneously' and on the next positive transition of the'f1ag interrogate'ljne flip-f1ops Dr, Dz, D,,, Ds, De, Dz dhd Da are all set to 1. As a direct result of this' the'switch-drjve 1'and'punch enable'lines both go to 1, and the'clock enable, line goes to 0, preventing further flag interrogation. As a result of the'punch enable'line becoming a 1, a punch cycle is initiated, and because 'switch drive L' is a 1, data from Word I (Figure 8.2) is punched. At the end of the 10.5 mi'llisecond'punch'period, a'data punched'pulse resets flip-f1op Dr, dfld as a result, 'switch-drive 1' returns to 0, and 'sr'litch-drive 2' becomes I. The ,bai'l','transport'and 'rest' periods continue in the punch sequencer' and at the end of the'rest'period, as the 'punch enable' line is still a 1' another punch cycle is initiated. At this time'switch-drive 2' is a 1, so it is data from l^lord 2 which is punched. At the end of this 10.5 millisecond ,punch'period, the'data punched'pulse resets both Dz and the sample flag' and as a result, 'switch drive 2'falls to 0, and'swjtch drive 4'goes to 1. The'punch enable'line remajns at 1, and at the end of the'rest'period, a further punch cycle is initiated whjch punches the data fr^orn l'lord 4. The system continues to cycle in this manner, punching Words 5,6,7 and B.

tog

Interrogote

Somptc Doto
Ftog

Monuot Dotq
Ftog

Btock Ftog 0l
02 lr

q
D4

D5

0s
o7

%
g,vitch l)rivc I
2
3

I
5 6 7

I
Punch Enobtc
Punch

Bqit Tronsport
Rest

Dsto
Punchcd

225.

(at the'data punched' pulse occurs fol'lowing the punching of Word 8 the D's time ta), D. is reset to 0, as well as the b'lock flag, and as all of line are now 0, the 'punch enable'line falls to 0 and the 'clock enable' time tg the returns to 1, restarting the f'lag interrogation. At some previous was inhibited' sample flag had been set, but as the 'f1ag interrogate'signal the this was not recognized by the system. However on the first rising edge of ,flag interrogate'signa1, thjs f'lag is transferred into fljp-flops Dr and Dz' becomes 1' and and the ,punch enable'line returns to 1. 'switch-drive 1'also once again the 'f1ag 'interrogate' signal is inhibited.
When

At the end of the 'rest' period following the punching of Word 8' as the punch cycle is injtiated' and Word 1 'punch enab]e' line is still 1, another period' is again punched. Another cycle js initiated at the end of the 'resf ,data punched' s'igna] fol I owj ng the punchi ng of and word 2 i s punched . The D's are 1' the l,lord 2 resets both D2 and the sample flag, and as no further recommences' At 'punch enable' line falls to 0, and the flag interrogation the 'punch the end of the 'rest' period follow'ing the punching of l-lord 2' as its enable' line is 0, the punch cycling ceases, and the unit reverts to
quiescent state.

At time ts another sample is taken, and the sample flag is set' 0n is read next positive transition of the 'f'lag interrogate' signal , this f]ag into Dr and Dz, and once again Words I and 2 are Punched'
the 9.3

sical Characteristics of lhg

isition

SYstem

6' high standard The complete data acqu'isitjon system occupies 4'-6" 0f a three povrer Lg,,rack.cabinet (see PIate 9). The bottom rack unit contains the and from left to pight the clock supply, the general power supply'

supplies; 2 amps the 27 vo'lt punch power supply. The clock supply provides 4 volts' for regulated for the r.t.l. circuits of the clocK' and 200 volts unregulated amps the nixje tube drsplay. Tne general po\{er supply prov'ides 5 Vo1ts' 2 conregulated for the t.t.l. circuits of the multiplexer' analogue-to'digital amplifjers verter and punch, and t15 volts 250mA regulated for the operat'ional prov'i des 27 volts used jn the analogue-to-digita] converter. The punch supp'ly power supplies are 10.5 amps for the punch solenoids. Cjrcu'it details of these given in ApPendix 9.
the the Power suppl'ies are the 5l4Hz standard frequency oscillator' paper tape hand'ler and Punch' and the rack containing the time interval
Above

226.

._a

; a
rr

.--

aii
..

** iir

o 1i'fA
o-a
IF

irl

g4tr ra

t\r\'a

E'"

tl

PLATE

9:

Front and rear views

of the data acquisition

system.

,?27,

generator, analogue-to-digltal convErtr, and digital multiplexer^. Above these are a rack containing the elock pulse source and a space fsir a reeeiver f.str standard ti,me slglalsn and at the top, the solarlsidereal diEital clock.
iRterconnections internal to the system, (power supply eonnections' parallel digital data connectlons, clock pulse connections, etc.} apart frbm those cohcerred with the progratnming of the system (connection's between the clsck prrlse gource, t,frrne interval genefatof , d,Ird multiplexer) afe csntair'red ,lnside the rear door of the cab'inet, The input to the anal0Eile=to-digital corverter, and all control and monit'otinE facilitfes.are available on the front
panel

All

The 230 v6rtt malns s;upplS to the cabinet i's filtered to remove transients is conhecat the poiffi where enters the cab{n,et, on the left-hand side. ted to the varlous pohrer supp'lies, the punch motor and the crystal oven unit via a distr^ihutis.n board in_the bottsm of the eabinet. Atl units are earthed

it

It

ts ah"

diameter copper bus wtrJch runs the

full length of the cabinet.

is 'giiv-en in
Appondlx

A spectficatioh o,f the complete acQrlisition system

l.

228.
CHAPTER

1O

The Data AnalYsis System

In Chapter 4 it was shown that the data processing system can be convenient'ly divided into two distinct sections; the data acquisition section which presents the interferometer output on punched paper tape, and the data analysis section' or software, which processes this clata in a digita'l computer to produce the
desired systenr output. The analysis system can be specified in three sections; storage, analysis and output. The data on the tape is coded in a rather unorthodox format (see Chapter B) and as large quantities of data vlill generally be required in the ana'lysis process, the storage system ntust decode the paper tape data and store it vlithin the computer in an easily manageable format. The analysis required jnitially extends only as far as averaging collateral data' and filtering th'is data digjtally. Output is required in three forms; (1) a tabulation of the sampled data (many systems'in fact use a printer on-line coupled to the recorcling device to perform this funct'ion) and of the processed data, (2) a computer printed chart conrparable with that produced by an analogue chart recorder, and (3) the original and processed data reproduced on punched cards, a more permanent and more rapidly reacl storage ntedium than punched paper tape. The requirements of these three sections constituting the analysis system are establ 'ished i n thi s chaPter.

10.1 Storaqe Requjrenrents In order to spec'ify the detajls of the storage system, it is necessary to investigate the characteristics both of the input data and the storage system of the IBM 1130 conrputer in which the analysis is to be performed. Additional
requirements placed on tlre storage system are that the storage operat'ion be controlled by special control characters punched on the tape, and that an index be kept of the data stored at any particular time.

10.11 Characterjstics of the Input

Data

In Chapter 6 it was estabjjshed that w'ith the present interferometer configuration, an RC filter w'ith a 12 second time constant should be used and samples should be taken at 7.5 second jntervals in order to keep both the reflected noise and distortion'in the s'ignal spectrum dovrn to l'%. Ho|ever if a twenty second t'ime constant'is used, and the output sampled every ten seconds, the reflected no'ise is less than 1% and the distortjon is still only ?%. Alternatjveiy a ten second sanrple jnterval could be used with a tlvelve second

229.

time constant, keeping the distortion down to 1.%, and the reflected no'ise is only 1.8%. The advantage of a ten second sample interval is that all tjme coordinates can be kept in un'its of dekaseconds. Thjs is a much nlore manageab'le quantity than seconds'in a computer wjth a basjc word length of sixteen L:r^ 1+327671 as there are 86400 seconds in a day. b'its \4ri6!) ^Because

of this

convenience,

a ten second sample interval. then the signal frequency will

base the softt^tare system on If the present interferometer baseline is extended, be higher, however a ten second sample interval was decided

it

to

could still be used in conjunctjon with a second-order filter for baselines up to three times the present length with on'ly L% reflected noise and l% distortion. Dekasecond resolution implies that only four tape characters need be punched for a time coordinate (tlords 4,5,6 and 7 Figure 8.2). A typical input tape to the analysis system will then consist of tvro characters for each sarnple (ident'ifica' tion codes 10,00) and four characters for each coordinate (ident'ification codes 11 ,00,00 ,00) . The sampl e data i s coded 'in the tvro's compl ement natural bi nary code used within the computer, and thus will only require regrouping. The block data ho;ever is in five groups of binary-coded-decirnal characters (fO x hours, hours,10 x mirrutes, minutes and 10 x seconds), and each group will have to be separated, multipiied, and summed to the others to fonr the coordinate in dekaseconds, an integer number betuteen 0 and 8,639.

10.12

Heading and Control Characters on the Tape

file with an index number and infornratjon pertinent to the data. In addition, it is required that the storage of the data be controlled almost entire'ly by the tape itself'
As mentjoned

in section 8.14 it'is

proposed

to

head each tape

obviating the necessity for control inforrnation to be punched on cards for each tape. The switch register (see Chapter B) is to be used to enter specified control characters on the tape. Using tlre one identification code available for manually entered data, a system of standard control characters and a standard heading format have been developed. consjst of a sequence of two characters. Sjxteen different commands are available and the present system uses on'ly five of these. The basic format uses a 0l- identification in the first jn the character, r.rith channel 5 always 1, and a four-bit jnstruction punched remaining four channels. The second character is always blank. A table of the five valid comnrands is shown in Table 10.i.
The paper tape

contrgl

conmands (PTCC) each

The

START

jnstruction (1i11 or Frs)

appears

at the beginning of a tape,

230.

at the end of the leader (blank) and indjcates the beginning of the data. Thjs will be folloured by several characters of heading data (see next paragraph), at the end of which the END 0F HEADING code (0010 or 2ro) indicates the beginning of the sanrple data, The STOP conmand (0000 or 0re) indicates to the storage system that the end of a tape fjle has been neached. If a tape file is too long to be accommodated on a single'length of tape (the take up reel of the handler in the acquisjtion system has a 350-foot capacity) then the PAUSE
instruction (0001 or 110) will cause the storage system to pause and wait for a new tape to be placed in the reader. I'lhen the program js restarted th'is tape wjll be scanned until a CONTINUE code (1000 or Bro) is encountered' when the
storage process wi 1 i recommence.
coded into nurnbers in the range -129 1s +I?7 (eight bits, two's complernent). Each of these numbers is punched in two tape characters, four bits per character. The standard format uses a 01 identification for the first character, ancl a 00 (continuation) identification for the The heading information

is

character. To distinguish this data from the paper tape control commands of Table 10.1, channel fjve is a'lways punched as 0. The four most significant bits of the Cata are punched in the last four channels of the first character' the four least significant bits are punclred in the second character.
second

l{ormally the heading vli1l consist of from eight to e'ighteen of these sets. The first will be a file nunrber, by wh'ich the tape r.ril1 be referenced. This is followed by the block iength'in samples, the sample length in seconds, the gain setting of the a/d converter, and the pointing angle of the antenna amay. The sixth quantity'is the number of scans per day appearing on the tape. Facility has been prov'ided in the analysis systern for six scans' but this r'lill normally be one, although special start/stop progranrming boards can be wired to prov'ide for more than one. Following this appear the start times and stop times (in hours) of the scans, the number of rvhich has been specified. The heading data will always end r,rith the paper tape control command 0010 as shown in Table 10.1'

10.13 Characteristics of the

Computer Storage

The IBM 1130 computer at the Univers'ity of Auckland uses a sixteen-bit basic rvord length and has 16,000 words of core storage, with an additional 1'000,000 words avajlable on two magnetic disks. As the sanrpled data is normally nine bits long, only one sample can be conveniently stored in each computer word. lrJith dekasecond sanrpling, 360 samples are taken every hour, and 27,000 words of

storage would be required for 75 hours data (25 scans, each 3 hours long). As it is desired that the data be stored with some permanence, then obviously the disk

231.

storage should be used.

TAPE CHANNELS 8
0 0 0 7 6 0 0 5
1

4
1

3
1

?
1

COMMAND

I
0
1

0
1

0 0 0
0

0 0

0
1

srART (Fro)
END

I
0
0

0
0

oF

0
0

0
1

0 0
0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 on

HEADI NG

/2 \ "l6'

I
0
1

0
0
1

0
1

0
1

0
0 0
1

sroP (016)
PAUSE (

0
0 0 0 I

0
1

0
0 0

1re)

I
0

I
0 PAR.

0 I

C0NTTNUE

(q6)

denti

fi cati on

nstructi

Table
The type 2315

10.1:

Paper tape

control

commands (PTCC)

disk cartridge used on the IBM 1130 computer has two surfaces (top and bottom), each of which is divided into two hundred tracks. Each track is sub-divided into four sectors of 320 words (Louclen, 1967). Fortran jnstructions are available for both the read and write operations, the smallest unit that can be transferred being one disk record. Named data files can be defined on a disk of a specified record length, and of a specified number of records. The record length must not exceed 320 words, as no overlap of records across sectors is pernritted. Records of lengths greater than 160 words but considerably less than 320 words result'in large unused areas of disk storage, as only one record can be accommodated per sector. However as most of the time required for a data transfer operat'ion is taken up'in the positioning of the read/wrjte heads over the appropriate track, the more data read in one operation (i.e., the longer the record'length) ttre more economjcal of computer
time. As the acquisition process can be started or stopped only on the hour, the shortest block of interest is the data from a t hour interval. This will norma'lly be 360 sarnples, and cannot be accommodated jn a single disk record. Record lengths of 30 minutes data (tBO words) and fjfteen minutes data (90 words) are both rather uneconornical of storage area, and it r,ras decjded to define the data

?32.

file with a record length of 60 words, sufficient storage for ten minutes data.
w'ill be accomnrodated in a sector, only 20 words bejng unused in each sector. The smallest unit of interest, the data front one hour, consists of s.ix of these records and this has been defined as one page of data.
Five of these records
Although the data will be handled as records rvjthin the computer, references vrill be by page.

all

externa'l

10.14 Indexing of
Some

Disl< Fjles

provision must be made to keep an up-to-date record of the data stored in the systenr files. As the data is to be handled externally by pages (1 page contains I hour's data), then index entries need only be nnde otte per page. The index information wjll be of the sane form as the heading data of the tape concerned, and in addition, the tinre of cornmencement of the page will be required, and some indjcation of the extent to vrhich the page has been processed. The time of commencement of the page w'i1'l be the on'ly coordinate required for a whole page of data, provided that data which through some hardt4/are effor has been lost' is represented by blank storage areas. All coordinates will then be implied by the relative position of the data.

10.15

Checking

of

Data

for

Hardware Errors

appears on tape should have an initjal sample fol'lowed by a coordinate, and then a series of blocks of data, each of a'block-]engtlr'of samples folloled by a coordinate. If for some reason a block does not contain The data as

it

the coryect number of samples, or the coordinate does not taliy with the block length, then obviously an error has occurred somewhere in the system, and the entire blocl< of data concerned must be discarded. When clata is discarded in this fashion it nrust be represented irr the systent disk file by b'lank storage area in order to rnaintain the irnpljecl coord'inates. However some means of identi-

fying discarded data as djstinct fronr zero samples must be provided.

oniy nine bits of each sixteen-b'it word, it was dec'ided to use the remaining seven bits as a flag rrrord' Each sixteenbit r^rord can then be split into two bytes, one of seven bits and one of nine bits (see Figure 10.1). If the flag word is zero, then the data corresponding to that location has been d'iscarded. If the flag word is one, then the data is valid. l,lhen the data is the average of several collatera'l samples, then the f'lag word is used to represent the number of samples that have been averaged to

lloting that each

sanrp'le occupies

form that particular vlord.

each averaged sample.

if this averaged daL,a is to be averaged still fur-

ther with other averaged data, then the fiag word g'ives the correct vreight for

233.

bit

m's ----|
in

word
storoge

7-bit

tog word
f

9-brt

dq to

word

Figure

10.1: The distribution of a sample and its flag jn one word of computer storage

10.2 Analysis

Requirements

As previously nrentioned, it was the aim of this project to extend the software system on'ly to the point where the requirements of individual experiments would diverge. The process'ing to be performed on the samp'led data to bring it to this level can be divi'led jnto three parts; (1) ttre checking of the input data for occasions of obvious interference, and the rejection of such data, (2) the averaging of a number of scans vlhjch have been checked in this

manner,and (3)

fjltering the averaged data using a digital filter to produce

Data Marred by Extraordinary No'ise

the optimunt signal-to-noise ratio githout distorting the signal.

70.2L Reiection of
From

a visual inspection of the interferometer output (see Figure 4.8) it is apparent that from time to tinre there occur extraordinary noise bursts' or interference spikes of quite short duration (-1 mjn).* If records are to be summed to form an average, then provided that tltese no'ise bursts are not stat'ionary jn s'idereal time, the average would be better formed by discard'ing the noisy samples in each record, even though this would result in fewer points

to

be averaged.

A criterion for the reject'ion of one doubtful observat'ion from a number of observations to be averaged has been given by Chauvenet (Smart,1958). This criterion'is based on the likelihood of a particular sample falling a certain distance from the mean, assuming that the samples are normally distributed about the mean. If the average of m samples is i, and the standard deviation is o, then the probability of a deviat'ion from the mean being greater than e (= l*-il)

js ltt - N(qJf where N(t) is the nonlal distribution functjon. If

of the receiver.

the proba-

* These have been traced to a network of radio telephones on an image frequency

234.

bility of a sample falling a certain distance from the ntean is less than onehalf for the given of sanrples, then such samples should be reiected. limit for the rejection of one cloubtful santple can then be expressed as
number
N

The

(;) _ -4m - 4m-1

(10. 1)

Beers (tgSZ) gives a similar criterion, but questions the severity of Chauvenet's method, suggesting that for rejection, the probability of occurrence should be set at some lesser level.

alternatjve method for the inrpartial detection of noise spikes has been used in the preparation of the Ohio 1415MHz sky survey (Djxon and Kraus' 1968). This involves the calculabion of the standard deviation over s'ix sequential data points (a one m'inute jnterval) of indivjdual scans. If this exceeds a predetermined level, then the data is assumed to contain a noise spike, and is rejected. This standard deviation 'is calculated in a 'moving-windovt' fashion along the entire length of each scan. Assuming that the signal variation is small over the one-minute interval of interest, then the standard deviation calculated js actually a measure of the r.m.s. noise level over that period. However, the disadvantage of this technique in rejecting sp'ikes caused by terrestrial sources is that if the d'isturbance lasts for a significant period, and levels off at its peak, then the ent'ire spike is not reiected,.but on'ly the transi ti ons .
An These two teihniques are described developed to perform this function.

in detajl in

Chapter

I?,

and programs

L0.22 Averag'ing Col'latel^al

Data

0nce the data from several scans has been stored'in the computer, and has been checked both for errors in the hardvlare system and spurious noise spikes' then to improve the signal-to-noise ratio, collateral data points from each scan should be summed to form an averaged scan. The flag words of this averaged scan should be set to the number of data points summed for each particular point' so that if further averaging is to be performed, the correct weighting can be appljed to this data. In addition, index entries for an averaged scan should

indicate the number of scans which contributed to

it.

10.23 Filterinq the

Data

It

was sho;n

in Chapter 5 that the best

s'igna'l-to-noise

ratio could be

235.

the data prior obtained wjthout distorting the signal by only lightly filtering to samp'ling, and then applying digital filtering techniques during the computer analysis. The twenty second time constant RC fjlter currently used with the less than 2%' system produces a maximum djstortjon of the signal spectrum of can be The noise reflected by the sampling process on to the signal spectrum low-pass filter reduced to less than 1% by fjltering the data vrith a near ideal be with a cut-off frequency of .003H2. A general digital filter program should can be developed so that the effectjVeness of different weighting functions
eval uated
.

cannot should be notecl that the output of a digital filter of 2N+1 weights the weighting be evaluated for the first N or last N points of a set of data, if (1959) has suggested function is symmetrical about the point of interest' l'lartin the altering the vreighting function jn order to evaluate these points' but as of data at the extremities of a scan will probab'ly not conta'in any signals interest, a more sinrple nrethod is to assLlme that the data is constant for N points prior to the scan atrd for N po'ints follolving the scan'

It

10.3 0utput

Requirements

of data output have been specified for the software system' punched cards for These are (1) the output of raw or processed data on to processed data' future reference by the computer, (2) a tabulation of raw or data at various and (3) a computer ppinted chart whjch can be used to compare the record' Each of these stages of the processing rvith the original analogue chart will be required to operate in units of one page of data (360 words)'
Three forms

10.31 Storage of Data on Cards the computer' it Since data dumped on cards'is intended solely forre-useby be dunrped exact'ly as does not have to be in an intelligible forn, and thus can it is stored, wjth data and flag words combjned in a single sixteen-bit word entries should lllith each page of data durnped on to cards, the appropriate'index
al so be dumped

for reference

when re-readi ng

the data.

of disk ut.ility program (nup) on the IBM 1i30 allows for the dumping In this data from a disk file directly on to cards without code conversion' on a sing]e eighty-column way f.ifty-four sixteen-bit words can be accornmodated data' However card, and only seven cards would be requjred for each page of fjle must be th.is DUMPDATA operat'ion is not select'ive and the entjre named the beginnjng of the file' dumped, or a portion (in vlho'le sectors) starting from
The

236.

statement. This produces an output in IBM card code, one decimal digit per card cotumn. Each sixteen-bit word (t7l3l) thus requires six card columns, and a page maxjmum of thirteen data words can be punched per card. The output from one

this reason, although it is much'less economical of both cards and computer time, for selective dumping the information vrjll have to be read fronr the disk file into a core storage array, and punched on to cards using the Fortran WRITE
For

of data then occupies twenty-eight cards,

by the 1442 card reader/punch.

and takes tvrenty-eight seconds

to

punch

10.32 Tabulation of the Digital

As the tabulated data

Data

js

intended

to be'interpreted manually, the data

and

flag

written separately. A heading derived from the index entry shou'ld a'lso be wrjtten for each (disk) page printed. The flag word is always taken to be positive, and thus lies between 0 and 1.27; the data word lies between -256 and +257. If these numbers are to be tabulated then spacing must be provided between each column, and each flag and data word pair will t'equire nine printer columns. The 1403 line printer has a L20 character line' and can be accommodate thirteen of these number pairs, so thatilenty-ejght lines wi'll printed per disk page of data.
words nust be

10.33 The Computer Printed Chart

As the University conrputer is not equipped with a graph'ical output unit, the only way to produce a graph'ica'l record of the data is to use the printer to p'lot characters such as * or + whose positions on the paper are proportional to the numbers they represent. The printed page of the 1403 printer consists of sixty lines spaced six per inch each of one hundred and twenty characters spaced ten per inch. As time resolution is obviously more critical than amplitude resolution for this visual representation it was decided to produce a chart vtith the time axis running across the Pd9e, even though this requ'ires complex reorganisation to make aniplitude the independent vapiable.
each sample is plotted in one character position, then three pages of printout will be produced per d'isk page of data. A more compact time scale is required for comparison with the ana'logue chart record (3cm/hour) and it was page dec.ided to combjne 3 samp'les in each character position, producing only one printout per disk page of data. It was found that the best simulation of the

If

of

plotting continuous trace characterjstic of a pen recorcler could be achieved by in each character position a vertical line extending from the maximum to the by plotting minimum amplitudes of the three samples to be represented, rather than

237.

a single point corresponding to their average.

10.4 A General Descriptjon of the An.alysis System A flow chart representation of the analysis system is shown in F'igure 10.2. Because of the large quant'ities of data to be handled at any stage by the system' each section operates on only a small portion of the data at any one tjme, and the processed data is re-stored on the clisk before more data is read to be processed. In addition to the paper tape input, facil'ity has been included to
store data from cards punched by the output system, but no checking is required by this process, and the storage is performed directly without decoding. At any stage during the analysis any of the three output fonns can be produced.
The progranrs developed to perform the functions of the analysis system are described in the next two chapters. All of the operations are performed by calling Fortran subroutines, the calling parameters usually being page refer-

ences.

Decoding

access to an analysjs of the data requires a short main-line progrant consisting entirely of CALL statements to the subroutines of the softlare system.

performed by assenbler subroutines but the user requires these only via the Fortran routines. To store a tape file and perform

is

REFERENCES

BEERS,

Y. (1957): "Introduction to the Theory of Error"

Massachusetts).

(Addi son-l,lesl ey,

DIXoN, R.S., and KRAUS,

J.D. (1968): "A High Sensitivity

1415MHz

North Decljnations Between 19o and

LgUDEN, R.

37o".

Astrononr.

J.,

Survey at 73 pp' 381-407'

K.

(1967)

"Programnri

ng the

IBI'1 1130

and 1800" .

(Prentice-Hal I

'
Trans.

New

Jersey).

MARTIN, M.A.

(1959):

I.R.E.,
SMART,

"Frequency Domain Applications SET-5 pP. 33-41. "Combination

to Data Processing",
Cambridge)

ll.M. (1958):

of 0bservations". (C.U.P.,

238.

(a)

The storage process

DIGITAL

Fl LTER

(b)

The analysis Process

CIECO;0E & R.EORGANIZE

(c)
Eigufe

The outPut Pt"ocess

t0',2: Analysis system flow e.hart'

239.

CHAPTER 11

The AnalYsjs System Input/Output

This chapter describes the computer programs developed to perform the storage and output functions specified jn Figure 10.2. The storage process is performed by tvro Fortran subprograms, STOPT rvhich stores data from paper tape on to disk, and ST6CD which stores data previousiy punched on to cards by the output system. The tabular and card outputs are performed by a single subprogram DSCAN, the output device (printer or card punch) be'ing defined by a calling parameter. The graphical output is produced by a subprogram entitled
CHART.

A 540 x 60 word record data file, RSTAR, has been defined on the disk allocated for this work, for use by the processing systenr. The fjle can be extended at any time jf required. In its present form it allows for up to ninety pages of data (one page will accommodate the data from a one hour period) to be stored at any one time. An index file INDX, consisting of 90 ten-word records permits up to ten djfferent index quant'ities to be defined for each page. A subroutine DUMPX is provided which prints out the index entries of those pages

in which data is currentlY stored. 11.1

The Paper Tape Storage Process

A sinrplified f'lor^r-chart of the paper tape storage subprogram ST0PT is shown in Figure 11.1. Characters from the tape are read wjthout code conversion into a Fortran array JDATA by the IBM program PAPTB. This is an overlapped interrupt service subroutine which after an injtial call TCALL PAPTB(0'C0UNT' AREA)l sets out to fill and maintain an allocated buffer Ithe Fortran array AREA (C6UNT)l allowino the computer to continue processing the cal'ling program' .interrupting its operat'ion only when a character from the reader is ready to be transferred'into the buffer. Tape characters are packed tvro per t^lord into this buffer, whicS has a capacity of 2 x C0UNT characters. 0n subsequent calls to the subroutine tCALL PAPTB(l,NUt,tgR,PLACE,ERROR)1, characters are transferred from the buffer into a second Fortran affay, PLACE(NUMBR), one character per word plus

a parity

bit. The ERROR pararneter is used as an'indicator that the end of a

tape has been reached or that the reader has not been made ready. I'lhen characters have been tra nsf eryed to PLACE , PAPTB conti nues to ma i nta'i n the a'l l ocated buff er ' interrupting the operation of the cornputer every time a character is read' ST0PT allocates a buffer IBUFR (1000) which has a capac'ity of 2000 characters. Data is transferred from this buffer 500 characters at a time into an array JDATA'

240.

Reod 500 Chorocter!

Into

orn

Arroy

J,D-ATA

Reod Anothci 500 C'tloroc:ters Into JDATA ,lRaschad \ End of JDATA

Reqd

Chorqeter
J DAI'A

Set Frorn

it

u SomBle

ir

PTcc

PAUSE ?

Stora in on ArroY KDATA With rug I

it,s Glock
0oto Sel?

it

PIcc
STOP ?

NO

Annotas in\

YES

imc

TottY

Sornptas in

Write
KqATA

Writa
KDATA

on Disk Wiite
Index EntrY

on Disk Eroge

s Eloch of Doto Frorn KOATA

Write

on

'DlEk

lndcx EnrY On 0isk

{,_Vrite

Messoge

Frin tar

Pri

ntcr

Fi.gure 11. 1,:

ST0PT

florvcharti the paper tape storage routine.

24L.

Immediately follow'ing the return of 500 characters front PAPTB, a parity checking routine PARTY is called by STOPT. Each of the 500 characters is examined in turn, and if its parity is incorrect (characters are punched with even parity) it is ignored in the subsequent decoding. PARTY is described in more detai'l in section 11.14.
The tape language

leaderis

then scanned and

subroutine

HEAD.

the headjng data decoded by an assentbler The heading data is then written on the line printer.

The decoding of the jnterferometer data and its coordinates from the tape characters in JDATA 'is performed by a second assembler subroutine TREAD. When TREAD is called, it decodes a sequence of characters corresponding to either a sample, a coordjnate, or a control command, according to the character identifications encountered. This data is then returned to STQPT, as the

quantized value

if it is a samplen in dekaseconds jf a coordinate, or as the four-bit instructjon if a control command, together with an indicator which shows from which of these three sources the data was obtained. If insufficient characters are available in JDATA to form a valid sei, control is returned to jnto JDATA' STQPT, and another 500 characters are transferred
of 1, in the manner shown in
F'igure 10.2 (bits 0-6 flag, bits 7-15 data) by an assenrbler subroutine PAK, and the resultant word is stored in an array KDATA' A call is once again made to TREAD, and another cltaracter set decoded.

If

sample

data'is returned to

ST0PT, then

it is combined with a flag word

coordjnate data js returned to STOPT, a check is made to see if it is equa'l to the previous coordinate ('in dekaseconds) plus the number of valid samples decoded since the prev'ious coordinate. If the coordinate and block length correspond, then a check is made of the number of samples presently stored in KDATA. If this is less than 360 then TREAD is again called. However if 360 or more samples are found to be stored in KDATA after a correct coordinate, then the first 360 of these are w.itten on the assigned page (6 records) of the disk fjle RSTAR. The coryesponding 'index entry 'is nrade on the file INDX and a message written on the line printer g'iving details of the page iust stored' end Any samples.in excess of 360 stored'in KDATA are then moved to the lower
When

of the array,

and once

again

TREAD

is

called.

the coordjnate and block length do not correspond, then the coordinate is the examined to see if it marks the beginn'ing of a new scan. If it does mark disk beginn.ing of a ne$/ scan,any data stored at KDATA is first written on the

If

242. and the subsequent data

treated as a new scan. If the coordinate is not the beginning of a new scan, and if the previous coordinate was correct, then a flag is set to ind'icate that thjs coordinate was incorrect, and the decoding process is continued. If however the previous coordinate was jncorrect, and this will be indicated by the f1ag, then the block of data prior to the first incorrect coordinate is erased from KDATA, and after setting as'ide the correct numbei" of vacant locations in thjs erased area, the program contjnuesrassuming that the first incorrect coordinate was correct. This double check ensures that it is the number of sanples which is in error, rather than a coordinate being

is

mi sp'laced

pTCC instruction is returned by TREAD, then the actjon of STOPT is controlled by the instruction. If the 'pause'. instruction is encountered then the computer branches into a vra'iting 1oop. l',then the start key'is pressed, if a new tape has been loaded'into the reader,500 characters are transferred f rorn thi s tape i nto JDATA and TREAD 'is agai n cal I ed. TREAD ski ps over the

If a

blank tape leader and returns to STOPT when a valid identification sequence is encountered. If the 'continue' instruciion is returned then decoding resumes from the point it left off when the 'pause' instructjon was encountered.

If the

PTCC

'stop' instructiori occurs, then after

KDATA have been written the mainline program.

any samples stored in on the appropriate djsk page, control is returned to

If any PTCC instruction

is
ignored, and

other than those mentioned is returned' then ST0PT continues as if it had not occurred.
more

it

detailed descriptions of the three assembler language subroutines HEAD, TREAD and PAK, and the Fortran subroutine PARTY are g'iven, and some of the assocjated operations of ST0PT are examined

In the following subsections

in

more

detail.

11.11 The Heading Decoding Subroutine

The symboljc assembler subrout'ine HEAD(HDATA,JDATA,INDEX) scans sequentia'l1y through an array JDATA, starting at JDATA(INDEX), until a PTCC 'start' instruction (01011111/00000000) is encountered. It then decodes the subsequent jnto one tape characters in pairs, taking four bits from each and combining them

word which is stored at an aray HDATA. l,lhen the PTCC 'end of heading' code is encounteredn the HDATA aryay js returned to the calling program together

with the current value of

INDEX.

?43,

fl

orruchart representation

of this su'brouti,ne is

shown

i'n Figure 11.2'

Reod

JIIATA( INDEX),

it

PTCe

IN0EX

<-

INDEX +

STAR]T ?

INDEX.-lNIDEX

Retrd J0ATA ( lFlOEX)

snd

JDATA(lNOE:X+1)

INDEX._TNDEX +

Store
2

ot

l-tDATA(N)

F,tqure

1,1.?:

The' tape headi r|g decodi ng subrouti

ne IiEAD

In t,he initial
wide

is

sean for t;he 'stait' instr,uctisn, a windsw tuo chanacters instrucrngved along th,e arrayr,one character at a tiime, until a vali'd
f'ound

tion ls

within the

wind,ovr.

decoding the heading data is itlustrated in Figure 11'3' and Acoording to section 10,.2, ttle heading data words each oecu,py eight bits' afe eoded in two's complement form, four of, these hits being punched in each of are trrro t:aper cha,racte'rs, In or.der to preserve the inforrration when these b.ytes converte.d into 16-bit mach'ine words, the most signiftcant bit of the eight-b'it groupr Br [the two,s complement sign bit) must be reproduced in the eight unused
The procedure

for

most-signifi cant

pos i

ti

ons .

?44.

JDATA(INDEX)

JOATA(INDEX +

1)

HDATA( N)

Figure

11.3: Detail of decoding of the tape

headi ng data

the first 500 characters are read into JDATA, STOPT calls HEAD with INDEX=I. The 500 characters are then scanned through from the beginning of the tape, and as INDEX is incrernented with every operation' on the return 'infotrnfrom HEAD, JDATA(INDEX) is the first data word following the heading ation. It is assumed that the headjng data will always be found in this first 500 character group, and thus the tape leader should never be longer than four feet (480 characters at 10/inch).
l-lhen

ll.l2

The Data Decoding Subroutine

The interferometer data and its coordinates are decoded fnom the paper tape characters stored in JDATA by the assembler subroutine TREAD(TYPE' INFo'SPUR' TREAD is INDEX,JDATA), the flowchart of which is shown in Fjgure L1.4. l'lhen called, it first transfers INDEX to a local storage location and increments it by 2. If INDEX then exceeds 500, control is transferred back to the

with TYPE set to 0 and without returning the modified INDEX' This indicates to SToPT that insufficient characters are available in JDATA to form a valid set, and that more should be taken from the STOPT buffer IBUFR' Any unread characters at [he end of JDATA are transferred'into an array 'immediately in front JDATA, which can be considered to represent JDATA for negative indexes. INDEX is set to INDEX-500 (which may be negative) and a further 500 characters transferred into JDATA. Tread is then again called'
calling
program

eight-bi t tape characters at JDATA(INDEX-2) and JDATA(INDEX-1) are into a single sixteen-bit word at AREA (see Figure 11'5)'
The

If ,

vthen

initially

jncremented by

2,

INDEX does not exceed 500 then the

combined

identification codes of these two characters, ab and ii are

separated

245.

.Obioin trNDEX Frorn

INOEX

*INOEX+
n

2 INDEX <-INDEX + COUNT+-COLINT +

1

G0UNI.-

trNOEX > 500

Ggt JDATA (INDEX-z ) ond JIATA (INOEX-I)

s?poi.dte

o Four-Bit Word

I0

Codes os

TNDEX

+-

IN0EX + 2

INoEX> 500

TYFE*

*1

Get JOATA( INDEX-Z ) ond .I0ATA,(INDEX-1)

SEpsr,cite

I0

eodcs os
Worrd

o Foul'-9it
CoUNT

-CoUN][

+2

fPf,<- +t

S,tora

ot

lNF0

Oecsde Thesa 4 Chrs

Into

Dekoseconds

Return INDEX

to

Return COUNT to Gctling ftograrn

FiEure

11.4:

TREAD

flopchart; the tape data deeod{ng routine.

246.

equal to four and combined into a four-bit vrord ID. If this four-bit word is (0tOO1 then the two characters form a PTCC instruction set, and , f, g, and h are placed'in the four least-sjgnificant-b'its of INFO. TYPE is set to -1 and

a branch is made to a return procedure. This procedure consists of returning (see later) INDEX to the call'ing program, returning the spurious character count as SPUR, and then transferring control back to the calling program'
(INDEX-2
JDATA ( INDEX-1 )

JDATA

F'igure

11.5:

Character combinat'ion and identification seParation Procedures of TREAD

the four-bit r,rord ID is equal to eight (1000) then the two characters 11'6' form a sample data set and are decoded into INFo accord'ing to Figure procedure' In TYPE is set to +1 and once aga'in a branch is made to the return d, the decoding of the sample data, the analogue-to-djgital converter sign bit, the must be reproduced jn all eight most-significant-bits in order to maintain two's complentent sense.

If

AREA

I NFO

Figure

11.6:

Decoding

sample data character Pair

?47.

characters the four-bit word ID is equal to twelve (rtoo) then the two must be form the first ha'lf of a coordinate data set, and two more characters to AREA-I and read to comp'lete the set. The two characters at AREA are moved

If

INDEX

is

incremented bY 2.

and JDATA INDEX is still less than 500 then the new JDATA(INDEX-2) as (INDEX-I) are read into AREA, and their identification codes are separated TYPE=O is made' If shown in Figure 11.5; otherwise a return to STQPT with original the word ID is not zero for the two new characters, then the two followed by characters, now at AREA-I are declared invalid (a 11 code not by 2 three continuation codes). A spurious character counter is incremented check procedure with and a branch is made back to the original identification then the the two new characters at AREA. If however the new ID is zero' are four characters at AREA-I and AREA form a valid coordinate set and various steps in this decoded into dekaseconds as shown by Figure 11.7. The given to the coordinate decoding procedure are a direct result of the coding data by the digital multiplexer and shown in Figure 8'2'

If

AREA

AREA

l1?o rtl

b c de trl
10xH

c d el
ll

\A
I I

00Pt

9,n,','

00Pk rll jktm lrl

tmno
I

J_l_!,,)

,4

h.,ri 1'/

\\ t-l
-'-

0 0rll PP q rst
I

.4,
I

ln,o,ol

*o
{ I
INFO

Figure 11.7: Decoding a coordinate set of four characters to give the time in dekaseconds
TYPE

is set equal to +2 and a branch is made to the return Procedure'

248.

If the identification word ID of the two characters first combined at the pair AREA is neither four, eight or tvrelve, then the first character of is declared inva'lid (its identification is not 01,10 or 11 foj'lowed by 00 and thus it does not mark the beginning of a valid set). Both the spurious character count and INDEX are incremented by one, and after checking that INDEX
combined does not exceed 500, the new ,IDATA(I}IDEX-Z) and JDATA(INDEX-I) are at AREA, and the analysis of the identification word ID recommenced'

starti ng from JDATA( INDEX) , JDATA 'i s sequentially scanned until a valid character set is located' This set is program' decoded according to its type and the data returned to the calling next unread INDEX is updated so that JDATA(INDEX) always represents the character. A count of any invalid characters encountered prior to the valid
Thus

, when

TREAD j s cal I ed ,

set is given bY
11

SPUR.

.13

Data/Fl ag

Combi ni

ng Subrouti

nes

least An assenrbler language subroutine PAK(NUM,DATA) places the seven word signifjcant bits of NUM in the seven most significant positions of the in DATA. DATA is returned as the combined f'lag/data woid in the form 'shown

this Figure 10.2. A second assembler subroutine UNPAK(NUM,DATA) reverses process, accepting the cotnb'ined word as DATA, and restoring the two's complement sign bit of the uncoded DATA.
data is declared inval id by ST0PT, blank storage al'location is to zero' assi gned by sett'i ng a 1 I si xteen bits of the conrbined word
When

11.14 The Parity Checking Subroutine into the l,lhen tape characters are transferred front the PAPTB buffer 15 of each urord in JDATA array, the eight-bit tape characters occupy bits 8 to 7' This bit JDATA, and a parity-check bit generated by PAPTB occupies bit is 0 if the character has even parity, and 1 if the character has odd parity'
the entire 500 words of the JDATA as IPAR' If a array in one cal], and returns a count of odd parity characters If a character character has even parity (bjt 7=0) then it'is'left untouched' of has odd parity (bit 7=1) then the action depends on the identification code (OO), then it 'is changed the character. If th'is code is not a continuation code is a to a continuation code by setting the vrord to zero. If the identifjcatjon
The

subroutine

PARTY(IPAR)* checks

JDATA

is transfemed to this

subroutine by a

common

storage area'

249.

continuation code, then it 'is changed to a coordinate code (11) by setting the bY word to -1. This Procedure ensures that durjng the decod'ing of the array 'l be decl ared TREAD, the character set to wh i ch thi s character be'l ongs wi 1

invalid.

11.15

Page Indexing

in the Storage Procedure

data from more than one scan/day'is present on a tape, the data from other days' each scan is stored adiacent to data from the corresponding scan on IPAGE is The call.ing sequence for the storage process is CALL ST0PT(IPAGE)' a six word array indicat'ing the area in the data file where the correspond'ing at scan of the day is to be stored. The first scan of the day wi'll be stored page IPAGE(I) and subsequent pages up to IPAGE(II); tlre second scan of the day will be stored at IPAGE(Z) and subsequent pages up to IPAGE(M)' Data from the first scan of the seconci day will be stored at IPAGE(tl+t) and subsequent pages i.e., adjacent to the first scan of the previous day. This is shown diagranunablhen

ti cal 'ly i n F'igure

11

.8.
'l

Doto From

DoY

Doto From
(\l

OaY 2
I

GI

(Yt

z.
(-)

o (/)

(J

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z
o
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ATA

AS

IT
sy
lrJ
L

APP /
(9

ARS

ON

THE
f7)
UJ

nl

SK

t! (D

(J

Figure

11.8:

Storage areas

of different scans in different of the data file

the storage
was

of the printer output produced by ST0PT during of a tape is shown in Figure 11.9. For this operation IPAGE(I)
An examp'le

set to

64.

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251.

RSTAR file is used by The ten word index assjgned to each page of the as a flag; it js zero if the page STOPT as follows. The first word is used are taken directly is unused, and one if the page is usecl' The next five words tape file nuntber' the start and from the heading data on the tape; these are the antennas, and the gain setting stop times of the scan, the pointing angle of the The next word (word 7) is the coordinate

of the analogue-to-digital converter. this is followed by a of the first data word on the page (in dekaseconds) and (flagword=0) on the page' and the nunrber count of the number of invalid words is 0 unless the page has of scans averaged to produce the page. The tast word number to a partidjgitally filtered in which case it contains a reference been
cul

ar we'ighti ng funct'ion '

(INDX) and prints the A subroutine DUMPX reads through the index file stored. A typical index printout index entries of those pages on which clata'is produced by DUMPX is shown in Figure 11'L0' Anotherma.intenancesubrout.ineIRASE(PBEG,PLEN) These pages are thett ignored PLEN pages beginning at page PBEG to zero' DUMPX and can be considered as unused'

sets the index entries of

bY

Lt.?

tabular form and on 0utput of data from the data fjle RSTAR, both'in DSCAN(UNIT'PBEG'PLEN)' punched cards, is performed by a Fortran subroutine is zero' the output is in tabular Four forms of output are available. If UNIT are printed sicre by s'ide, twerve form on the f.ine pr.inter. Data and its frags (360 data/flag pairs) occupies pairs being printed per 1ine. Data from one page printed' one line containing thirty lines of pginted output. Before each page is outputs PLEN disk all of the index data for that page is written' DSCAN thjs form of output is An example of pages of data, commencing from page PBEG.
shown

in Figure 11.11.
of output,

is +1' on punched cards, is produced if UNIT the unserective nature of the unfornratted As mentjoned in chapter 10, because of form is not suited to the produced by a direct dump from the disk, this output to card I'IRITE statement is used requ.irements of DSCAN. A standard Fortran per eighty column card' Thirty twelve sixteen-bit combined data/flag words punch and each set is preceded by a single cards are punched per disk page outputted, card punched r'l'ith the page index data'
The second form

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?54. The remaining output forms, procluced when UNIT 'is negative' are reduced tabular outputs for manual plotting. l'Jhen data has been processed by a d'igital filter, then its frequency spectrum is greatly reduced and it can be specified by fevler samples than the ravr data. This is an advantage tthcn plotting records

manually, as plotting s'ix data points per minute can become laborious. l'lith UNIT equal to -1; DSCAN takes one value from each set of three adjacent values, and produces only twenty data values front each sixty-word record. The f'lag worcfs are lot outputted under these c.ircumstances. l,J'ith UNIT equal to'2, a similar form is produced, but the twenty data values printed are the average of each set of three adjacent values in a record. Twenty data values are written per ljnen and only s'ix lines are requ'ired for each djsk page of data'

11.3

The Storage

of

Data from Punched q{ds-

of storing data from cards, previously punched by DSCAN (1,PBEG,PLEN), on to the disk file RSTAR is much more simple than the storage of paper tape data, as no check for errors is required. The input'is assutned to be in thirty-one card sets, the first card of each set containing the index data. The card storage process is initiated by the call CALL ST0CD(PBEG,PLEN)' It js assumed that PLEN thirty-one carcl sets wjll be ready in the card reader. ST0CD reads the data from the first card and stores this as the index file of page pBEG. The next five cards are then read (60 combined data/flag words) and are written in the first record of page PBEG. Fjve more five card sets are then read, one set at a tinre, and the data written in the retnain'ing five records of page PBEG. Another index card'is then read, and the data stored at the index file location for page PBEG+I. The next th'irty cards are read and storecl in the six reconds of page PBEG+I. This process is continued until PLEN pages of data have been stored.
The operation

Before returning to the calling program, ST0CD the new data file index.

calls

DUMPX

to print

out

11.4

The Graphical 0utput Progratn

subroutine CHART(PBEG, PLEN,SIZE) produces a graphical output of the form described in section 10.33. CHART plots PLEN pages of data' starting from page PBEG,2 data pages being p'lotted per printer page' Each page of data is plotted with a t'ime axis one hundred and twenty characters long, and rvith an amplitude resolution of tvrenty-five characters peak-to-peak. The parameter SIZE in the calling sequence determines the amplitude scale. The twenty-five character peak-to-peak cleflection of the chart corresponds to JSIZE'
The Fortran

255.

axis, and to Three data points are combined at each position on the tinre three po'ints are simulate the plot produced by an analogue pen recorder, these the minimum to represented by a vertical line of asterjsl<s (*) extending fronr grid conthe maxirnum of the three data values. CHART also prints a coordinate (') at ten minute sisting of a zero amp'litude axis (-) and vertical tjme axes intervals. The time axes are labelled, and each printer page is headed wjth CHART is shown in data cbtained from the index file. A typical printout from
Fi

gure

11

.12.

l'lhen called' CHART The graphical output flovlchart is shown in Fjgure 11'13' the printer page' reads the index data for the first page to be plotted and heads and the combined The data from page PBEG (360 words) is then read into an amayn by CHART and data/flag words decoded by UNPAK. The f'lag vrords are not used peak to peak are discarded. To bring the clata into the range of 25 characters (t12) each data value is multiplied by a factor ll/sl7E. If SIZE has been

falls outside the range inappropriately chosen, and any of the nrodified data data value t12, then jt is ljmited to these extreme values' To allocate each values are subto a printed line posjtion in the range l rlo 25, the modified printed in line 1' and tracted from thirteen. A data value of +12 rvill then be a value of -12 will be printed in l'ine 25'
jnto 120 groups of 3' two After d.ividing the 360 modified data values these groups' indicator arrays, MAX(120) and MIN(120) are set for each of group of three' and MAX(J) is set to the smallest modjfied value of the 'lth group. MIN(J) is set to the largest modjfied value of th'is

A1.20-wordarrayl'lAP.isusedtoprintthechart.Initia.|ly,theent.ire code for a blank' except one hundred and t;enty words are set to the printer used for the tjme the 1st, zlst,41st,61st, Blst and 10lst words which are printer code for a period (')' coordinate grid. These six words are set to the If tlJith LINE equal to L, each of the indicator arrays is then examined' an asterisk (*) . I'lhen LII'IE=I LINE=I,|AX(J), MAP(J) is set to the printer code for jn those MAP's where then LINE/MIN(J)+1 and after asterisks have been placed all be printed in this first MAX is 1, the l{AP array is printed. An asterisk will or greater than line at all those locatjons where a scaled data value was equal to +I2. The sjx vertjcal axes wjll also hre printed'inless they have been overvritten program branches back by an asterisk. LINE is then incremented to 2, and the 'is to an asterisk' to I (Figure 11.13). Again if LINE=MAX(J) then MAP(J) set
IfLINE=MIN(J)+IthenMAP(J),whichmusthavebeensettoanasteriskona it corespollds to previous ljne, is restored to e'ither a blank' or a period if
a

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CHART'

257.

t,1AF (J)

{f

ll

-+

Fig.ure 11.3:

CHART

flowchart; the graphica'l output routine'

a58.

vertical axis position.

is pr^inted' and iLtrNE incremented' been prepared for prrinting' the The proCess conti'nues unljl the MA'P array has axis' Any ef the thi,rteenth line, the line corresponding to the eero amplitttde
$nce

agafn

FIAP

period (i'e" those co-n120 I4AF'S Which do not conta,in eJthetl an asterisk on a MAP is then taining blar,rks) are set t0 the printer code for a dash '(-)' blank's' CttART p inted, and those MP's containing dashes are restored to tWelve lines corresponding to then regumes in its previous manner to print the

the negative amPlitudes.

prints the times Af,ter the twenty-fifth line has been written, CHART data is to be plotted' then cHAR'r corresponding to the vertical axes. If more sarne printer page as the first. reads another page of data and p]ots this on the headed and If a th.ird page of data ls to be plotted then a new prlnter page is the process continued.

is heavily maffed by the inte,rferometer data, especia'lly the raw data which then the variation noise. when data has been processed (fitter.ed & averaq'ed) the output is very sirnilar to that' amongst the t,hr,ee-v$olld sets is much les,s and of each astenisk corresponding to the avqrage value Bnoduced by plotting a single
group

Thisformofotttputwasfoundtogivethebestgrap.hica]representationof

of

thv^ee.

259.

CHAPTER

1.?

nterferometer

The computer progrants developed chapter 10 (reiection, averaging and

perfornt the analys'is outlined in filtering) are descrjbed in t'his chapter' CHAUV has together with details of their developtnent. A Fortran subprogram a nrodifjed form of been developed to remove data marred by nojse spikes us'ing records to Chauvanet's criterion. As it is necessary to average collateral after undesirapply this cpiterjon, CHAUV also produces an averaged output' can be used able data has been rejected. Another Fortratt subprogram AVRG The to average several collateral records vrithout performing any reiection' the moving alternative form of reiectjon analysis nrentioned in chapter 10, operate on a single record window calculation of standard deviations, which can iS performed at a tjme, is performed by a subpfogram REJEK. As nO averaging records are to by this progl.am, the subprogram AVRG niust be used if several be averaged after being analysed by REJTK'

to

performed by a Fortran subroutine is defined FILTR. This program does not use a specifjc weighting funct'ion; th'is weighting in the catling sequence. A disk file has been allocated for severa'l functions, any of which may be used by this program'
The

digital filtering of the input data is

12.L The Rejection of

Datq- t''lgrleg

Extraordi

na

Noi se:

(a)

By Consjderation

of

Collateral. Data Poi nts

on

Criterion (Smart,1958), mentionecl in Chapter 10' is based a certain djstance the likeljhood of a particular sarnple of some quantity falfing sarnp]es are from the mean of all such samples available, assumjng that these a sarnple fal'ling normally distr.ibuted about their mean. If the probability of of samples' a certa'in distance from the nean is less than Lz for the given number
Chauvenet's

of the mean' This then such samples should be rejected from the calculation the mean' as criterion can be expressed in terms of a maximum deviation e from
N(;) = q#
where m

(12.1)

N(t) js the normal distribution funct'ion' 1<ms30 is given in Table 12.1.

is the number of samples concerned, o is their standard

deviat'ion, and A tabl e of e1a as a function of m for

260.

C
n1

e
m

.68 1.15 1.38

1 1

11
T2

2.00 2.04 2.07

2L

2.?6 2.28 2.30 2.32 2.33 2.35 2.36 2.38 2.39 2.40

2?
?3

3
4

13

.53
.65

14 15 16
T7 1B

?.n
2. t3

24 25 26 ?7 28 29

5 6
7
B

r.73
1.81
1 1

2.r5
2.17 2.?0 2.72 ?.24

.86
.91

9 10

19

.96

20

30

Tabl

12.1

The maxinutn perm'i ssi b'le clevi ati on

(./o)

according to Chauvenet's criterion, given number of samPles (m).

for

must be appreciated in the applicatjon of th'is criterion, that the inclusion of one discorclant sample in a mean nny shift the mean by such an extent that the deviations of the renrain'ing satnples are unacceptable. For this reason, only one sample should ever be reiected in olle application of the criterion, and this wjll be the sample for vrhich the devjation from the mean is the greatest. The new ntean and nevr standard deviation corresponding to the rennining samples should then be calculated, and the criterion reapplied

It

to these poi nts.

To perform th.is rejection on the interferometer data requires the simultaneous consideration of all m Scans to be averaged. For each set of collateral data points, the nrean and standard deviation must be calculated. If each scan .is n data points 1ong, then there r.rjll be n sets, each of nt collateral points' and The rnean of each set must then be subtracted from each member of the set, the maxjmunr deviation occurring in the set compared rvith tlre standard devjation the set rnultiplied by e/o from Table I2.1. If the maximum deviation in the

for

excess of th'is quantity, the samp'le corresponding to thjs ntaxinum deviation should be rejected by setting its flag to zero' The new mean and new standard deviation should then be calcu'lated for the relraining data points of gre set and gre criterion reappliecl. l,Jhen the criterion has been applied to the

set is in

26t.
declared invalid set l,lith no further points rejected, all tvords vrhich have been tlre set (ttreir f'lags should be rep.raced by the mean of the renraining points of to the next collateral should still remain at zero) and attention should then move set. l.lhen the process has been completed, the scan formed by the mean of the of the data file' acceptab'te points should be r'rritten'in a specifjed area samples ensures Replacing rejectecl values by the mean of acceptable collateral sonre data that a continuous plot of the scan concerned can be made, even though values ntaY have been rejected.

all

of the subroutine CHAUV developed to perform this reiection and PANS; is shown jn Figure 12.1. The calling parameters are PBEG, PLEN, NSET, long'
The flowchart

PLEN pages are integer numbers. ctlAuv analyses NSET scans, each PLEN pages start'ing the first starting at page PBEG, and wrjtes the average in contained in an from page PANS. The ntax'imunr deviations of Table 12'1 are ChiAUV can array ERR0R, vrjth an index m (j.e., ERROR(m) = e/o for m sanrples) ' The interferometer data ana'lyse a maxirnunr of thirty collat,eral scans at a t'inre. is prois retained in jts integer form in the computer, and the averaged scan of round-off errors' duced jn a similar form, but to prevent the accumulation po'int decjmal form' inte^nediate sums and averages are calculated in floating

taken up by the data then for thirty scans, 1800 rtorcls of core storage t'til1 be the data one record at from a collateral set. The alternative to this, readjng deviations' Would a time, and accuntulating totals for averages and standard of the require each record to be read three tinres during each app'l'ication deviatjon' crjterion; once to read the data and calculate the ntean and standard third to reject the maximum once to calculate the jnd.ividual deviations, and tlre

file cannot be read in un'its of less than one disk record (sixty words), and'if all collateral scalls are to be considered simultaneously'
Data from the disk

1130 contputer has a deviation if it exceedecl the calculated linrit. Because the use the first method' large core store avajlable (16,000 words) it vras decided to for each record to be wh'ich requires only a single disk read/write operation the criterion' analysed, irrespective of the number of applications of

called, CHAUV first checks that NSET is not greater an array IDATA proceeds to read the fjrst record of each collateral scan'into ciata (60, ltsET). The first vtord frorn eaclt record (i'e', tlte first collatera'i the flag words are set) js then transferyed into a working array IX(NSET)' and j iX(llSET) s summed to produce separated 'into a second vlork j ng array N0(llSET) ' calcuiated as SUI'ISQ' The number SUl,l, and the sum of the squares of IX(NSET) is
trJhen

than 30' then

262.

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AV,R'&

Fsck NUll

rvr th J0AtrAt L

Fidure 12.1: CttAUV fJowchart; the # cha.uvenetts el.ite't":ion

rejection routine based ort (cil l,aterai compari son) .

263.

of points contributing to these sums, t'lul4, 'is the suntrnat'ion of NO(NSET) . Frotn these sums, the standard deviation STDV attd mean AVRG are calculated for this collateral data set. The mean is then subtracted frorn eaclt metnber of the set'
the nnximum deviation from the mean DMAX calculated, and the scan number (INDEX) at r^rhich it occurs js noted. The permissible dev'iation ADEV is calculated from the standard deviat'ion and the corresponding term in the ERROR array, and thjs is conlpared vrith the nraxjnrunt devjation DMAX' If DMAX is greater than ADEV, then the flag of the data concerned IN0(INDEX)1 is set to zero, and the mean ancl standard dev'iation for the rentaining members of the set recalculated. 0nce aga'in the maximun <leviation from the mean is calculated and encountered compared vrith the nel permissible deviation. llhenever a zero flag is in the calculations the corresponcting data rrorcJ is replaced by the current value

of

AVRG.

lr,lhen DMAX, the rnaxirnum dev'iation,'is found to be less than the perm'iss'ible deviation ADEV, then each of the NSET IX+l{O pairs are recombined and returned to their posjtions in the IDATA array. The current Value of the mean AVRG is combined wjth a flag of the valid vrord count for the set, NUM, and sLored in an array JDATA(60). The next rvord from each record (i.e., the next collateral data set) is then trattsferred into the urorl<ing array IX(I{SET) and the process

until all 60 sets have been checked and their average stored in JDATA' The array IDATA(60,i,lSET) is therr vlritten back on to the disk in the first record of the relevant scans, and JDATA(60) is written in the first record of the scan answer area, specifiect by PANS. The second record from each collateral is then read jnto IDATA(60,NSET) and the entire process repeated'
repeated,
Wlren

six collateral record sets (360 collateral data point sets) have been treated in this way, the index entries for the corresponding pages are modified to include the reiected vtord counts, and an jndex entry is wrjtten for the pages' averaged page. The process is then repeated on the next set of collateral until all PLEN pages of each collateral scan have been examined, and the average written in the allocated pages.
'in Tabl e 12.L' has been This program, using the pernrissible errors Iisted found to perform satisfactorily when averag'ing more than ten collateral scans, but to be unreliable, and often too severe jn the rejection of data' when at operating on only a small number of scans. CHAUV depends on there being least two rel'iable members in any collateral set, as the deviations of tvlo points about their mean js a'lvrays equal to thejr standard deviation, and as e/o

264.

for

m=2

is

1.15,

when

only two points remain in a set, neither

will

be reiected'

Thereasonforthefailureofthecriterion.inthe case of a smal I numlrer e from an ofobservationsobviously]iesinthefactthatsucha smal I samPl j based on probabilitY. i nf i ni te popul ati on does not iust'ify a criter on for a snrall In an effort to reduce any tendency to severjty of the criterion va'lues of Table I?'L has been number of observations, a correction factor for the of tlte mean i of a sarnpie developed by the following reasotting. The dist'ibution deviation o' of size n taken from an infjnite population of mean U and standard

itself is a randonr variable vrjth a mean p and standard deviation ol6 a s'ingle set of m samples and Freund, 1965). Thus the calculated mean i from front will quite likely deviate from the true mean of the infinjte popu'lation devia(ptitter
rvh.ich

that the the samples were taken, by up to 0.68o/ffi'* This inrplies to l0.6$o/ffi frorn the tions calculated for each data po'int nray be in error by up error nay have on devjation about the true mean. Ignoring the e'tfect that th'is it seems that the the calculated standard cleviation' as a first order correction by 0.68/ffi-to rinriting values of e/o given in Tabr e rz.1 should be increased the uncertainty in the ensure that data is not erroneously rejected, as this'is ca1 culated deviations.
Themodifiedrejectioncr.iterioncanbeexpressedas
e'
o

. -t .t- 0.68

fr

(rz.?)

where

N(

t)

4rn-1 = ---=4m

and where

e' i s the

for
Tabl

m observations.

maximum Permissible dev'iat'ion under A tabl e of e'lo as a functjon of m

the

modi f i

ed cri teri

on

for

1<x<30

is given in

e t?..2.
This cpiterjon,
vlhen

CHAUV applied to m co]lateral scans by the subroutjne of those points (m>10), has been found generally to result in the rejection analogue record' In the case correspondinq to obvious interference spikes on the in its of less than ten scans, 6HAUV 'is found to be generally conservative unjustified reiection' rejection of noise spikes, however it very seldom makes an

* This is the range of iforvthichtheprobabilityofoccurrencejsgreaterthan

l-r,
assumi

ng

that

i s normally

distributed about u'

265.

1 1

.36 .63

11 |

2.21

zt
22 23 24 25 26
27

2.41 2.43 2.44 2.46

?.47

? 3

t2 |
14 |

1.77 L.87
1

13 |
15 I
16 |

z.zq z.zo
2.28 2.30 2.32 2.34 2.36

4
5 6 7
B

.95 .06

2 .01
2

2.48 2.49 2.50 2.51 2.52

t7 |

2.t0 2.t4
2.LB

rB |

28
29

le I
20 |

z.rs
?.40

10

30

Table

The naximum permissible dev'iation accordi ng to the rrrocli f i ed cr i teri on for a given number of samPles m'

12.2:

(;')

12.2 The

Re

ection of Data l'larred

Extraord'ina

No'ise:

of Sequential Data Points sky The reiection nrethod used jn the preparation of the 0hio 1415MHz was to calculate survey (Dixon dnd l.rrauS, l-968; Kraus, Dixon and Fisher, 1966) data points and a running value of the standard deviation for six consecut'ive to compare this with a predetertn'inecl I inrit. If tlre calculated deviation and was rejected' exceeded this value, thett the peak li/as assumed tO be spurious
By Consideration

(b)

analysis of A subroutine REJEK has been developed to perform a reiection in the flowthe interferometer data based on this method. Theprqram is shown and LIMIT' chart of Figure 12.2. The ca]1ing paranteters are PBEG' PLEN' NSET on the disk file starting I{SET scans, each PLEN pages long, stored sequential]y deviation at page PBEG, are processed. Those po'ints for which the standard

in all) exceeds the calculated for that point and the preced'ing five (6 points by linear parameter LIMIT are rejected and replaced with values obta'ined .interpolation between adiacent data pojnts. There is no linrit on the number of 'in one call, but if the scan length which can be processed by REJEK
scans

is discontinuous exceeds f.ive pages (tive hours of data) then the rejection and if spurious values across the boundaries of each five-page set from one scan' occur near these boundaries, they may not be rejected'

266.

In additjon to providing continuity for plotting the processed data' replacing spurjous values by linealinterpolation has been found to produce

the

best rnoclified value for use in the calculat'ion of the deviations of subsequent data points wh'ich involve the spupious value (the next five points). When an jndjunacceptable standard devirbjon occurs, or if a zero flag'is found r'rhich data cates data previously declared invaljd in the storage process, then that is replaced by f.inearly interpoiating between the last acceptable value and the next data po'int (it is not known at this stage lvhether the next po'int is yet since acceptab'le or not). Any other spurious Vaiues prior to this point' the last acceptable point, are a'lso replaced by this interpolatjon' Eventually joining the the entjre rejected section is replaced by the straight fine
bordering acceptable values.

called, REJEK first detennjnes t^lhether 0r not the scan length is greater than five pages. If PLEN 'is glreater than five then each scan is broken up into sections of five pages or less, t'tltich are treated as indjvidual scans. A set of five pages or less (a nrax'imum of 1800 data points) is then read jt into an array IX(1800). This array is so arranged that can be addressed to IX(-4) and IX(1s01). The five points before the first data value tIX(-4) to IX(0)l are set equal to the fjrst value tlX(1)1, and the po'int after the last .data value is set equal to the last d.rta value. Starting with IIIDEX=I' the flag word of IX(INDEX) is read. If this is not zero' then the standard deviation of the six data values IX(INDEX-5) to IX(INDEX) is calculated' If this devjation exceecls LIMIT, olif the flagr^rord r,vas initially found to be zero' then a counter FLAG, initially zero, is'incremented by 1, and the data values
when

IX(I1DEX) are replaced by interpolation betvteen IX(INDEXa f'lag vrord FLAG) and IX(Il,lDEX+l). Each of these values is then packed vlith of zero, INDEX is incremented by 1, and the process repeated for the next data value. When a valid vrord is encountered and the standard deviation falls with'in page botrndary the acceptable l'irnit, the counter FLAG is reset to zero' As each the index entry for that page is modified to include the
IX(INDEX-FLA6+1)

to

is crossed tIX(A.360)l
new

invalid word count. l,lhen all of the data read'into IX has been processed, it is wrjtten back on to the d.isk and the next set of five pages or less is read and
processed.

has been foun<l to be very effic'ient'in reiecting extraordjnary no'lse for cornparison, spi kes frorn isolated scans, vrithout requ'iring co'llateral scans at the beginn'ing of a scan a1 though i n its present fonn, a no'ise spike occurring is accepted at the expense of the rejection of a number of subsequent valid data
REJEK

267.

MAX

$FLEN

+4,1

trX'.tlNtEX-FLA6*
I X( INEIEX.FLAGI

M x UIFIF

NFACE

NPAf,

F,I"EN- 5r I MAX,-

NrD

ts300x

P.IP*GE

FAGE*FBG.

(L

- llx
Ertry fon Fhge
paGE.+ t(

-t

Writc
tNtlEx

NFAGE

Pogis Bsek on Disk ot

L + 360r(K-l

|t

ix( lNDExt

eornEut$ s1&nddr,d OEv-

:iiifion,

Sf0v'

F-o,ri

lN(lNIDEX-.5) to tl{INDEX I

S'lfEU >X-l$,1:

OfFF+IINl:lN0EXr

1),

-tx{lNoEx-FtA )t

/lFLAGr

11

Fiqure ----- 72.2: RE'J'[K flcr*archart; son. seque,ntial comPari

the reiection routtne,based

on

268.

points. This js not of vjtal concern, as the extremes of a scan do not normally a gain contain data of interest. l^lith the present in'Lerferometer configurat'ion, the of twenty at the input to the ana'logue-to-digita'l converter fully ut'il'izes linriting standard deviation dynarnic range of the systent, and with this settillsJ, a sp'ikes' of 20 has been found to be a suitable criterion for the rejection of noise
a large 12,3a shows the Orjginal unprocessed data' with this record' ca'lcunoise spike occurrjng at 13h 57m. The standard deviation of points where the oven six clata points, is plotted in Figure 12'3b' Those
The operation

of the subrou.L'ine REJEK is

demonstrated 'in Fjgure 12'3'

The

soljd line in Figure

lated

by FIEJEK and standard dev.iat'ion exceeded the perameter LilllT vrere rejected line in Figure 12'3a' replaced by'linear interpolation, as shown by the broken
l^lhen

a large number (tro) of collateral scans are available for comparison' but jt must be the subroutine CIIAUV produces simjjar results to REJEK' the effect of a point on rernembered that the criter-ion used by CHAUV consiclers towards producing the average of a number of simjlar points, ancl is thus d'irected jndividua'lly' the best average scan, rather than cotrsideling each scan
ChaPter 13, the cPerat'ion of the two subroutines, REJEK examjned and a comparison ntade of thejr relative Performance'
The Averagi
n

'In

and

CIIAUV'

is

l?.3

of Several Colt@

in the flowchart The Fortran subroutine AVRG(pB[G,PLEN,NSET,PANS) shown w'ithout of F'igure L2.4 has been developed to average NSEI collateral scans' identical processing the data in any other way. Its operatjon is practically be PLEN pages long to theaveraging portion of CHAUV. Each set is assumed to
and

stored sequentially in the disk file starting from from PANS' PBEG. The averaged scan 'is written in PLEII pages starting

all

sets are

assumed

page

collateral a collateral record from each scan' and sums the 60 AVG(L)/NUM(L) sets jn AVG(60) and their flags in NUM(60). The sixty averages into IDATA(L)' are then calculated and packed with NUM(L) as the flag rvord is If NUM(L) is zero (i.e., no valid urords in a collateral set) then IDATA(L) correspond'ing set to zero. This affay'is vmitten back on to the disk in the of the averaging record of the area set aside for the average' 0n the completion page' of a set of collateral pages, an'index entry is rnade for the averaged
AVRG reads

As

with

CHAUV, AVRG weights each data

point according to

its flag word'

259,

dccgptoble vq[t!e.5

,neieetd

vrqtuc,s

reptoccrnent sectton

|N? l') .. (rr

r-

Figule 1?.3:

The operation of RE,IEK (a) The data' and (b)

removing d noise spike. the standard deviation.

in

270.

wr;t? IDAIA{60 ot Jlh Rcrord in lthPoge of

I r ---L-] -______L_._ r-I/rronr trhn"ccrri /

fnii" r;i:,@
lrt'Poge.

\in

\-$:"' J

ct

fl,i -l-- ,-l

'-

- -;T-

Figure 12..4:

AVRG

flotrchart; tfic record

averagjng routine.

27t.

together to and thus two different but collateral averaged scans can be averaged This form a grand average with the comect r,reighting appl ied to each scan. produces a result identical with that vlhich would have been produced by averaging

all of the original

12,4
The

data at once.

Digital Filter

in Chapter 5 that ttre filtering of a function U(f), vlhich is usually consjdered in tlre frequency domajn as the multjplicat'ion by a filter transfer function H(f), can be perfornred in the time domain by a digital filter' u(t) A djgjtal filter produces the convolution'integral of the time varjation of the function with the Fourier transform h(t) of the transfer function (h(t)) is the impulse response of the fjlter). The convo'lution integral can be the considered as a ,moving vrindow rre'ighted average' of the input function u(t) , be weiglrts being determined by h(t). A zero phase shift digital filter can

It

vras shovln

represented mathematical

lY bY
N

vo(to) =

Bk = B-k

ol_*uk.v(to+KT6),

and where yo(to+Kt.) are sanrples of the jnput function taken at intervals TO' yo(to) il tt. oitput of the fitter corresponding to the sarnple y(to). tn: values ni rorm the weighting functjon of the digital filter and can be obtained from the 'impulse response h(t) bY

Bk = Td.h(KTd)

effect of truncating the inrpulse response of a filter to produce a jt realistic weighting function was stud'ied in Chapter 5, and was shown that a truncat'ing good approxjmation to the ideal low-pass fjlter could be obtained by its impulse response to tl/fo in order to make it physically real'izable' The the longer the weighting functjon used hovrever, the better the approximation to
The

'ideal

filter,

and the sharper the cut-off

factors are sign'ificant jn the consideration of how long a weighting function should be. These are (1) the quantjty of data it is convenient to involve jn a single calculation, determined by the available computer storage capab'ilities and operating speed, and (2) the quantity of data which can be places defined as the reg.ion of interest. It is this second consideration which 'length in thjs appf ication' several an upper l.imjt on the wejghting function and thus thousand words of computer memory are available for data storage'
Two

?7?.

rve.ighting functions thousands sarnples

of words long can be readily accon[nodated, but as the quantity of data of interest is nornully not much longer than a few hundred

of 'little

(1 hour,s data
value.

is 360 sarnples),

then such long weighting functions are

In view of the transfer functions calculated for various truncated filters in Chapter 5, it was decided that the digital filter should be capable of of applyi ng utei ght'i ng funct'ions of up to t:5/f o seconds ong ' l{owever because the non-ideal characterjslics of such a fitter, fo should be -50% higher tlian the highest data frequency. For the specified upper data frequency of 0'003H2'
1

a tvei-qhting functjon -11000 seconds'long, and as samples are at ten-second intervals, the longest rve'ighting function required wjll be 201 wei ghts l ong .

this

nreans

bed A d.igi ta1 f i I ter j ng subrouti ne FILTR(PBEG,PLEN,PANS ,NI'IATE,LENTH) , descri in the flolvchart of Fjgure 12.5, appl ies a weiglrting funct'ion (2 x LEIITH +1) the weights'long to PLEN pages of data startjng from page PBEG, and writes filtered data in PLEN pages startjng from page PANS' Up to twenty different

file weighting functions can be acconimodated jn a specially allocated disk functjons IIATEF of tr,venty 201-word records. NI'JATE specifies which of these is to be used by its record number, ancl LENTH determjnes tlte number of weights
i nvol ved
.

to An array IX(280) 'is used to store the data required by the filter produce the output for one record (60 words). After reading three sixty-word produces records into IX(101*2g0) and setting IX(r*tO0) equal to IX(101)' FILTR the fjrst output record corresponding to the data at IX(101*160)' To calculate

the output correspond'ing to the fjrst data point the weighting functjon is the applied to data values fronr ix(101-LENTH) to IX(10i+LEl'lTH). (IX(10i)) is first input data point), For the second output point, data values from jnvolved, and thus in producing one output IX(102-LENTH) to IX(102+LENTH) are For the record, data values from IX(tot-LrNrH) to Ix(160+LENTH) are required. IX(260) are required. maximum length filter (tENtH=tO0), values from IX(1) to

After vrriting this first record in the specified data area on the disk' for each IX value is shifted 60 places dovttr the array (i.e., IX(L)*IX(L+60)

the program L=L,2?0) and the next record is read jnto IX(221+280). Once again on the produces an output record corresponding to IX(101-+160) and I'Jrites this disk. The program cont'inues in this fashion until the last but two output

273.

(.
Wri
o

tc
t

5ti t(n)

Recot C

NAIIS

tr\

ri

En

te try

In dcr

for

Poge Just

I
I

lP :

PLft'l

Write

Me

ssogc

on Printa-r

L
I

a K:

,"n\

l"lA).

tlc, >->, i\ -

,1,J0 _2.

t-.-

Fi

gure 12. 5: FILTR

flowchart; the digital filtering rout'ine'

274. The last inrput record has been P:t"odueed and the data shifted doun the IX a'rray'' is availabile record was rea6 on'the previotts o.ccasion and nob, no further data

for]ocations.IX(221+2,80).Toproducethe.sameeff-ectasatt'hebeginningof to the sean! t,he s,can,, assuming the ir.rput corrrstant fsr LENTH points prior outp.ut of the fi'nal IX'(2?1+280) are set to Ix(220), as they are again before the
record

'-

ghti ng functi on For a da.ta cut-off frequency of 0.003112' a step-1p'g6aa'ted wei fo=0'005H2 obta'lned from the inpr'l1se response of' the i'deal levl-pqss filter with filter is has beetn found to p'tnoduee satisfactory results' The action of this ftlnctio'n' descrlbed in ChaBter 13. An idea:l integrating Iow-pas's filter wej,ghting rangn has also been which is constant ovjer the nange +T7, and zero out'isde th'is used. However to produce a minimum distortion of the data, t,tr,e signal-to-hoise bY the idaal lolv'ratio cannot be incneased by such an extent ag that ach'ieve{il
pass

filter.

R]EFERENCES

Study at DIX0N, R.S,, and KRAUs, J.D, (196S): "A High-Sensitivity 1415MHz pp' 381-407' Nor.th Declinatio,ns Between l,g0 and 370", Astron0m, J., ZlKRAUS,

J.0., DIX0N, R.S., and FISHERe R.0. (feee1: New High-Sensitivity of the M3l Region at 1415 Flc/s". Ap. J., 144 Bp' 559-567'

uA

Study

l,lItLER,

I.,

fo,r EnginQfs(' and F',REUND,.1.E. (1965): 'lPro,bability and StatiFt'ies (Prentice-Hal 1 n New JerseY),

SllART,

}|.!1, (195S): "Combinatj:on of 0bservations". (C'U'P'

, CambridEe) '

275.
CHAPTER 13

Some

0bservational Results

In this chapter the effectiveness of the data processing system evaluated by a study of some results obtained. During February 1971, sixteen transitsofcentaurusA(areso=!3:22:20'6rruo=-42o46')wererecordedon paper tape. These recorcts have been examined for spurious noise sp'ikes'
averaged, and
pages.

js

fjltered,

and the results obtajned are described

jn the following

13.1

The

Acquisition and Storage of the

Data

Figure 13.L shows the analogue chart records of tlo of the transits used in the analysis. The antenna arrays were directed at the zenith 16 = -370) and the post-detection RC filter tjme-constant was tl'tenty seconcls. The recorder sensitivity was 400nrv peak-to-peal<. The time marks above the trace are loca'l sidereal tranhour marks supp.l'ied by the clock-pu1se source described in Chapter 7' The si ts occurred at approx'inrately 4 a .rn. I ocal time ' During all of these observations the occurrence of interference spikes was high, forming an almost regular pattern. These spikes significantly marr both of the records shown, and it'is obvious that sorne means of removing them is requ.ired. The average peak-to-peak no'ise level is approx'imately one quarter of the peak-to-peak signal deflection. Assum'ing that this noise level is the same as that during the observation of the Crab l{ebula shown in Figure 4.8, which was found to be 1200 x 10-26p/nr2ll1z peak-to-peak, then this suggests an observed

flux density of

2400

t}-2sy1162/Hz

for

Centaurus A'*

Three hours' data was recorded on paper tape for each tratrsit. The acquis.itjon process was started autonratjcally by the clock-pu'lse source start/stop program at lzh I ocal sidereal t'inre (^3 a.m. local time) and was terminated at lsh L.S.T. The s'ixteen transits ana'lysed were recorded on three tape files; #26 containing four transits, and wjth a b'lock length of sjx sanrples, #30 containing

five transits, also with a block length of six samples, and #33 containing trans'its recorded wjth a block length of thirty samoles. The gain of tlte
of Centaurus A published by Shklovsky (1960) jndicates a flux (Kraus' 1966) densi ty of i200 x 1g-ze p7n'z /Hz at 2001'11-lz, but other results
*The spectrum suggest a higher figure.

seven

?76.

1; i,;, I f-l i. *,' t' 'l ';:,',"i.,,, It. ' 'l , , i , ..:r ir. '.1 ii-t ' ',;',f | | tr. 'l

i'r.-.;.1

!'

-i ri ! - -r1 ti \ll-i
1

Fi:clui"e

13.1:

Ana],ogue ,chflFt recol^ds

of two trans'i'ts of

Centaurus A (NGC

5128).

to d = -37o; filter

Antennas we'r dirrected ti'me csnsta'nt was

twenty seconds, (a) 20th Fcbruary 1,971, (b) 21st February 1971"
anal ogue-to-di gi

ta1 converter llas et at twe,nty for all of the transits' making the dynamic range t200mV (the sahre as that of the chart records)'.
During the storage o,f these three files, which took twenty minutes-of computer tim6, no lincorrrect p-at'i:ty chanactens were encolntered. However three spurious chanacter"s, (inva'lid identif icatisn seQlrsxgs] occulined on #26" and e'leven words were declared invalid. 0n #30, fou,rteen wot"ds were decilared invalid, but no data was ]ost from #83, The sixteen three-hout" scanE were storred in fortyeight pages, of the nine(y-page disk data file RSTAR. The indrex llisti;ng of the storred data pt'oduced by DUMPX aftef the thlrd tape had been stored is
shown

in

FiEure 13.2.

of the, Data The operation of the two extt"aneous noise spike reJection subroutinesn 13'3 shows CHAUV and REJEK, is demons'tnated in Figiures 13.3 and tr3.4. Figure
13.2
The Analysis

the plot produced by the subroutine

CHART

at different stages during the

277,

d lr,
F l!

G'

o.r o o

eooooe

@.o'o a o o 9 0 0 0

Gt

at o

q o (' p o

Q or

e c' a'0 0 a t}

ct Q t>

ooQo

-+AA .f 'n"'iu'-vitl,!it\t w'r5!vr?ulr"vtvraihv''v' ntAvrrrr.6,anut.vt{tq.yrttr4anyll4ulqr"taaa;a-v';'ll tL -.a-aFF-fu+,-o' z :4 z 22Z Z z z z 1 4 4 4 4 z z a z z' z z z z z z z z z z z z' z z z. z I z, z z z z z 4. z z z 2 qJ uJ = L' (Ju ut) tJ Lt () q q u V' cr. rJ IJGJL) (J u (Jt-, u t) () q rl o u (J .n 6 () '., tJ (] J d L"l - t? l-l t2 wt tn t'r r-r r'r <-r u:cr s c', ll., rn vt 6 Vl V' tD Lt 6 6 6 6 6 A a q q q 9U tn 6 a wt it ttt tn r'i <r vr .h n vr tft .n v7 Vr v. tn w v, vr Vt ur & i!

{
v,

d dJ,r:ddd-d

s,)<

d d F d ia daAAAdaa4d

F1 A t{tr-lHddf,fgdddadad

_'_'ddd'

dddtata{

,cl

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Fiqure 13.?: The index

Iisting

produced

nV-!!{lX after the sto'rage

278.

frorr the paper analysis of the data. F'igure 13.3a'is the original data, as read directly w'ith tape, for the transjt on 21st February. Th'is can be compared noting that the Figure 13.1b, the analogue chart record of the same transit' polarity of the analogue chart is reversed (positive belol'J the zero axis)' plots are quite Although the time scale-anlpl'itude scale ratios of these tr'ro clifferent, the interference spikes are easily identified and compared'
subrout'ine Figure 13.3b shovls the same data after analysis by the reiection the o.iginal REJEK. The pronrinent trvo-sidecr no.ise spjke occurring at 13h 57m on 16m and 14h 38nt record has been completely removed, atrd others occurring at 13h instances of jnterhave been consiclerably reduced. The two retnain'ing obv'ious still v'isible ference on the original record, at 12h 35m and 13h 03m, although on the processed scan, have been significantly reduced in magn'itude'

Figure 13'3a after The record shown jn Figure 13.3c is the origina'l data of it has been processed wjtlr three similar collateral records by the subroutine cllAuv. As mentioned in chapter 12, vtith a srnall number of collateral records

its reiection' and on which to operate, CHAUV tends to be too conservative in (Fjgure 13'3a) are most of the noise spikes appearing on the original record record from 21st' comp'letely untouched. l'lowever F'igure i3.3d shows the sanre CHAUV' The February after processing with fifteen collateral records by produced by similarity betneen the results ob'bajnecl by thjs procedure and those 13"3b) is remarkable' 0n these REJEK when operating on a single record (F'igure has limited resolution plots the d'ifferences are sniall, except that CHAUV 13h 03m. more eff icient than REJEK in rt:moving the spjke at
been

jn more detail in A small portion of each of these four records is shown l-3h 20nl' covering Figure 13.4. The area examined'is that between 13h 10m and 16m' Five data the no.ise spike vrhich occurred on the original record at 13h by ljnear point.s have been rejected by.REJEI( (Figure 13.4b) and replaced 13h 16nr 40s' In interpolation betvreen the acceptable values at 13h 15m 40s and occurring at addition, tvto further points have been reiected from a m'inor spike of jnterference' closer 13h l8m 30s. Although this is not such an obvious case 13'1b does show an examination of the unprocessed data of Figures 13'3a and
ut'lusual'ly large negative maximum at
Fi gure

this point'

13.4c shows that only one data point was rejected

by

0HAUV when

operating

on

corresponds

four collateral records. The rejected value, at 13h 16rn 00s to the maximum of the sPi ke.

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operation Figure --j*r---13.3: CHART printout showinrJ the21'Februaryof CHAUV and after (a) unbrocessed data irom 1971, (b) g

REJEK;

nEirr,'(c) a after CHAUV (4),

and

(d) a after

CHAUV

(16).

280.

(o! A(tet

RE.IEK

Flgure 13.4:, Detail of th,e action of i n ,Fi Eure 13.3.

CHAUV

and REJEK

s:how'n

281.

sixteen collateral records (Figure 13'4d)' CHAUV rejected the same five data points as REJEK fronr the nraior spike' Although lvjth the replacement values are not identjcal (CHAUV replaces rejected values prothe average collateral va'lue) the sjnrilarity of the results of the two 13h 1Bm 30s was ceclures is borne out by th'is p1ot. Hot'tever the nrjnor spike at
when operat'ing on

left

untouched

bY

CHAUV.

were averaged Four records, includjng that of the transit on 21st February' the by the subroutine AVRG after they had been processed by REJTK' and the resultant averaged record js shown in F'igure 13'5a' As one would expect' aver'rged noise level has been reducccl by a factor of 2. Figure 13'5b sho;s this function used was scan after f.iltering Lry the subroutine FILTR. The rveighting of the .inrpu'lse response of the ideal low-pass fi'lter lvith a cut-off frequency (i'e" .005 Hz. This 'impulse response was step-truncated to t1000 seconds

jn Figure 5'6d' (2.g1 cosd x 10-3llz The fjlter has zero attenuation at the signal frequcncy by thit -Z.Z x l0-3Hz). Although the noise level has been significantly reduced jn f.iltering, the effect of unrejected interference spikes is apparent the wander of the fringe pattern about the zero axis' to = S/fo producing a transfer function of the form
shovln

after Figure 13.5c shows the result of averagjng all sixteen of the records first processing thenr with REJEK. The noise level has been further reduced was then from that in the average of four scans (figure i3.5a). This record profiltered by FILTR using the wejghting function previously mentioned' processed ducing the record shot'tn in Figure 13.5d. This repr^esents the final improved output of the system. The orig'ina1 signal-to-noise ratio has been digital four tjnres by averag'ing sixteen collateral records, and 1.6 tinres by the

fi I ter*.

of

of the of these records in F'igure 13.6. F'igure 13.6a shows a section The average of orig.inal record for 21st February between 13h 30nr and 13h 40m' 13'5a' this and three similar records' corresponding to the average of Figure of tvlo is shottn in F'igure 13.6b. Here the reduction jn noise level by a factor is obvjous. Figure 13.6c shows the same section of the average of sjxteen Again the collateraj recorcls, corresp0nging to the record of Figure 13'5c'
each

This stage of the processing

is sholn'in more detajl for a small section

* The noise bandr'ridth of the presampl'ing f ilter is 1/4RC = 0.0125 llz and the
'improvement producecl by f

iltering w'ith

'is noise bandwiclth of 0.005 Hz

f,6flfTffi5 = 1.6.

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printout showing operation of AVRG and FILTR; iil tnb aveiioe of foir bollateral records' (b) a itler rtlTR, (c) the average sf sixteen collateral records, and (d) c after FILTR.
CHART

283,

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284.

reductjon

two from that in Figure 13'6b is obvious' js shown in Figure L3'6d' This The fi'ltered average of all sjxteen records piot of Figure 13'5d' record is smoother than r.tould be indicated by the CHART

jn no'ise level by a factor of

The difference

is causecl by the ljrnjted

comparison

resolution

of

CHART'

of the tvro routines CHAUV ancl REJEK is shot'tn processing by REJEK F'igure 13,7. The result of averaging four records after js shown jn Figure 13.7a. Figure 13.7b sholvs the corresponding output from by Figure 13'3c' vlhen CIIAUV when processing the sanre fclur records. As shown of the interference sp'ikes CHAUV operates on only four collatera'l records, tnost
A

further

'in

are

of including unt0uched. The detrimental efFect on the averagecl record no'ise levels on these spikes is obvious from Figure 13.7b, although the average shows the the two records (a) and (b) are almost'identical. Figure 13'7c This filtering does averaged record of Figure 13.7b after filtering by FILTR' the spikes still cause much to reduce the effect of the nojse spikes, but conrparing it w'ith the abnornial deflections of the record whjclt can be seen by 13'5b' filtered average of four records processed by REJEK, sholn in Figure records is The average output frorn CHAUV when processing sixteen collateral 13'5' indistinguishable from that produced by REJEK shown in Figtrre

left

demonstrated The operat'ion of the systerr vrhen processing a s'ingle record'is are in F'igures 13.8, 13.9 and 13.i0. The three records shot^rn in Figure 13'B A on 2lst stages of the process'ing of the record of the transit of Centaurus digital record' the February Ig71. Figure 13.8a shows the original unprocessed 13'1b' The same corresponding ana'logue record of which is shovrn'in Figure processing by REJEK is sltown in Figure 13'Bb' and in c' the

record

processed

rec'rd has been filtered by FILTR, using the weighting function 'in thi s f i I tered record has been conprev.iously menti oned. The no j se I evel 35m' 13h 03rn' and siderably reduced, but the effect of t'he noise spikes at 12h filtered records 13h 57rn can still be seen. The portions of the original and jn F'igure 13'9' The probetween 13h 30m and 13h 40m are sholn'in more detail noise. cessed record is quite smooth and free from h'igh frequency

after

on 20th February Figure 13.10 shows the processing of the record obtained and the lg7ir. The original analogue chart record is shown in Figure 13'1a' Figures 13'10b and c shol unprqcessed d'igita'l record js sito;tl in Figure 13'10a' instances the record after processing by REJEK and then FILTR' Six obvious 28m,14h 10nr and at of extraneous noise spjkes, at 12h 35ni, IZh 4An,13h 23m, 13h but even after filtering 14h 13nr, have been reduced by varying amounts by REJEK'

285.

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2t

FabrunrY

1971

Unpruccssr.d

Oalo

(q)

2t

tabruory

197:l

oigitoLly Httcr.eo

the transit ilssrelSJ.t Detaill o:f the proces5jng of the reco,rd of

of

Centauius A sn 21st February

1971. (a) The sniginal record'

and (b) the record

after processl'ng by RE.IEK and FILTR'

their effe,et can stlll be seen.

should be noted that when racords ar processed by either R,EJEK or averaging' CHAUV, and unaceeptable data points are replaced by fnterpolati,on o,r the yeplacement values take.no part in su sequent avera,ging as theirn flag vlords

It

are zer'o. gowever to Brovide continuity

whenr

filtering single

uttaveraged

288.

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289.

records, the replacement values are recognisecl as val'id data points by FILTR' g'ive a true Thus the single processed records of Figures 13.8 and 13.10 do not representation of the interferonteter si-cna1 output near inbcrference spikes'

13.3

Conclusions

This thes.is establishes the limitat'ions of a snull radio telescope operating in a noisy environment ancl descrjbes the design of a digital data processjng system developed to improve the sensitiv'ity, and to present the output data in a form su1table for further analys'is. The resu'lts described in this chapter, obtained by processing the clata from sixteen observations of Centaurus A, deinonstrate thc effectjveness of the system'in perfornring this functiott'
paper tape by The sixteen records, each three hours 1ong, l',tere recorded on 350 the hardware systent. The forty-eight hours' clata occupied approximately feet of paper tape and requ'ired fifteen niinutes of computer time for storage on

no'ise a magnetic disk data file. These records were then exatnined for spurious spikes, averaged and filtered by the srrbroutjnes of the software systent' The entire processinq clescribed in this clrapter, including graphical printer output'

used seventy-nine mjnutes

of

computer time.

the signal-to-noise ratio of tlre data, especially when a number of collateral of a records are available for averaging. A]though the sigl'ral-to-ltoise ratio single record can be inrproved sign'ificant1y, large interference spikes occufing with the present telescope cause abnorrrtal deviations which cannot- be sat'isfac-

The processing system has been sirtlrn

to

produce a marked'inrproventent in

torily

removed.

Two nrethods

of reiect'ing these spikes have been developed.

tvhetl several

The

first

nrethod'

described

in sectjon 12.2, operates on a single record

collateral

the spjkes, but only

12'f is replacement value be ohtained. The second method, described in section effective only when a large nunber (tio) of collateral records are available for obta'ined coml:arison, and as there is very little difference bett'leen the results preferable' by the t;o methods under these circumstances, the first method seems
for although when a very large number of collateral recorcls are avajlable averaging, the second nrethod vrill theoretically produce the better average'

and effectively reduces recorcis are averaged can a sujtable

the dixThe overa'll signal-to-no'ise'inrprovement resu'lting from processing original teen records has been estimated at 6.5, disregarding the effect on the

290.

signal-to-noise ratio of the extraneorrs spikes. This means that the minimunt detectable flux densjty of the telescope has been reduced to 50!l/m2lHz and with the imprOvements scheduled for the system, there seenls no reason why useful
observations cannot now be
made.

REFI,RENCES

KRAUS,

J.D. (1966): "Radio Astronomy". (McGralv-l-ljll, New York) '

SHKLOVSKY,

I.S. (t9OO):
)

"Cosmic Rad'io

l,javes". (Harvard Un'iversity

Press

'

Massachusetts

291.

4PPPndir

Date Aa.qut,sitJ,on System Spesifi catiqn

At.tr
Al

The Analorgue-to-Dfdta-l .Cornyerter

rll

Inpqt

Input

range; i'mBedance:
input voltage:

*4 v,oTts fulT-se'al,, with an inpu;t amplifien to ptcovide ga'ins sf 1, 2, 5r 10' Z0 and 50' llffi.
*15 volts.

trnput

l'laximum
Res-

lution:

eight bits pluS sign, two's complement repres.entationl reduclble to gix b'its plus
si'gn and fsu-r

bits Plus sign.

Accuracy:
Aperture

:3:13

$ rull

scale.

time:

fon nine-bit resol.ution; 60 and 40 useconds respectively for seven and five bit
S0uEeconds

ressl ution.,

41.12

Outpu!

Mod:e-;

Nine-bit parallel.

Level s:,

t,.t.l ' logic leveli:s; '1r is +2'4 to +5.0 volts, !0' is 0 ts + .4 volts'
Standal"d

Al

.13

Corrtrs]

sarnpte

comrland: tndication:

External by 0+1 transition,. Manual by front* panel Push-button.

A 0*1

Data ready

transition on a 'flag' output'

-41,14 Internal
PEwer

Requirements

supplie.s:

t[5 vo]ts'
regul ated,,

200mA

regulated- +5 volts,

700mA

2s2.
C:lock:

100KHz, 0+1

logic trans,itt;on.

41.2

The ,SolarlSidere,al D-Jgiral Clock OutpUt

41.21

Resoluti

on:"' ,

0.

second's ,

['{ode: Fornrat:

84,b,it panallel,

!.G.d, (8421) of tenths-of.-seconds, seconds,

te,ns-of-seconds, minutes, tens-of-minutes, h,ouns and tens-sf-ftrou'rs.

Levels:
Accuracy:

Standarnd

t,t.l.

positive lo,gic levels.

'
Standard

Solar: Sidereal:
frequenc,ies:

t0.1 seeonds/lS weeks. r0.1 seconds/lS weeks plus a systematic emor of -0.i seconds in 70 hours.
Outputs of lMHz" 100KHz, 10KHz, l.KHzn 100 and 10He solar, and trOHz sidereal.
Hz

Display:
41,22 Control

tube display of houns minutes ahd seconds, solar or sidereal.

Six

digit gas-filted

Setttngr Advance/Retard: $tartlStop: Synchnonizat'i,on'i

42.13 Inte,rnail
Power

Slx thumbwheel switches set either clock to deslred time with onc second resolution.

Either clock ean be advanced or retarded oxe tenth of a second at a time" Either clock can be started or
tronfcal
-stoppedn

by

elec-

ly

ot^ manual

ly. to tlpsiee of
an

Cl,ocks can be sJ:ncht"oniz,ed

external ole-second tick,

Reqyifernents

Supplies:

+4 vo'lts, 2arnps regulated;+Z00

unregul,ated.

voltsr

100fiNA

2E:3.
A'2.14 .Standard
Frequency I
FTequ.encJ-0,sqi'!

latqr
SMtlz

Stability;
OutPut 0ven
Oven

'1

part i'n L0'sflueek

'

voltage:

0'7 volts r'm's

-600C

temPerature: stabilitY;
Pury-c,h,

t0'01oC

A1.3

Paper TiPq

A1.3X, InPut

Mode: l-ovels: Sources;

FortY-bit' Parallel
Standard
Ten

t't''l'

positive logic'

(unbuffered),' analogue-to-digi tal coitverterl twenty-five bits buffered for use with digital clocki five bits from switch register'

blts frsm a digital data source

A1,32 0utput

Mode: Fsnrnt: Spee'd:

A1.33 Internatr
Poruer Requlr'euents-

Eight'
words.

blts

even

parity'parallel' eight senial

Eight groups of five data ibitsr olle: parity bit

and two i dent't-fl cat*ion bi ts ' Twenty charaeters/seco.nd
rnaxitRum.

Supplies;

*5 volts,

800mA regulated

'

+27

volts

regu'lated

10.5A Pea,k,

3.1 amPs average'

Clorck:

lKHz' 0+t logic transition'

294.

Al.4

0ontrg,l
Resof4ing. Interyals

Atr.41

Sample

Interval:

Firom

l to :99 x tenths-of'56onids, seconds'

r ffii nutes,i tens-qf
-mi nutes

ten s-of -secor,tdS

hours
Eloclc length:
From

or

daYs.

l'to

90

samP'leso

A1.42 Start/Stsp
Ftesol

Pr-oslamming

uti on:

Acqrlisition p'rocess c'an be started and stopped at selected hours during the day'' $o'lat" ol^
sidereal
.

A1.5

Seven-b,it switch'rreglsten provided entry of on tape cha'racter - fi've data, tt^ro of, identi,ficatton'

for ma;nual bits of

A1.6, OutpuF faPe

Fo,nnq!

of acquisitiotl period mdrked hy a by a santple data set of characters fo'|l'oue'd -Thereafte:F a block-length of coordinatc set.
Beglnnilrrg sanrple data ,set.

sets fo,llowed by a coordinate data

295.

Appendix

Theseinstr.,uetionsaredivid.edirrt.othreesections:

AZ.1 h2.2

Start'ing the Data Acquisition System'

Recsrding Data

with the Acquisitio-n

System'

A2.3ProcessingReclordedDataintheIBMll30Computer.
the systenr should be set-up in Before tnecolding data using the system' the foll,owing sequence'.

h2.7 Ertarlting the Data AcqU'isilion S'vstem

A2,11 Sq:itching-gn
should be turned

From

0o-1d

Beforetheunitisco.nrtectedtothe2j0vol.t;litains'

all

Botrer swirches

off.

Mains sw'itches are located

pot{er-srupp-lies'

l.

oh e.ach

of the three

2.onthetapehand'lerun:it(themo'torsvriteh)'
and

3. 1. 3.

on the rear panet

of the standard frerquenclt sscillator'

See'ondary d.e

. switches are located

and 200 vslts)' two on the clock power supply (4 volts

2.twgOflthe:gene,ralpgwersupply(5vo1tsandt15vo]ts)'
sns :o0 one on

the tape

punch power suppl'y (27

volts)'

and

4.

the tape handler unit (the

,Bunch sw'itch) '

can be csnnected have been turned off (ur), the unit the three power gtrppl'ies to the 230 volt, supply and the mains switches of to do so may be on' The three neon indicato'rs should now glow' Failure por,"er supptries' turned to the prirnary fuses in the c.ause.d by a broun fuse. In addition

After these switches

afurthenfuseislo.catedintheinterfere.n.c.efi.ltelrgntheleft-handsideof

296.

the unit where the mains supply enters the cabinet'

overload ind'ithe povJer supplies have been turned on, if any of the buttons' several cator lamps are illumjnated, depress the appropr'iate reset 'i The regu I ated times .if necessary , unti I the overl oad condi t'ion s removed ' nronito.ing tenn'inals outputs of eacrr of the supplies shourd be checked at the provided on the front Panels.
when

A2.12 Starting the Stanclard Frequency 0scillator

power switch on the with the gain switch jn the'set zero'position, the rear panel should be turned on. After several minutes the temperature-error js on the'auto' (down) position' meter Should read zero jf the'heat'sv1'itch 'is provided iust behind the front panel ' An adjustment potentionreter" (116) to x.01 arrd the 'heat'switch be.Lween the nreter termina'ls. set the gain switch side' A to ,full, (up). Theerror meter should now read off-scale on the low monjtoring terminals moving iron volttneter connected to the heater vo]tage should be'indicating should read 200v r.m.s. After one hour the error meter ,heat'switch can be returnecl to 'auto'' l'lhen the error reaches on-scale and the control System should -l.oC, the gain can be increased to x1 anci the temperature for sonte tjme' require no further attentjon. If the unit has not been runn'ing it will take several days for the osc'illator to reach its final stable frequency' counter at the front The frequency can be monjtored by the l-1P5245L frequency until the final panel connector. No adjustnrent of the frequency should be made to make any adjuststable state has been reached. It should never be necessary any adiustnrent has been ments other than of the fine frequency control ' l"lhen hours' made, a stable state may not be reached for several A mains fuse

is located on the rear panel of the unit'

Cl ock

A2.13 Starti nq The Di gi ta]

If the 4 volt Turn on the 4 volt and 200 volt secondary supply svtitches. overload reset button' If supp'ly overload indicator is illuminated' press the off and reset the the overload condition persists, turn tlte secottdary si'tjtch protectjon to prevent supply, and then turn on again. The clock has built-in r'.r.ithout the other, but it sht'ruld damage caused by having one supply cotinecied not be left in th'is state for any length of tjme'
(tne a'ispl ayed time visual display register should now be i I I umi nated bloln fuse in the 200 volt may be nonsensical). Failure may be caused bv a
The

297.

supply. This fuse is located on the front pane] of the power supply'
the control panel protective cover, and holding both the solar and sidereal interlock buttons firmly down, depress the'stop'function button and the'reset'function button.
relnove

If the standard frequency oscillator js running,

The displayed t'ime should now be 00h 00rn 00s and no counting should occur' are Check that both clocks are in this:tcrte (tne aisplay-select switches

located to the right of the visual register together with their indicators)'
Holding both interlock buttons dovrn, press the 'start' function button' counts' check The vjsual reqister should now commence to accumulate one-second that both clocks are runn'ing. If one-second counting does not occur, reset the

clock concerned again, and restart. If the clock still does not start, the SMHz input from the standard frequency oscillator.
When

check

both clocks are started sintultaneously fronr 00h 00rn 00s, after a few minutes the deviation of accuntulated siderea'l time should be apparent'
has been ascertained thatthe clock is functioning coffectl;" the front-pane1 tvro tinre-keeping chains can be set to the desired times using the can then be thumbwheel sw.itches and 'Lhe 'set' function buttotr. The cl0cks started and fractional-second adjustnrents made using the 'advance' and 'retard' functi ons .
.When

it

the correct times have been estab'lished, replace the protect'ive cover over the control Panel.
when

A2.14 Starting the Analogue-to-Digital Convertsr

Turn on the 5 volt power suppiy d.c. sw'itch. If the supply indicates an turn overload condition, press the reset button. If the overload persisLs' if the d.c. switch off, reset the supp'ly, and turn the switch on again' Repeat necessary. gver'loads occur during turning-on because of the large supply decoupfing capacitors used 'in the various units' Turn on the t15 vol t power suppi 'ies d. c ' swi tch ' Reset the over'load jndicators if necessary, and'if the overload persists, turn the d'c' switch off to reset.
Connect

a sensitive d.c. voltmeter to the output of the input amplifier

298.

voltage in (vu on the front panel). with the'input shorted, check the offset position this offset is more each of the six gain-switch posit'ions. if in any is located iust than 17.BmV, adjust the input offset control. Thjs trinrpot behind the front panel; access can be obtained from the side'

offset voltage has been arliusted to give a satisfactory output for ai1 gains, tertninate the input jn a 10Kfl resjstance' Check the output t7'8mV in any posivo]tage for each gajn setting once again. If this exceeds
llhen the

input offset tion, adjust the constant-currettt-source trirnpot, located behind the
control

offset level ' llhen the input amp'l'ifier has been adiusted for a satisfactory a low frequency signal check the gain in each sw'itch position using either is provided on the genera.Lor or an adjustable d.c. supply. F'ine gain adjustnrent gain sw.itch; the trirnpot for each sett'ing is clear'ly labelled' of the converter hJith the 'incandescent display 'or'l', check the operation If no conversion using the nnnual sample button for differeirt input vo'ltages' is performed, check the 100t$lz control wa'.'eform from the digital clock'
'il the second sanrPle The over-range 'indi cator shou'ld be I unri nated after It will reset 'if instruction because the tape punch is not accepting data' the reset button i s held dovrn while a sample is taken'
The reference supply and

the control

waveforms can be nioni

tored at the

front panel of the unit.

A2.15 Preparing the
TaPe Hgndler
shows

(Reter to Plate 7, Pdge 215, which

Loosen

a tape correctlY threaded')

the drawer the thumbscrew at the top of the supply drayer and s'lide A2'1' forward. Place the unpunched tape in the dravter as shown in F'igure tape passes out through Fasten the drawer back in p1ace, making sure that the the slot at the bottom.

punch' The 'end-of-tape' Raise the tape guide over the feed sprocket of the tape anti-clockvlise through switch will also be raised by th'is actjon. Twist the Pass the tape over the 'tape90o wlrere it passes out from the suppiy drawer. feed sprocket' tight, arm and under the punch head. Loler the tape guide over the

299.

jnches of forcing the sprocket through the tape. Leave about six on the right-hand side of the punch head'

unpunched tape

8"

Suppty

--Tope
Punch

to

Fi

qure

AZ

.1":

Load'ing

a tape into the suPPlY drawer'

'if

Reset the supp'ly Turn thc secondary sw'itch of the punch por{er supply on. taPe handler on' necessary. Turn the punch switch on the front Panel of the
Check

exer I ti tirat the seven srvitch-reg'ister swjtches (on the d'i gi ta1 nru P1 of these front panel ) are at 0 (up) and that the INT-EXT switch to the right is in the INT (up) position. Depress the sr^ritch-register f'lag sw'itch. The rate of 2O/second. punch should commence to punch sprocket holes in the tape at a and the flag sw'itch' Check each data channel punch us'ing the switch register w'ill be a 0 or 1 dePending Remember that channel 6 is the parity channel , and

on the number

of bits

Punched.
and

to zero the punch'is working satisfactorily, set the sr^titch register punch three feet of blank leader tape'

If

punched taPe over the outer disk fron the take-up spool. Thread the capstan, and on to the the first capstan' under the tension arm' over the second .i the outer disk on the take-uP ta ke-up spoo't n a cl ockvti se di recti on . Repl ace
Remove

spool

.Lape-break' i nd,icator "is .il ]u. Turn the take-uP motor swi tch on. lf the is wound in' Check minated, dePress the override button until all slack tape tape' the operation of the take-up motor by punching 6" more of blank

300.

A2.2

Rec-,O:fdjng

Data with- the Acquisition System

sample and block lengthts The system nUst be,pro,gt"arnmed to give the correct present systenr; a suit&hle bloClt (s,am.ple interval rnust be ten seconds with tlre desired t'imes drlring the length is thirty samp'le-s) and bo start and stop at the day. A h,eading must allso be supplied on the tape'

AZ.ZJ,

Fro.g,r'a{rtpi

ng thE

S'y'Ftem

to thetrsTART" ir'rpttt'' connect the output A from thre cr,ock-pulse, source ,sTop, i,nput. Place the tgtart'pl'ogram card in connee,t the output ts to the B' Set the selector sw'itch' to pos'is.sc,ke,t A and. the 'stopf prograrn in socket the solar-Sidereal st+ritch te the des'ired peniod) (10 t|pn 3
second 'and
c,sordi nate.

the cloct<-pu'lse rsource to th,e time interval generato,r, and the RS output from the V6 terminal of the tine in erval generato'r'
Fatching

Gonneet 16,g 0P oUtpUt, ft"Om th,e clock-Bulse source

to the T, terminal of

of the time interval generator is as fsllows:

sA
s,B

M,r'inputs

RA

Rs

Mr output

Tp
Ys YoD

Tp
Tc

sc

M2 inPut Ma output'

'Rc
The ouLPut from Ma shottild

alsobecoRnectedtot.hesarnpleinputoftlre frun l'lz should be connected to analog,ue-to-digi ta1 converter ' and the output the 'clock flag' inPut of the mul ti P1 exer.
s.aftP;le block'' set switch For a te.n se,cond samPle intervall and a thilrty
A

301.

ts 0, switch E to l

and sw'itch C

to 3'

Set the analogu,e-to-digital conVerter word length to nine f the desired gain., Set the samp'le-mode switch to ex'ternal

bits'

and set

"

data' analogue-,to-digital co'nrrerter, and seconds for the clock

Setther"esolutions.}liitclnesonthemu]tipleNertoninebitsforthe

A2,?2 Heading the

T?Pe

.Headlng data, described in Chapter 10, is ente'red on to the tape using switches' and is the s,witch-register. The desired data is set on the Seven punched by elosing the switch-register flag switclt upwards. tformation required shown in th,e following table.
Swttch Registen B'its
PTG0
The. heading 'i by

ST0PT,

the

traBe storage

pro$rofir i5

',Start'

Tape

File

Number*

Block Length' (30)

SatnF'le l-ength (10)

Gain Settlng,

Decltnation *
Number

of

Scansl0ayt

Start Time (f ) 't

76 01 00 01 00 0t 00 01 00 01 00 01 00 01 00 0,1 00

5
L
Qr

4321 1111 0000

X:rea X,c+

0 0 0

X,sz

Xre
)(r

0
0

Xs [,* Xa 0001 1110 0000 1,010

Xrze Xo+
Xtee,

0
0
0

Xse

Xre
Xr

Xo X+ Xz
Xe* Xsa Xe X,, Xe 0000 0001

Xre
Xr

0 0 0 0 0

0000 0010

* Ffle mlmbenf gilin sett,ing and declination

are required in eight-bit natural shq'wn' blnary EOde with Lvlo's compl-emen't Sign represent'atjo'n as at 05h' t \talue"s shoul are for one scan per day, starting at 02h and fini'shing

''.|-

302.

Stop T'ime

(1)t
Headi ng

0100060 o00o1o1
0

PTCC End

of

i
0

0 0

0 0

typical set of headjng data' as punched on tape, is

shown

in Figure AZ'2'

oQOOO&S6$eoccooooce(! e 0 g G OoO Q o olt""ooen.{of oaGaaatase0!""re 'ocoeooolFc@oc(igGoo -o QO ,o o ee eoo o o a vv

{."nu .'-'..vlr

O q',--c o

at
!,i'r't(r!jr

a
!3uii 6

o O
Q (,

'o9'c3t'lltt'lrc'lo"!t'c'l'

rQOeO@COOOOOOe'e

e6ooooooeoc'

L'-'

Fiqure A?.2: A typ'ica1 paper tape shouring the heading data and the beginning of the acquisition'

A?.23 The Event l'larker

hour For siderea'l hour rnarks on the ana'logue record, connect the sideral capable output at the clock-pulse source to the input fl. A contact closure, of carrying 500rnA, will then be provided for -50ms at the beginn'ing of each can be sidereal hour between termjnals G and F (F is ground). These terminals solenoid connected to a battery and resjstance in series lrlith the event-marker on the analogue recorder.

A2.24 Ending the

TaPe

and several feet The tape ntust be terminated with a PTCC'stop' instructiOn characof blank tape. The PTCC stop'instruct'ion is 01P10000 follor'red by a blank ter. Before the tape catr be processed it must be rewound, so that the heading

is at the outside.
A2.3 Processing the Recorded
A2.31 Storing Data in the
Data

Contputer

the following Before data from paper tape can be stored in the comPuter, disk cariridges; subroutines must be stored in the User l\rea of one of the sYstem
STOPT, PARTY, HEAD, TREAD, PAK, DUI4PX

ANd

TIMEX.

Source

listings of these subroutjnes are given in

Appendix 7'

303.

sisting of
record

540 records each of 60 words, and NAf''lEz (INDX) consisting of 90 *STOIIEDATA control records, each of 10 wor<ls. These catt be defined by the

Two

data

files are requ'ired by the storage programs; NA[4E1 (RSTAR) conProgram.

of the Disk Utifity

to
2000 words

storage area are required by the various subroutjnes, and a six word array'is usecl'in the calling sequcnce for STQPT'
Up

of

common

A typical source iisting of a program to store a Paper taPe is shown in 22 Figure A2.3, The tape has two scans/day; the first will be stored at Page 60 and subsequent pages of the dat.a fi 1e, tlte second vrill be stored at Page
and subsequent Pages.

// FUII I,J.rII LA CD DSK D I MiNS I irl'l I P.\GE ( 6 )

I PA;tlLl =22 I PA.,E ( 21 =60 CALL STUPT ( I I'AGE

PR

CUi,tilUi\ I Dtri'iY ( 2000 ) DEFif'rE F ILE l0(540r60rUri'i8) r 20l90rl0rUrNA)

)

CALL iXI
[-ND

// XEQ

OI

*f-tLE5( 10'qSTirRl r l20,lNDX)

Figure

A2.3:

Progranl

to store a paper tape'

A2.32 Analysjng the Stored Data

Before a conrp]ete analysis of the stored data can be carried out, the following subroutines must be stored in the User Area of one of the system di sk cartridges;
PAK, UNPAK, DSCAN, Cl-lART, STOCD, DUI4PX, TIMEX, REJEK, Cl-iAUV, AVRG'

FILTR and

ERASE.

any digital filtering is to be carried out by FILTR, then the appropr.iate vrei ghti ng functi on shcr-rl d be si.cl'ed j n the nth record of a di sh dela fiIe consist'ing of 202-word records. The maximum length rv'iII be 10L weights' file ntust as each floating point vreight occupies ttvo vtords of storage' This of the be included as file 30 in the DEFINE FILE statement at the beginning program and in the *FILES record after the //xEQ statement'

If

304.
Ass,ufie

that

m scans, eaeh

starting from page

The

j.

k pages long have been stored in the data

file,

first

two sc,ans'will be tabulated on the,

line printen by the s.t-atement

\ If
prod,uced by

0ALL

DSCAN(o,

5,

2k),.

a graphical plot of'the

first

scan

is required,
k, e5o),

then this

will

be

CALL CHART(J!
assuming

that the data fully

o,ccupies

the range t250.

The dqfs bri11 be che,cked statement

fon ocsurrernces of spurious noise spikes by the

CAI-L REIEK(j, and these, p;rocessed scans starting from page i by

k, m, 20),

will

be avenaged, with the average raritten

in k pages

CALL AVRE(j,

k, fi, i ).
c.oh be performed b5r

Alternatively this rejection and averagirlg

ment

the state-

CALL cHAUV(,j, k, ffi, provided that m is greater than 10.

The averaged scan
hy CALL FILTR(i

i)

yili

then be fi]tened with the specified weighting function

, k, l, n, '1oo)
1.

where

the filtened scan vrill be s-tore.d ln k,pages starting from page

Thfs processed scan can then be p:lotted ,using

CALL CI'|ART(I,

k,

250) -

If

the p'ocessed data

is to be stored on cands for future

referencc, then

305.

the statement
CALL DSCA|I(1,

I,

k)

vrjll

produce

thjs

included with

fornr of output, provided that 3i the program, after the *'FILES record.

x k blank cards are

This section has presented only typical examples of call statements to the progranls of the softrr'are system, but these should provide the user with sufficient information to write analysis programs.

306.

Appendix The Design

of

a ?9!ttt1z pnase neversl

Germanium Swi

tching

Diodes

has been suggested by Aitchison OSAZ) that silicon computer diodes, with suitable circuitry, can be used to perform r.f. switching at frequencies of up to 400Mtlz rvith sufficjent efficiency for use in rad'io telescope antenna srvitches. Measurements on gernlaniunr swjtch'ing diodes have shown that they can also perform this high frequency srvitching, if the associated circuitry is optim'ised.
The equivalent snrall s'ignal circuit of a group of inexpensjve germaniunt switching diodes was rneasured urrder both fonlard and reverse biased condit'ions, at a frequency of 2001'1H2. These diodes produced very consistent results, the

It

reverse-biased equivalent circujt being characterized by a small capacitance (+ t pf) shunted by a resjstance of about 10K0. The forlard-biased equivalent circuit consrsts of an inductance of about 50 nH in series with a resistance of about 160. The overall equivalent cjrcujt is shown in Figure A3.L'

Fjgure A3-_1: The equ'ivalent circujt switching diode.

where

of a germanjum

R5 is the 'on' resistance of the diode,

RD and

L5

are the lead resistance and inductance,

capacitance,

Cp is the 'off'

atrd R; is a leakage resistancc, apparent only in the 'off'

state.

Smith (1961) has considered both series and stub connected diode switches and has sholn that ajthough the minimum loss'incurred is the sante for both cases, practical details usually favour the stub connection.

307.

Figure A3.2 shows a stub connected diode srv'itch on a 750 transmission line. At 2001'1Hz-o nonnalized to the characteristic admittance of the ljne, the 'on'admittance of a typical djode is 0.25-j1.0, and the 'off'admittance is 0.008-j0.06. It can be seen that the'insertion loss of such a switclr (the ratio of maximum potver transmitted jn 'on' state to actual povrer transmitted*') will be negligible, but the isolat'ion in the forward-biased case (the ratio of maximum pouler transnrjtted in '0n' state to actual power transrnitt'ed in 'off ' state*) wjll be significantly low, jn fact it'is on'ly ZdB. This'is inadequate for radio
astronomy purposes.

gure

A3

.2:

A stub connected

ode sl'ti tch

of a diocle svritch can be improved by using an impedance transformation to increase the conductance in the forvlard-biased state
The properties

(Aitchison, 1962; Landecker and l,lieleb'inski, 1970). This transformation is most readily achieved using ),/4 transfornrel^s, so that the diode is effectively operated on an'inverted'mode; an'off'diode presents a short circu'it' and an 'on' diode presents an open circu'it.
Snrith (tgOt) has shown has an impedance

that the least loss occurs

when

the

I/4

transformer

0 1'" ,t=lfrJ
but this does not give the largest switching ratic, and it is preferable to use a lovrer value of 21 which lvill give better isolatjon, and not seriously affect the insertion loss. Aitchison (1962) has found that impedance transformat'ions of 221 are adequate for silicon diodes, and that both the isolation and insertion

Here

the'on'and'off'states refer to the state of the srvitch,

and

not the

state of the diode.

308.

suscep tonoe

Igg-13"_1:

Admittarree

diode switch,

chart illustr^ating the design sf the

(a) orr diode, zn = 15oo; (b) 0N dl'ode, Z^ = 150n; (c) 0.23r from a"on 1500 line: (d) 0.23r from b on 150n 'line; (e) c referred' tol^=75fi;(f)d referred to Z^ = 75fr ; (g) f wi th".a A.2261t, shorted stub (the effEct of this stub on e is negligible).

309.

loss are improved.

the inner conductor of a low-loss 50o cable with a very fine wire, a cable of Zo = 1530 was obtained. Referring to the admjttance chart of Figure 43.3, (a) and (b) shol the reverse and forlard biased diodes with respect to this 153fi cable. By nnk'ing the transformer slightly less than tr/4 long' the reverse-biased djode at (a) trar,sforms to a near short circuit at (c)' still with respect to a 15351 cable. With this length of cable, the forward-biased d'iode at (b) transforms to a poirrt (d) . Seen on a 75n line, the points (c) and (d) become (e) and (f) respectively. By the addition of an jnductive stub at the junction, (f) can be moved to the real axis at (q). This srnall inductance has a neglig'ib'le effect on the posit'ion of (e). Thus the forward-biased diode has been tra.nsformed to a resistance of 25 x 75CI, producing an insertion loss of less than 0.25d8, and the reverse biased diode has been transfornred to a res'istance of 0.05 x 75Q, producitig an isolation of 22dBBy rep'lacing

A phase reversing sr.Jitch has been designed using tlo of these diode switches in a hybrid ring circuit (Smittr,1961). This swjtch is shown in Figure A3-4. The measured isolatjon of this switch is better than 20d8, and the inser"tion loss

is less than 1dB.

Switching
Signo
t

Receiver

Fi

gure .A3 .4: The

2001''1Hz

phase reversi ng svri tch.

The centre conductors

of the coax'ial

cab'les are

at d.c. earth potential

3!0.
,because

stubs. This f,act has bee,n taken adVantage of in supplytng the switching signal ts the diodes. The dlodes are connected in opposite direetions and are fed fnorn a t4 volt square wave via a feed-ilirough capacjtor at the end of their respective tnansfornlerr sectisns, which prrovides
tun,ing

of the inductive

the signal

earth. The diodes

are located inside the transformer sectisns.

EETIBEISES.

AITC11156N,

R.E, (1962): "The Use of rtligh-Speed Sri,licon Computer Diodes for R,,F. SwJtehl'ng". Trans. I.E. Au:st., E!!4 pp. 7-10.

LANDECKER'

T.L.,
Radi

a'nd }.lIELIEBINSKI,

fsl"
Sl,lITH, F.G.

o Astno.rromy'" .

R. (1970); lrLow Loss Varactorr Diode Froc, I -R. E.,E . Au,st. o !l pp . 73-76,

Switches

('1961): 'iR.,F. S-witching 0ircuit:s,and flybnid RinE Circuits

Use-d

in

Radio Astronomylr. Froe. [.E.E.

, ].08 pp, 201-204.

311

Appendix

The Uackfire Antenna

The antenna requirement for the 200Mt'lz interferoneter was for a basic antenna, inexpensive and relatively sirnple to constructn readily steered about one axis, and w'ith a reasonab'ly high gain. Several of these antennas could be combined in tr.ro amays to form the interferometer. Previously in the 42l4{z telescope a linear array of non-uniformiy spaced Yagi antennas were used (Lim'

a narow beamr.ridth in the plane of the array, the width in declination could have been improved only by extending the array to two dimensions. This solution causes beam steering to become very complex.

1968). Although this array

had

antenna as the basic unit in the 200M1-lz array, the narrower primary beamr,ridth would eljnrinate the irmediate necessity to extend the array in tvlo d'imensions. The antenna developed has a was proposed

It

that by using a higher gain

beamwidth

of less than half that of a five

single feed, and is

The antenna,

element Yagi, yet requires only hence a superior element for a radio telescope.

called the "short-backfire antenna" by jts author H.l.|. Ehrenspeck (1965a), consists of a single half-wave dipole placed between two reflectors (M and S, Figure A4.1). M js a circular plane reflector of diameter 2.0I; R is a rim of width 0.25I surrounding the edge of M, and S is a circular plane reflector of 0.64I diameter. The distance M to S is 0.5),, and the feed F is midway between the two reflectors. The radiation patterns in the E- and Hplanes of an X band (gCHz) nrode'l of this antenna are shown in Figure A4.2. These show half power beamwidths of 25o in the H-p1ane and 30o in the E-plane. The peak side-lohe level is l1dB belo,;r the maxinrurn, and the back-lobe is more than 20dB down. The calculated gain is 15d8, slight'ly better than a 2.0tr parabolic
antenna.

The backfire antenna origirrated as an endfire array term'inated in a plane reflector (Ehrenspeck, 1960). Endfire antennas are usually s'low wave structures (e.9., Yagi) in which a surface r{ave is excited at one end and is propagated

with a ve'loc'ity'less than that of 1ight. The surface vrave is radiated from a virtual aperture at the termination of the structure. The ga'in of such an antenna is approxirnately proport'iona'l to its length, and if the surface \,/ave structure is optirnised, the gain is given by (Zucker, 1.965)
a'long the structure
ta =

^ tl''"
^-

44.1

3t2,

Figure

/{4..1r The short-backfire

antenna.

o
dB 10

7
\/\ \/
I

E.PL.A.NE

20

!r

30* goo
o

I{-PIAI{E
rltr

10

2A

go

g0'

l-

45"

Oo

45'

3C

lis,ure-44. ?:

E- and lt- plane patte't'ns for ah X..band model of the short-backfire anterina.

313.

a plane reflector is p'laced at the ternrination of an endfire antenna the surface rvaves, essentially plane in nature, are reflected back along the structure torvards the feed po'int, and are radiated fronr a virtual aperture at the opposite end of the antenna to the reflector. This antenna could a'lso be described as tvlo endfire an'uennas, the original and its image, radiating in oppos'ite directions (see Figure A4.3)

If

S,I I

--*------{I 7tl
t!
I

2+

Figure

A4.3: SimpIified

ntodel

of a backfire

antenna

Zucker (1965) has nade the following tr,ro predictions

of this

antenna:

1. It wi]l

a surface rirave antenna of iength 21,, and hence from equat'ion A4.1, the gairr will be greater tltan that of the or"iginal endfire antenna by 3dB.
behave as

2.

The gain will be an additiona'l 3dB greater because the endfire-plusimage radiates into virtual space, i.e., a total increase'in gain of 6dB over the original endfire antenna is expected.

with a large reflector tvl (Figure A4.3) have shown a gain of only 4.5d8 over the endfire antenna. This discrepancy can be attrjbuted to the fact that the reflector S of the original endfire structure obstructs the surface wave from the image feed F'. Sjnrilarly the image reflector S'obstructs the surface wave radiating from F. This obstrucEion does not occur with the original endfire antenna. The two reflectors M ancl S conrbine to form a laser cavity
Experiments

(Zucker,1965; Ehrenspeck,1965b)o and jt has been shown experimentally that optimum results are obtained when .an extreme'ly high VSIIR exists over the entire length of the structure, i.e., g should be an integral number of ha'lf-wave'lengths.
has been found (Ehrenspeck, 1965b) that the gain can be optinised by adjust'ing the dinrensions of the nrain reflector l',|, and still further increased by the addition of a rim, as in Figure A4.1. For longer backfire antennas, further

It

314.

gain has been obtained by the addition of a second reflector l4z and rjnt Rz (figure A4.4). In general, a backfire antenna of length I wjth a suitably optimised reflector will have a gain given by (Zucker,1965; Ehrenspeck,
1e6e )

^ 60f, u=-^j.e.,
BdB greater than an equal
wi I

44.2

refl ector
same gain.

be

length Yagi, and the diarneter of the opt'imised approxirnately the same as that of a parabolic antenna of the

$-'

1i-*
t4

L
I
tenn o q

"h,
Figure

A4.4:

The long-backfire antenna.

For a surface vrave antenna, the wave fronts are essentiaily plane wjthin a crjtical anglen and spherical outside thjs ang1e. The reflector shapes shown in Figures A4.1 and 44.4 have been described as an approximation to a central plane surface and an outer parabolic surface (Zucker, 1965), which would cause the reflected wave fronts to be planar. Although this descr^ipt'ion agrees tlel'l with the experimentally derjved reflectors for long-backfire antennas (Figure A4.4, t,>21), it does not expla'in the shape of the short-backfire reflector (Figure A4.l) nor does it explain why the optimum t/idth of the rims for both long and short forms should be 0.25x.

of the 200l.iHz antenna is based on a modified version of that shotvn in Figure A4.1,. In order to make the antenna more simple to construct at longer wave'lengths, the main reflector l'1 is octagonal in shape. This design was tested
The design

on an X-band model, and optimum results were obiained with the octagon of inscribed diameter 21,. The half oower beanrwidth of this model was about 260 in

315.

both E- and'H-planes, and the peak side lobe level

r^ras 14dB

below the main

bearn.

The 200MHz antenna (Figure 44.5 and Plate 1, page 70) consists of a wooden space frame covered with l" vrire netting. At 200MHz the'losses resulting from the use of L" stee'l mesh conrpared with a continuous perfectly conducting surface are neglig'ib1e (l"loull in, i949).

1Oft

Fi

qure

A4

.5:

The

2001'1Hz Backf

re antenna .

to be used on the roof of the School of Engineering, they were constructed in eas'i]y handled sections and bolted together on the site. The ma'in reflector consists of four quadrants, bolted together on a metal subframe. The rim js niade up of eight vljre-netting-covered panels bolted to the reflector. The 3 foot diameter subreflector is mounted on a half-r,rave length of 1!" square aluminiunr which also supports the feedd[po1e, and enc'loses the balun (Bryant, 19i1). The whole structure is mounted on two tripods, and the antenna can be steerecl in the E-p1ane,600 ejther sjdc of the zenith.
Because the antennas viere The measured E-p'lane

radiation pattern of the

200llHz antenna 'is frown in

The half-power beanrlidth is 260, and tne peak side-lobe'level is 12dB be'low the main beam. The nrain beam is quite f'lat, with a sharp fall-off on

F'igure

A4.6.

315.

both sides.
0
d,ts

t0

O"

30"
E-Ptlane Patte-rn

ed

goo

l,z;ff

f-i$e

44.9-:

for the 200MHz antenna

tsETTBE!CFBRYANT,

P. (1971): M.E. Thesis, Uiniversity of Auckland. (to

Sou;l"ce",

be published,)

EIIRENSPECK,

H.hl. (1,9,60); "'The Baekfire Antennd' a llew Type of Directisnal Lrine

Proc. I.R.E.,

48 pp. 109-110.
I.E.E.E., 51

EINRENSPEOK,

H.lnJ.

(fggSa):

"The Short-Baokfire An,tenna*n Proc.

pp.1138-X140.
EHRENSPEC,K,

H.!il. (1965b): "The Backfire Antennal l{ew Results", Proc. I.E.,E,E.n Fg, pp. 83,9_641 . H.t'l. (1969)t rtBackfire A,ntenrenrrn Nachrichtentechnische-Ze'itchrift'

EI{RENSPECK,,

pp. 78;6-29?

LIM, J.C., (1968): "Non Unif.ormly Spaced An'ay-s Thesis, University of Auckland.
M0ULLIN,
ZUC:KER,

of Dir"ectional Elements!'" Ph..D,

E.B. (1949): "Radi'o Ae'riials!'n (0.u-.P., Oxford).

Approaeh

F.J. (1965): "Ttle B,ackf ire Antenna; A Qualitative Designt', Prnoc. I.E.E.E., 53 pp, 746-747 .

to Its

317. i{BPendix
Tthe
5

Analysis

pf

So$e Low-Pass

Filters

45.1 The trdeal Lotf-P'ass Fjlter

The
1.

ideal lss-porss

filter is defined as foll

ws

(graig,

L964):

The mOgn'itU,cle

of the transfer function iS co'nstant fsr -f;f1+fn and zero o,utside this r:ange.

frequen:ctes

2"

The phase of the transfer funetion varies ponding to a constant time delay tu.

linearly with

f,nequency' eorfs:-

i.e.,
where Ur(f)

H(r) =

-iZnrto

[utt+ro)-u(r-ro]]
= 0,

(A5.1)

is a unit steB functir:on at f

of
FJ(f) are

The magnitude and phase

plotted'in,Figure 45.1.

Figufe A5-1: Tl,le transfer f-unction of t'he idea'l low-pass

filter.

A5.1I

The Noise Bandvrldth

of lhe Ideat Filter

The equivalent noise bandr^ridth

sf a low-pass filter

has been defined in

Equation

2".3, as

BN=

ttil J*e trt 'ur

= lrr(f) lz
}

(A5.2)

Whrel'e

G(f )

318.

i.e.

for the t,deal l,ou-pa,ss filter

lB11

= ;t

(ns.l1 se
improv$ne'Lrt

A5.

L2

0o.ndi t-i

onsj0r. Onti[!nr

s;i

qnaj *t-o-}ioi

After Grifffths (19'56), the optimum filter is defined as that giving the maximum impnovement in signal-f6-psjs:s ratis for an inpu,t sinusoid at freque'ncy

fs

PIus White noise.

If
soz, is

the signa"l sinusoid hag en tr.m.s. value Si,, = 5i'

t,he.n

the signal power out,

Soa
I

f, 1f,o

i
povJer

trf the nEise has a qpectral pot'ler Nlr thgrr the nsise
llu =
l{;.811

output

will

be

=
and the output signal-to,.nois

llifo
be

'.

natio lrti1ll

(SlN) = ' ' tt'o

For any Si and

Si' 'Nl4
fo=fs

+ ' ts 1 fo

Ni, this ratio will

be a maximum when fo

is

a minimum,

i.e.,

(As. s)

45.13
H(f )

The hpulse, RegpqnF of

j$e. [de?l Fi'l]er

funetion

Thc impulse response

h(t) is the Fourier transform of the transfen

h(t)
sjn2nfo(t-toL = 21u Zntn(t-t6)

i"e.,

(A5.6)

For compa.rissn r:rith he imp,uls:e rosponses of othe-r filter.s it is (a) the peak va1:ue and (b) ttre ef-feetirre durration of the imp,ulse response l+hiich ar of interest. The duration is defined as t-hat time during whfeh the magnitud0 of the disturbance has values greater than 0.Otr,.

319.

(a) From equation 45,6, the iriagnitude is 2f6 (=Zfs for tie optimum filter).
(t))
The disturbance

will

be les$ than 10.01

when

*o'or'

i.G.,
The duration

"TffhEI-t-tg = * f
of

t'he distunbance and zero when fo<0.005.

fs then += 63.7 seconds when fo>0.005 T

A5"t,4

T,he Step Res,p,onse.,.o{

!he.,Ide.al F'iller

The step respon,se

S(tI can be obtained by,integratl'ng the irrpulse respotnse

i.e,r,
s(t1 =

,r,

tt
!'n2dg(t-t?l-

I L
By s:ubstituti,ng

ut

(A5.r)

x fpr 2rrfo{t-to) this can be redu,ced to

s(r)

- f2nfs(t-ts) =#l FJ

-e

The integral

-lz I I srnx dx ?f
I
x

has been plotted

by

in

Figure

A5.2.

The G>99fl{,riise

time sf this'ne,sponse

ls

Eiven

Znfot" = 1.23n
ur - 0.61t " _ -To

_ 0.615 =

=ff

f,orr.

tr6s o ,ti

mum f i l

ter

320. Thirs response has 8.9?5 ovens.h'oot and undershoot,

Flgure

A5,2:

The step response

of the id.eal low-pass fllter

A5,2 lbe_Icleq-l Integ,

The time

ideal integrating low-pass filter, or 'running mean' filter, has outp:ut which is the average of the input waveform over an inter'va] f
h

i ,,e. 1

(r) = #[, f r4-ro) -utt-['tr{

1
)

(A5.8)

and thus

H(f)=W..-.iZnfto
of lJ(t) are plotted ln
I{eaJ lnEgrator
Figu,re A5,3,

The nragnitude and phase

A5.eI

The Noise.$andwidth.of I'hre

Ey definiti,on EN=

plna,(l'It
(nfT)
2

rr

lrlow

from Pierce (fOeSl

/@

Jf o

I sinzx a*

=T,

321.

Figuge
whi

$5-3:

The

transfer furrction of, the ideal integrator.

ch l'eads to

Bn=h
1

(As. s1

45.22 Oqnditlo,ns for 0ptifium Signal -tar:llqi,se

As

improvement

for the ideai Iow,-pass filter, consider the output signal-to-noise ratio for an input s'inu,soid plus white noise, Si, fs and Nq are as previously
defi ned.

Signal power o-ut, Sot =

Si' lti*ftlt L rifrT I

Noise power

out,

No

N1tsp

,= Ni,
2-l

3,?2,

The output

signal-to-noise ratio

is

then

3zr ^Ni
Now

for

eonp.arison

with the ideal

s-i

low-pass

fi'ltnr,

equati on

A5

.5

speci

fi

es

2 = N1f,

i.E.

(slrl)
o

t'''o'l!x2rsT tfsT
L
J

"Lnr5TJ

a ltt."trt]

+ to 0.725.
ltou

has

i,.,

a maxfmum when x = 1..17 radians and this for the CIptimum fi I ter
Trf ,T 0l'!

maximum

is

equal

= 1.17
(As.l,o1

r='27 rs
optinrum

0ompared

wlth the
optlrnum

ideal

'lor,,Jpass

filter, the output signal-to-noise

ratio of this

filte,r is
(sln)n = fr*
0.7,25

= 0.461

or

-3,.36d8.

A5.e3 The Impulse

Be=sF.snse

of the Ideai Intggfator

From equation 45.,8i

rlT T .'1 h(t1 = ilu(t+i-to)-u(t-t-to1

This

is a rctangular pulse of height

= 2.7fs.

and duration T.

(a) The peak magnitude of tlre impulse r:espense ts then rL, or fsn the o'ptimum

filter tt4.r,

323.

(b) The .0X lievel durration s

and zero

th,e impul,se response

ls T (= o'37/1r1 it

1/1>,.0t

if

111<,01.

45"24

ThF_

$tep Respgnse Ef th,e ldqq! Intes,ra,tot" 45.8 the ste,p

re.s,ponse

From equation,

is

s(t) = + | [ut*l-tu)-u(r++r)]at. '),i40

fi_

('=

This inteEl'al irs shown in;Figune 45.4. The 0+99% nise ttrne i:s .99T*T .gllf for the overshost. 'optimum fi'lter) and there i,s rlo s

is

Flgqfg

$9.1;

The step respor,rsle

of the ideal integrator.

A5.3

T-he-

Simple_(First--0rder) RC Filter

The tnansfer function

of a simple (first-oyder)
t

RC

filter

(see Figure

A5.5) is

H(f) = I152."TmLet

fo=fu,
H(f) =

then

t{h
(A5.11)

IH(f)|

+(f/ro

{ (f) = -ten-r1$t,

324. The magnitude and phase

of l-l(f) are shovln in Figure A5.6

Vout

Figqre

A5.5:

The sinrple RC filter

Fjgure

A5.6:

The

trarrsfer function of the sinrple RC filter

45.31

The Noise Bandwjdth

of the S'imple
'-'

RC_

Filter

By defini

ti

on

BN=

f
I

1+alro

r dr

325.

fo | 1r"t
)

l1

ox

By maki ng

tlre substi tuti on

= tan0, th'is integral

becomes

BN=

f^1.d0 ul
J

t-

,7

fi

{_o_
2

(As.

12 )

A5.32
is

Condi t j

ons

for

0ptinrurn Signal -tq.llgUS-LUpfryement

Assurning

the

sanre

input as for the prpvious

s.i2

filters, tlte signal

poi+er out

So' =
and the noi se povler out j s

,|, 1{ (f",'l ro'

'

l,ls = 11i Thus the output signai-to-no'ise

.t

nf.,

ratjo is

isl - t-[.fJ l.NJo

and

(r-\? x^,.*

si'

'rr'"o

'if

Si

2 = lli fs thi s

becomes

fs) z
This functjon defined by

fLl [foJ

t.-rrJo=n

{H

js

a maxir;unr when

fs = fo j.e., the optitnuln filter is

326.

c - 1 -a Z?R-f,

'o

's

(45.13,)

with the opt-imum ideal low-pass ratio sf this filter is

O'ompared

filter,

the output si gnail -to-h'oi;se

fgl = lx UIJ
o
Tt

o.E

= 0.3tr8

or

-4.97d.8.

A5.33 The impqlse

transfonn to yield

RFSpolq.e

of the silJile

Rc ri.].te,r'

The inverse Fourier transform

of t{(f)

can be obtained

via the

Laplace

h(t;
'This func'tion

= zrnfo e-znfot.U(t)
Figu,re A5
7

is shown in

2rnto

FigUtr,t,at
such that

The irrpulse response

of the simp'le R0 filter

T

The disturbanc-e h'ds

maximum

value

of

2'nfq and a 0.01 'level duration

znfne-u*foT = 0,.01

(If

znf'o > 0.01)

i,.,
Tf
The

.'l r t = *; l- + o.l5sln(toU Fo'1.5e x 10-3) ft.ozs

(A5'14)

fs < 1,59 x 10-3 then 'the disturbance is' rregiligible.

durnatisn

of the im,pulse rsponSde defined by eq,uat'ion A5.14n is plotted

327,

in

Figure A5.8 as a funct'ion of, eut-o,ff frequency fe.

'e)

I,l

a,

P30 I

.g

a o
It

'o r 2A

l4
q

a.

tl J

5
trO

iit

FJgure

A5.qt

The ,01

level impulse
RC

response duration

of the simple

filter
as

A5.,34 lhe Ste.F REfior,rse=qf thg- Sillple RC Filter The step response is obtained fnom tfre integral of the inpqlse rresponse

S(t1 = 1-t-2nfot
The 0+99.S

rise tirne

t, of thjs resjponse is given,by

zlrfotr = ln
100

. _ 0.731 u, _FiThe ste,p resp-onse has no overshoot.

AF.4

.Thu E'*_*ru.l Second_Olidqr

F,ilter

The general second-order low-pass

filter

has a transfet^ funetion

328.

H(f)

(A5.

15

Whe,re

is

the damping

factor.

Foth

P-anticular exampl6s of ttre second are discussed in section A4,5.

The magnitude and ,phase

fo and E are determined by eireuit values. order filter, and their circuit representations'

of H(f)

can be expressed as

tH(f)t

=m

and

O(fl = -tari*I

1-[+,]'

"fu

These

are shown

in

Figure 45.9

lntr

il

Fi'gure

A5 '

9:

The

tr"ansfer function order filter

of the general

se,eond

329.

The 3dB

cut-off

f recluency

f.
f

i s g'iven by

fc = fo j-ze'*6{+r.+I )
--aDr'
A5 .41

The

tloise tlandwitlth of the

Second Order

Filter

By

definition
r* Bnt=l

''l

Let F-= ro

then

fBN=fo
I I

dx
xa+x2

(ns.to)

(+r,'-Z)+t

Thi

s integral can be eval uated as fo'll

ot'ts:

Let

t = f* dx ;\+bx41 .|
o

)^'
o

f-1 l#.,rE

dx
x2

(A5.17

t^lri

ti

ng

J=-x in equation A5.17,

1

r_l#*r_ -"-rt
,l
',
l,lott

rO

thi

s can

vlrite x for Y, atid be retrri tten as

noLi rtg

l,ii.rt thc i tiicgi'and i s an even '[ttncti on

rto

cf

'

.l

ldx r = | x2+b+I^ lvz

o

(As.

18 )

31310,

Add,

together A5.17 and A5,18 to obtain

as ,l

tr*i,ta* 2I=lI I x2+u+\ JX' o

Nowlet

u=x_L,th.n
4o=11AJdx, ' x4u2=x2-2tL
xz

and

the limits

become

"

,, = [*---go-F'
t

uz+1b+Z)

=
write g_
t

rE-l4r
ll

. Idu
J
u+z

,@

Nb$r

= tr6ng, tften

.lf l=-

2dffi
BN

In equatiqn A5.t6n b = 4E''2n

= fol

i.,r
F6.4:2 0qnditi

u*=Tl
-o,ns

fis,tg)

SigIalJo.'Nqise Inprgve{nent Assurning the same conditions as in the previous analyses, the signal-tongi,s ratio at the output of, a second order filter is
.O.p,-timum

for

[fi].=ffiiffi.#
and

{f Sit =. Nifs t

33-1.

fs

Ler $i = *,

.n*n

[fi-],=+
By equ,atin,g the derivatlve
maximum improvement

rqF&F

(ns.zo1

of this function to Zfoi the condition for in signal-to-noise ratio is found as

*' = lF -ze'*2ffi{)
For a g'iven

the optirnurn'value of

fs is

given
_

by

I'o_
The signal-to-noise Ratio equation A5.20.

/3'fs

(45.

?,l )

f'ze'z*2,Fffi'11
from optimu,m c,orldition can be obtained

for this

A5,.+3 The l.mpulEe Responge q,t s-egqnd-0rdqr Fllters

(a)

UnderdarnPed

Filterrs (Ect}

For '6<1

the impulse response of a secondL-order

filter

is
(A5,2'2)

h(t)=
This,response is showrr the response occurs when

ry+*{2rrfot*tn(znfetr'17) ffi
in
Fi.gure A5.I0

for E = 0'59'

T'he maximum value

of

Znf ot =

ffi;

1r-.,E1
$-tan-'

ffi, ) '

the envelope the exponential term of equation A5.22 is considered as t0'01 after timQ t of the sine'tenn, then the fluctuations wtll be les's than given by

If

332.

AnI,n.

frry

. .-dztfot

= o.-ol

i.e., r = #
The duration

[i.ots

o.r5ern,#Fl

(A5.23)

of the impul:se Yesponse is plotted in Figure A5'12 as a function of cut-off frequency fe, for 6 = 0.69 and E = A.825.
(,U1 Critrl:cally Damped Filter (g = 1) For a

crigcally

damped second

order

filter,

the impulse response is

(A5.24)

rh(t) = tnro (enfotle4ofot

Thts has a
maxirmur1 when

&rfet = 1r dhd the

[h(t)]max = 2.3lfo

Beal( value

is

f;t
Flgure A5.10,
The impulse nesponse

of the second

order

filterwi'thE =0.69
The 0.01

level duration of the ps:epons@ is given b'J

znfot *-Znfot = 26ffi

333,.

This duratisn fg.

is

shown

in F'igur.,e A5.12 as a function of cut'off

fnequency

(cl

Overdamped

Filterrs (ftf

The lmpulse response o,f an orverdarnped Second order

fi:lten is

h(t) ,'

rh [-"t,
ftylfi

-thJ

whereT:his response

Tr,Tz =

)/(znfs)

(A5.25)

is

maxt,muni when'

t=- 1
The max{num Value Of

Znf s;tz

-l

,ln(e+Ei.)
filte'r is
is plotted in

the impulse response of a sec,o:nd order plotted in Figure A5.11 for values of 6 between 0.5 and 1.5.

For 6,= 1.5,, t'he .01. leve'l duration of the impulse

Figure A5.12 as a function of, cut-off frequency f6.

response

.5

.:6

;1

.8

.g

1.0 1.1 +2

L3

1A

1.5

Fi-qure AL11:

The maxlmum

value of trhe imPulse response ,of a second-order filterr

334.
80

\ft

825

I I t

\\ r\
1i\

E c I
.t,

I I
I
,|

,E :,69
,

\,

:
t

v,
4:0

t)

I
L

t .e
E .lr

I
,l

cf
rt
.E

iao E

it r=l
tl tl tl

tl

it ii
/,.

i!

y:1.5 -N
\

\\. \\'r

II

Figure A5.12: The .01 level duration of the,lmpulse response of some second-order fi lters

A5.44 [he, $t-ep, Responses of Second-0rder Filters

(a)

Underdamped

Filters (e.1)

For underdamped second-order

filters
-e?nfoL

the step

Fespo'nse

is
0)

given by

S(t) = 1 where

.g.'"'o" fl-e
E-

sin(2nfs'G:7't -

g = tan-l
Now

the step response hag max'inla and minima at the aerq cfiosgings of the

impulse rcsponsen

i.e.,

'l'lhe,re

t = -4 2f oh-e2'
Substitriting this vallue of
overshoot

(n = 0,1,2

.....)

t fsr n=0 into t,he step nespoil's,Br the maximum

is obtained as

335.

-ffi
qlr

(A5.26)

overshorot =
The 0+g9%

rise tirre tp of the step

Damped

response

is plotted in Figune

A5.13.

(b) Critically
For a

Filter (r "

1)

critically

danrped sqcond-order

filte'r th'e st-ep respsnse' is

S(t)
T,his has a 0+99% rise

=1-.

-?nf^t u(l+zTrfot)

tine of

. 1.06 rr = -T6and

thene i:s ho overshoot.

Overdarnped Th,e

(c)

Filters (E >

1)

step resPonrse of

an ,overdamped

second-ord,er f

ilter is

S(t)

1 I * T;iil

(T'e

-t/h

-T ue't/Tzl

'This respo:nse has no o-vershpotn a:nd the 0*99% ris'e tirne Figure A5.13, together with that for underclamp-ed filters.

is

piot'ted in

A5.45

Sorne Examp]es--of

Sepgnd:0rder Fi lters

The general.second-orden fflter can be realized by an active eircu'it ,using a sinE'le operationLa'l anrpl'ifier, as s,h,own in Figure A5.14 (Coope'rr, 1970).
Anothe,r .identi cal clranae
i-s

filFr of interest iE the case of tl'ro eascaded Re filte'rs of ue-r"i sti cs (Fi gr,rre A5 .15 ) . The transfer functi on of thi s fi lter
ll(f)
=

1+3j

'{,

uJhere

fo= t
'''''''-tm

(A5

.27)

i,,,

t:he darnping

factor 6 :is I -5.

336.

.5

.6
Li gure

.7 A5.13:

.8

.9

1.0

'1.1

t.L

1.3 1't,

'l'5

The step response rl fi l'bers.

se

ti

me

of

second order

!jsLte_A5.-l-l-:

An operational
lsl

ampljfier second-order

filter

? _e_ , rz = 4FtoER ?trf^

R

A5.s

!r_J-:_q_ta.!s4_!!__F_il_tr11

The

transfer function of l,l 'isolated

RC

filters

(see Figure A5.16) is

337

o--r

r--

tt -T:

l_l .
I

_)_

_ll_
filters

[ss-re--41-J!-:

Two cascaded RC

l.-nlnl

tnrt

Isotot

rng

I'lctwork

Ne.twork

l_fryfe_45_,lq_: A f

i1ter

j fornted by cascadi ng I'l i dent ca I

RC netvrorks

i sol ated from one another.

H(f)

r"

't-.t11

1,.,, [.i=.j]
where

(ns.zs1

-1 to = 2tRTThe magnitude and phase

of H(f) are respecti velY

1

lH(f

(1+X')" -[
and

^a

o(f)

tl -n

tan-lx

where

X=

r;

339.

A5.51 The NoiEe Bqndurid-th of the llth

O!lde!' Fi'lt9.r.

f1 =toJffi'oo

le,tti,ng X = tan,0'r th:'is integral

lt

becomes

B"=r lz ot N=ro,lr*-:-r*r--r-t
0

IT

f^ | 'J
o

,or2N-Ze.du

(Rs. zg)

Lr"j,e*"-jg, and by taking By exp-ressing cos6 .expans.ion for costo, then forr m even'

as

thc resultant binornial

,7-rml, cosmo = i*-r [_o k1hm

I[ .r

cos(m-Zk]e

*l*'ffi
the
surtrnati on.

m5'30)

As f,t is an ihteger in equation A5.29, th'e'n 2tl-2 is evenr srtd equabion A5.30,cirr bB ussd to evaluate the integral' As (m-?k) is even when m is even' nothing to the-n all terms in t,he sunmatisn of equati'on A5.30 tt'iXl contribute otttside thc ,i,nteg,p61 fnom 0 to r/2, and the only term requined is the final one,

i.e.,

BN

fo

l-r ^ ^ sz'I-z

,T

(zn;?llI

(n_r) !lu

ao

339.

= ro X

V--t-

tftf-h

(A5'3r)

A5.

52

Condi

ti ons for OptjrirlL ::-tS!e-]-tgl!-q5-e--!fplgiqlel!

the same corrcl'itions as irr tlre previous analyses, the signal -tonoi se rati o at thc output of the lltil ordr:r fi I tr:r i s
Assuming

f:lo = #ht* \r .,
It{J

i.lrorr;

where

(2N-2)! = oL x zttr-L [(n-r)!]'

and
If Si' = l'li f5,
then

x=h

(fr].= ir,*4"
This 'is a maxintunt
tvhen

,ai'T:T

.e., for ntax'inturn s'igna1-to-noi se intprovcnrent

fo = ,fffi'
The signal-to-nojse

;,
filter

(A5.s2)

ratio for this

f

optimunr

can be calculated

sl = n:l:l [[joo, ("-#

rrr^tl

_ z'*-' . (ry-r )''-2. [(ru-r ) l]

l,lr'r.ri .

'

(A5.33)

(2ll-2)!

I
I i
A5.53 lIF-Itnpulse
FesnEnse

340.

of the f{th Qrdeq" rilter

of the

The imp,ulse nesponse, o,btained frorn the inverse rFourier transfonm

transfer functionr is

h(t1 = (zufo)N .
This i$
,a maximwr when

.-2rrrgt.u(t)

(As.3+)

. N-1 r = ErEand

this

maximurn

value

is

shsw.n

Jn Table 45"1.
response

The ,01

level duration of the irnpulse

fs plotted in

Flgure,A5.17

forN=5andN=10,

I
0.94

I
0.88

10

2.3[
Table

,70

1.41

1.23

1.10

I .01

0,.83

A5,1i

The peak value

of

t;he impulse re,sponse

of the Nth

order

filter,
Fi I tgr

45.54 lhe. ltep

ttesponsg of -thP.t'lth

0rder

Tlre step respo.n:se ean be o,,btained by (equation A5.34)

integrating the inpulse

response

s(t) = | tznro)Nnffi
)
CI

ft

*,

*N-1

"-2nfot6.
infinity,

(A5.35)

As th,e impuls" respronse have ns o,v,ershoo:t.

Fr.om

is

zero only at

the step respons will

Pierce (tgeg)

edXt# J-Fa2a3arrrJ
[*r.u*a* =

r*m-r

. d+I*n-Z...,

+ (-1,.

ft

-r]

341.

lA

Eas o
gD

(,

c 'q.

? -?0 r,
J4

J ci e H
f6 ( l{z)

F--leu're

A5J7:

The impuls l^Bsponse drrnation

of

two

Nth orcler f,i'lters

Thus

fo*"-ttt
The 0*99%

=-e

-tlrfrrm * mtztnl-l + mft-l1T'1,m-2....

L

t mffffil
by

ri se tirne sf the response of equation A5.35 is given

I .m IE
I

"-2-rlfgt6,

0.gg
-

m!

vftere m = N-1 ,
._znr6t

[#_,
to this

,;=-E .... ,
,l 4rti

*tr-1
I
rO

m!

(2nfs)m+

o.ol1znfo

The solution

equat,ion

for

ms

1 to

m=

(N =

2 to 10) is given

in Table

A5.2

34e.

I
2.54

I
2.77

10

f'o

tr

.06

1"34

1.60

1.84

2.08

2.32::

2.98

Tab]e

A5f:

The 0'*99/'

itep

response

rise tfme of

the

[{th order

filter.

REFERE$.JOEs.

C0gPER*

E,F.C. (1970)': oPost Detector Filtering I.R,E.E. Aust,, 91. PP. 41-48.
"Laptlace and Fsurien Transforms (,Flo'lt, Rinehart and lJinston, Nevl vork)'

in Radiometry",

Proc'

CRAIq,

E.J, (lg

4):

for Electnical

Engineqrs'r.

GRIFFITTIS' J.[,1.R. PIERCE,

(1956):
,14

"0pttrrum RC Fi lters". llli re]ess Engr.

33 pp' 286'-270.

8.0. (1,92,9):

Short Tabile

of l,ntegnalS".

(Ginn,,New Yor'k).

343.

Alpgndjt
The Calcul ati on

_A_

of Local Sidereal Tintg-

was shown cul ated f rorn the rel at'ionshi P

In Chapter 3 it

that local sidereal time (t-.s.f

.) could be cal(r .11

L.S.T, = U.T. + R - west longitude

where U.T. is universal b,ime and R is the accumulated difference between solar and sidercal tintes, tabulated jn the Star A'lm,rnac (tt.M.S.0., 1970) as a function of universal tirne. A computer program SIDER has been developed, which given starting values of local zone t'ime and R, tabulates local s'idereal time as a function of local zone time. A typical page of output from SIDER is shovln in Figure A6.1. The program is illustrated jn the flowchart of Figure A6.2 and a

source

pro-cJram

isting is given in

Appetidix 7.

nranipulations of times wjthin the program are performed in 0.01 second quantities. Before the output of any tinre:, a subroutine TYME rationalizes these quant'ities into an array fT(B) , wltich represents IT(1)iT(2) hours' IT(3)IT(4) nrinureso and IT(5)IT(6). IT(7)IT(S) secottcis, and a tl'renty-four ltour overflow indicator ID. If the input 0.01 second quantity vuLG is greater than orre day, then ID is set, to I and VULG reduced by twenty-four hours'

All

Tabulation for up to a month can be producecl by SIDER with two input data cards. The fjrst of these contains the desired increment (in hours) of local example zone time at vrhich sidereal tinre is to be calculated. The secotrd card, atr of which js shown in Figure A6.3 contains the year, month, starting date, R, and the number of days for vrhich tabulation is required' The value of R is taken directly frotn tables for U.T. = 00[ on the given date. As]ocal zone tjme'is local 12h ahead of unjversal time, the correct starting value of R, Rs, for 00h zone time on the given date 'is obtained front
6R Ro=R-12h xu1

(A6.1

where 6R/6t

is 3nr 56.556 s/day (see Cirapter 3)'

of the te1escope 'is 1740 46' 11.64" of arc or lLh 39rn 04.78s of tinre. From equation 3.3, locaj sjdereaj time can be calculated for
The east long.itude

loca'l zone time (1.T.

) as

344.

LI]CAL
DATE
\,

I DEREAL

M'u

F0i.

t)ECtsR t

l9 70.
R

l0

tt

L?

tlR l'lhl 00 u0 ()? 00 04 0'J 06 00 0B 0u 10 00 L2 00 14 00 l6 00 1 B 00 20 00 22 00 00 00 02 0rl 04 00 06, 00 08 00 I 0 00 L2 00 lr+ 00 I 6 00 I B 00 20 00 22 00 00 00 02 00 04 00 06 00 oB 00 10 00 I? O0 14 00 16 ()0 18 00 20 00 22 00 00 0c' 02 00 04 00 06 rjo 0B 00 I0 u0 L2 00 14 00 l a. (rD lB 00 20 00 22 00

L.T

sEc

li?
()

L.S.T

MN

SEC

HR
r

t']N

5LL

00.00 00.00 00.00 00.0t) 00.00 00'00 00.u0 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00. tlO 00'00 00.00 00.(r0 00.00
00. c0

00. u0

46 46 0i) 41 OB IO 4.7 t') t+7 LL I4 4U l6 4 tt IB 4b 20 49 49 22 49 00 0t sio

tt

23.20 42.90
02.62.

22.32
42 . 04

05 05 05

01.76 2L.46

4I.lB

00.90 20.60 40,3?

00. o0

00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00,00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00
00. 00

04 u6 0B 10 12 14 l6 ]8 2D 22 0 f.r 02
04
Ub

50 I 9.74 50 39.46 50 59.16 51 IB.BB 5 1 38.60 53.30 5I 's'?. I8'Oz 52 31 ,72 52 57.44 53 I7.16 53 36 .8/+ 53 56,56
54 5tt
rt4

06
L2

l0
I4

5'
55 55 56 56
rt6

16.30 36.00 55.7 2 L5.4? 35.L4 54.8 6

l6

I4.56

IB 20
22 00 o2

34 "ZB 54 .00

0c.00
00.00 00.00 00,0c
00. u0

57 57 57

l3 .68 )3.40
53.

L2

00.00

00. o0 00. c0

00.00 r'rI. l1! 00.00 00.00 00.00

04 5ii 0$ 5tl OrJ 5cj I0 59 I? 59 14 59 L7 OU 19 00 2I Otl 2) 0l

L2.84 32.56 52.26 l1 .98 31.70 51.40 30.82 5^.94 L0,2+ 29.96 49.68

lI.l2

0l 03

0r

0t

07 07 01 OB 0B Lr5 oB c)5 09 05 /l r; 0? 09 ob I0 t0 05 05 I0 rJ, 11 lI 1I 05 L2 05 L? 05 L2 05 0, I3 I3 05 I3 c'5 L4 05 l4 05 l4 05 05 15 05 15 05 15 05 16 c)5 16 a5 16 05 17 u5 17 (r5 17 C5 IB 05 18 t,5 IB v5 19 05 19 05 19 05 20 05 20 05 20 u5 2L 05 2L 05 ?-l t,) 22 05 2? 05 ?Z

rri
/1
C,

Lg.L2 38. B3 58.55 L8.26

31.91 5 ?.68 I 7.40 37.11 56.82

16.?5 ,5 ,96 L5,61 35.38

I6.53

55.I0

14.81 '34.52 54.23

I3.95 Z).6b

53.37 I 3.08 32.80 52.5L

3l .93 51.65

L2.22

11.36 31.07 50.78 10.50

q9,9? 09.63 29.35 49.06 08.77 28.48 48.20 07.91 21.62

41 .3-)

3Cl.2I

07.05
26.7 6 46,41 Uo. I ti 25.9Q 45 .6L

Figure A5.1: An exarnple of the printer output produced by

SIDER.

345.

-slotR
START

Reod

D LT

Reod

Se-cond

Dqto
Co Icu lcrte

Cord

ond

Heod

LST

--

LT+

R + LoN G
)

--1
__-l

CALL TYME ( LST

write

DATE,
R

LT,LST ond

Figure A6.2:

SIDER florvchart; s i derea ti rnr: .

program

for tabulating

local

346.

L.S.T, = R + u.T.

- west longltude =R+ U.T. - (24h - east longitude)

=R+ U.T, + east longitude
(A6.2)

=R* [r-.f. =R+ L.T.

r2h) + erlst longitlrde)

(00h 20rn 55.22s)
nead

After each ,ca'lcu:lation, L.T. is 'increme,nted by' 6(1,T.), the quantity fnom the firs,t data card, and R is ;incremented by
gB

6t .6(1.T.

eithen R or L.T" cros's throurgh twerrty-fou,t'hours, th'ey are automatica1ly reduced by twenty-four her,urs when TYME is called prior to printing.
l+lhen

ggEu

r
u

ii ;i;;iiiirj,iiitIII1itIIIrIIiIr11
tr:21t
LZ

[t g 0 r rr ts B t E0 I lEt t 0 0 ! c ct fl [ [ 0 g lr N t'] | [.g t u n n t .; 0 t | [ i t li3{sGlr4lrt

I
o

g$c

6l I ij:'r I t

tr

lt

00

$0

il I

i .l 'r 0 0 ti 0

rEirrrIr1|rII||IrirrIIitt1tiIIII|trIIII|1IIIII||
22 2 2
2

t i I 2I t I L12 2 2 2 2 1L 2 2 2 2 2 7 1,2 2,1 333s| 33 i s s g $l I I El t i 3 t t i s i i t l Et l,r I aE s s c I rEl 5 3 3 t: ' I t g l "'t 0;3 $ 3 ?,1 3 i I 3 3 3 l i 3 i s s I I 3 3 i 3 i 3 ,l t' ,; i { 4* ttAl { 4i i.qie ifl<, i t! t.+ 4H l t I 4 | (+ { r {,t i ; .t 4 r t i1 + { 4 | t ^, i 44 4 4t' t t: t' | 4l' 4 ( 4 | 4 { ${ r' 6 4 t 4 n

tt

tllz

?22

?2 s 1211 1? 2

2 2,2

I t2

2222

tr ? 2 2 2 z tr

1?

?21

5t555[[Eti$5i$5!5ffi[558$rr{fi3rt55:s53]5,[!f5t$5t$[5i5[5$555$&"i.JS5t5'$5iI5'ESt'5[585[55
00t00[6rg06s5$G$s8s0$886600[0$$0{t0$r66[6!0$EE$[,8$[CE&S009t088$i616S0600t0s!$06fit 't t I I ???t I 1 I I ! i t ? I I I t x 'l I 7 I t I i: t I I I E I i :l l l I I I t l t :l ? ? ? I I ? 1 1 | | 1' 1 1 | I 1 | 't 7 | I 1 ? ? I I I I I t t 1- I
:s80800$E0g8E0stB0fBIBB0[0stHes00000a0$0ts6BE&r0EcBB8tEEs0't$$'ss3$8808'8ht08';8808088 trI'r1 fi ' 'r I I I i " : i I rj i , i I J :' ^ t i l i I I ; ' '" : : ; : : : i ' F ! + $ S i I ; - I i I I i ,]' : : I : I I t ; :, I I [ : ] ! i I t : l'**1&tulil]t!|lEt't,lLl!|,l!.|i..i?t?t!ia'-.il!|:}g'iir'rl3it'';!${
rt
n

Figlre 46.

An example of the second data card requ,ired by SIDER,

H,M.

S.0, (l,{er

stationery office), ([970] Land Surveyot"s for the Year 1970r', (Lo,ndsn) .
F'tajestY's

!'The

Star

Almanac

for

347.
x_ 7

8p;Pgndi

Da!.a P.rocerssillg System lompuler Proqrant LigtlngF

The soul'ce prog'rdfi listinEs o:f the oomputer progrdms developed to store,o analyise and output the fnterferomei,er data are contained on the folll:owing pages.
STCIPT
I'IEAD

TREAD

Prog'ram Heading Decoding Routine Data Decsding Routine

Tape Storage
FlagreData Comb;i.ning

(F0R)
(nS}{l;;
(ASl\4)

page 34E
353

355
35j9

PAK
UNPAK

f{outine

(ASM)

FIaffData Separating Routine Etsk FtIe Index

(ASM)

359

DI'MPX
TIIdE-X :FARTY ERASE

Pninter

(F0R)

36u
360 061
361

Dekasec,ond Gonversi on Rout:ine (fOnJ

faFity ehecking Routine

(mR)
(FOR)

D$EA[{

srueD
EHAI{T
,c,l,lAu,v

REJEK AI/RC FTLTR

SIDER
TVME

Erase,r Numerical 0utput Cardl Data Stonage Rorrtin ,Grap.hieal Output Noi:ge Sptke Rejectr'o:n Noi se S it ke Rejecti on Record Ave"nagi n'g Di qi tal F,i I ter Loca'l Sider^eal Time T,fme Redu'cti on
lndeN Entry

(F0R)
(FOR)

362
363

(fOn1

364 s67

[fonl
(F0R)
(FO,R)

374

372

('F0R)

3it4
37'6 377

(F0R)
(FOR)

348.

I PAGE ) **('t \tt(** *+ *,** * *+** tr $.r.i d( {t* *cf f *{t dr * S* *** *** * * *r t** *;,t{.,{<** ****{t * {<*** ** ****f * c* STOPT IS PAPER TAPE STORAGE PROGRAI'I. IPAGE IS A SIX ELEMENT * * ARRAY GIVING THE PAGE AT K;HICH THE CORRESPONDING SCAN IS IO c* * c+ EJE HRITTEN ON DI SI( FILE IO. * CONTROL IS BY PTCC AS DEFINED c* * 01Pl rltl 0000 0000 c* START * c* END 0F HDIIG 0lPl 00I0 0000 0L'iiO * 01Pl 0000 0000 0000 STOP c* * PAUSE 0IPt 0001 0000 0000 c+ * 0rP1 1000 0000 0000 c* COI'IT I NUE c* IF PAUSE IS ENCTIUNTERED /iI END oF A TAPE' PROGRAM ST0PS. HHEN * * A SECOND TAPE IS PLACED IN TIIE READER AND THE START KEY c* Ct( PRESSID, PROGii&i1 COi.JTIi.IUIS IF FIRST CI.IARACTER T5 A COi\ITINUE. Itr + REQUIRES SUBROUT INES PAPTB I HEADT TREADT PAK' c* ***,F***** *f **(* *****s ** **t* *+******'1.****+*****+*****+******** c**'t*s***d( INTEGER START ( 6,) r PTIplEr TRYr PTNr SHIFTTDISKX i l0l rSCAN INTEGER BEGI NT ERR DI MEi,ls tut,.l I BUFR ( t()00 ) r JDATA( 5I0 I r t(HEAD t 20 ) DIMENSI ON KDATA( 40OI, IPAGE I 6 I I I REC ( 6) COI,II,lON JDATA, KDATA I I BUFIi
SUBROUT
T C
r{<

NE

STOPT (

c*
c*
Ctt

*
:B

INITIALIZE TAPE

READ OPERATION
)

{.

CALL PAPTB { Or IOOO I I BUFR

ERR=0 I NDEX= I I SUH=O I C0f'lT=0 I NVAL=0 NEH=0 I PAR=O CALL PAPTB ( I,SOOTJDATAI CALL PARTY ( I PAR }

I1', IFIN}
s
r*

c* c* c*

IF( IFIN)5 t6t5

READ AND PRINT HEADTNG DATA

CALL HEAD(KHEADTJDATA( t,lRITE(5,500lKHEAD{1)

MAX=KHEAD ( 6

II }, INDEXI
I

l0

DO
},|R

l'lR

lr
c* c* c*
L2

hRITE(5,503) G0 T0 106

IF

KHEAD(31-t0llrrl2rll

J=l,t4AX TE(5r 501 ) J'KllEAD( 2*J+5 l TKHEAD(2*J+6 TE( 5 t 5O2l ( KHEAD( J I r J=2 r 5 I

I0

TNITIALIZE

RECORD NUI'lBERS

* * *

l3

D0 l3 .,1=l,i.,iAX IREC(J)=6*IPAGE(Jl-5
PTII{E=START ( I

START ( J ) =360*KHEAD ( 2*J+5 l

IX=-I

349,

I Y=0
SCAN=

gg$ tlrlrPT I HE

c*

+
,!f

C*
cr

READ DATA AN.D DECI.DE IYPE

20 CALL A/g
t

TREAD(KINDI tNFOr I5PUR,' II{DEXIJDATA( 1I I I I Sl,Jl'l=I $Uf'4+ I S PUR

cf
C{r

IF(KIND-t l90r3or40
,DATA ROUTINE

rt

C*

* *

?0 IX=IX+l y= y+1.
I

KDATAIIYI=INFO CAtL PAK(IrKDATA( IYI

TRVEO

G*
c

C*

CHECK FOR ARRAY OI/.E.RRUN

:f
rF

3t G*
cr
c*

32 [F(lY-400le0tt3t97
33
t'lR,I TE | 5 r

HRITE(5r5041

IFtIX-100f32r31t3I
505
I

c*

G0

TrO 106

CIOCK DAT,A ROUTINE

:f

|t

40 TRY=O
IF
( .I

PT I HE=PT

I}lE+ I X NFO-PT I HE | 4? | 42, 47

C,*
c*,

CORRECT BLOCK !{A.RK

EBR=O I X=0

rt

4e

c*
Ctr

IFttY-36012OrEor81
INCORRE.GT BLOCK I'IARK

*
+

C*

/18 trf:rJ

t+'t, IT*Q DO /r9 "fa[sHAX IF l I l'lFO-START ( J l l+9r48 r49

49

c* c*

tF([Tl50r50r6o 50 IF(ERRl5l,r5Lr52
FIR;ST
btlRONG MARK

CONTINUE

rl

Ct

*
rt

51 EP.R= I
IXN* tX
NTN= I NF0 PTN,=PT I|dE PT IIIIE=PT I ME.I X

350.

c*

GO TCI AO
SEEONO t{RCING I{AR,K

||

C*
C*

* *

52 D0 53 J=,lr IXN I ND= I Y-I X+J-l 53 KEATA( INDI=O

5H I

IX,=[X-trXN FT-NTN-PTN I NVAL= tr NVAL+I xN+SH I FT

5.4 DO

IFtSHIFTl54r56r56 55 J=Ir trX

IND=IY-IX+J

.55 KD,ATA ( K I =!(DATA ( [N0 t

K* IND+SH I FT GO DO

56 57 58 c*

IV-J+1. l FT KDATA(Kl=KDATA{ INDI IY=IY+SHIFT

lN.D=
K= il\lD+,5H

T0 58 57 J=lrIX

60 T0 40
6-0 I Y=I Y-l

ER,R=0 PT I l.lE=NTN

C*
c*
6tr
C*

SET FOR NEH

SCAN

* * *

IF( tY-60189f61r6I

NE,W=

IFI tY-360!80r80r81

!t

C+
c*

T.IRITE DATA ON DISK

MOST=IY GO T0 83 MOST=360

t *

80

C*
c*

c*

81 83 llR,ITEt l0r lREC(S9ANl t IKDATAtJI1Js!,rlilOSTl

UPDATE INDEX
DI
SKX (

t
dl

1,l=l

DISKX(21=KHEAD(tl
Dl SKX ( 3 l =KHEAD I 2,.SCAN+' I DI SKX l4) =KHEAD l 2*5CAN+6 ) Dt SKX ( 5I'=KHEAD ( 5l
D I'S,KX (

DI SKx ( I l= INVAL DI SrKX [ 9l =1

DISKx(71=BEGII'l

6 l =KHEAD'( rr I

0ISKX(10I=0
HN

J=IRECISCAN)/6+1
C,f

I'TE I20!J I DI SKX IREC ( SCAN I = IREC ( SCAN I+6

rf

3:51"

C* C*
e*

}IR.ITE HESSAGE ON PRINTER RESET COUNTERS

t.|R

* *
+

ITE ( 5 r'506 I J r BEGIN' trNVAL I ISUMtMOST IltlVAL=0 I SUM,*'0

85

lF(NEWll08r85r89
IN+3,60

rBEG I:N=8ErG

86 IY=0
88

lF(XV-360186r8'6r8?
?O

8? lY=IY-360 0O BB J=lrIY
Cttt

GO TO

KDA.TAIJ I *K,DATA( J+36O } G0 T0 e0

,{t

c*

C*
89

TN.ITTATIZE
NEH=O SCAN= I T

FO]R T$EW SCAN

:t

PTIHE=START ( SCAN l BEGIN=PTII'lE KDAT,A( t I =KDATA( IY+t I I Y=1' I X=O ERR=0 GO T0 Z'O
Gr;

t
+ $

c*:

C*

PTCC. AND

DEFICIT

ROUTINE

90 IF(KINDlt00r9Ir9l 91 INTDEX='INDEX+ t SPU'R-5O0

K=

L-

I N,EEX

92 DO 93 J=lrK
L= il

I F tK 194t94

t92

93 JDATA{ Lf=JDATA{ L+50o1 94 tF( tFINt96r95r96

I'*J

9t

96 WRITE(5,507'IFTN GO T0 106 l0O ['IRITE|5f 5og I INFO

CAL[- PAP'TB,( l.'SO0TJDATA( CALL PARTY ( I P.AR I 60 TO eO

1lI rIFIN]

101 HRITE l5t5I0l IYTBEGIN 1011 IF I IF-[N I I0L3s I0L2r I0l3 10,f2 CALL PA,PTBt lr500rJDATAl Il) rIFIN)

IF ( INFO-1 1 102r l01 r l0Z

t0t9 cALL

GO

T0 l0l,I

I CoNT= I tN'gEX= L G,O TO 20 XO,2 I F I I,MFO-B l

CrtLL

PAiRTY t

P'APTB(l.r500rJE:ATA{ I PAR )

lll

tFiNl

I06r lQ3r

106

352.

t03

104

IF ( I C,0NT-I I t06'
I COtlT=O I SUM=0

I04'

106

[06 IF ( lY-60 I l0Br 107r 107 I07 NEt.l=-1 GO TO BO I08 I,{RITE( 5' 509 } IY' BEGIN
l.lRITE(SI5IIIIPAR
CALL
DUi\1PX

GO TO

?O

c+f,
C**,f

RETURN

,t{.*:St***t***t****t,t +**tf *************+**,t***+***t'*****+******+***t cr* FILE 5OO FORMAT(lHlrr*s***.,',s*t*****+*****+'l*+*****+rr/t'****TAPE IS

*0. I tl4t/ tr ***'f 't*St'****:rtrr******:('******'lt'**r r00 HouRsr 501 F0RI4ATt IH , t SCANt T I2r I IS FROM" I3, r00 HOURS T0t r I3'
|

N I

r/ /

5O2 FORMAT(1H TTBLOCK LENGTH =rrI4rr SAI{PLE5r SAMPLE INTERVAL =r;I4 *, I SECONDST GAIN =r r I4tt.- DECLIhIATtUN =r r l4r I DEGREES. I t/ /lI /I 503 FORMAT ( IH r I ****SAMPLE INTERVAL IS NOT TEN SECONDS****I ' HORDS****t LAST t00 504 F0RtlAT(ItJ0rrs;i:i-,i,frlI BL0CL( ]lAS BEI':hl F0Ul'lD il'',1 THE

'/

*t//l 40 H0RDS** 505 F0RMAT(1H0rr****sT0RAGE ARRAY 0VERRUNT N0 BL0cK IN LAST *+*t r//l l'l 506 FSRMAT(fH rrPAGErrI3rr STr\RIING ATr rl5rr DEKASECSTtTI4T' iNVALID I W0RDS. t ) *0RDSr I r l/rr r spuRt0us cHARACTERS, TOTAL OFr r I4r I AT LAST READ****r I 507 F0RMAT(1H0, r*{r**Ct{ARACTER DEFICIT 0Fr rI4r 508 FORMAT( lHOr I****PTCCI r I3r' ENCOUNTERED**+*I I t ATr I 509 F0RMAT( tH0r TREADING ST0PPED ATr I I/r1 |,ll0RDS 0N PAGE BEGINNING *I6rr DEKASECS.tt//l 510 F0RMAT(1t-tor'READINc pAUSED AT'r I4r I t,lORDS 0N PAGE BEGINNING ATr *rl6rr DEKASECS.tt//l 5rl F0RMATtIH+ tt4tt INc0RRECT pARITy Cf.|ARACTERS ENC0UNTERED ON THIS rA

c+*

*PEttlll

Ct****t:f ******+*t(**n ******,fi***,$+**+**********{*****'t***'i***************

c**

END

353.

(1;1[Q

0ltl4lI00

>Ftr**+.*rF*

EFIT
16];:t6tl

'S *
,h * 'i. # *
*
:lr

HEAD DEC.UDF5

iIEADIIiG INFURI'lATION FRU;1 * pi{PLil TAPL hFTEq I'f ilAS EEEN RIAD lNT0 * A tF A tsLlfl.['l tj,Y P,\Pf[1. * I ST THI CALL ING SEAU-NCE * HE/ru ( ]1DATA JDATA' INDEX ) CALL '

*vr,f *'t>'!.4(:i(/r*rt***{<tf >F**,lt*)N}t{'.+,:.43******+{til

HEAIJ

rt*.

TiI:

*
0ui.t0
(J

d<:*tic>f{:******J;:>i}$$/6):(*d(*/Ftr****,k\trF****(+*rttt**********:B*

TIDATA IS A 20 ELEI'lENT /iRN.6Y CONTAINING F I L f: r L iJt-K r L S AMP, bA I N DFCN t SCANS START r Sl'tlP . * ' ' JDATA I5 A 5()U iLEMEI.tT ARRAY CL'NTAI[IING THE* * RAv,i DA'tA FRti;"1 Illt TAPE. + AND READI i{G I5 TO CUI.lMENCI AT I NDEX ' TLEMENT II!D:X I5 IlI(.iI-ii:: ITEIJ TO THE I'JEXT * AFTi.R THt !-lEADIirG. * ALL VARIABLES AfTT ONE I,IT]RD INTEi;EiiS.
UT,

0i0 I ul

0tr u0

TIEAD

0.tu3
0u07

.r

0rr04 ul
0ur(16 il

800t,00 Dlttt4 1 4oL 0u00

C4

LD
sT0
14DM

l-lE

liD

IIADP.S

Oti0[
001

ggiJ().1 0 C1ii00.r(t I OUOb U DO 3D 0COC (,,I C1t B Lr0 rJi.t0

t)

69?tJ L,I 65 8U0000

STX I LDX I I IIEATJ LD I I I sr0 INDIX HE /rD LD I

A
S

}JEAD,I SAVE+I

0u0F 0,.t I U

BU3E

ONE

*AhIN PUT AT HADRS INC llE/rD TU JDATA ADDRS*2 SAVE CONTENTS OF XRI JDATA ADDRS+2 I NTO ,(RI StT l:,\DEX AI'lD ASSICN *A LOCAL STORAGE GET JDATA ADD;TS AND *ADD ONE AND SUBTRACT

HDATA ADDRS*2 GET IlIJATA(I) ADD'1S

!, ri
,'Jo

9u J9 DJOI 690Q0.-,00

STO
LO AD
rF
ttk

LDX LI

INDTX LOAD+I
0

*INDT.}II LATIR II'JIU XRI

JDATA( INDEX) ADDRS

F

*
0u13 U cI00 Oul+ (tl 4C 20U0 I A 0i l6 t) 7 LFF 01,I7 ,ll 7401C).)49 OUI9 U 1 0F9
LEADI'{

READ BUFFER UNTIL

I RST CI{R

* ENCOUNTERED *
+

LD BNZ i'lDX I
1

START

GET C}1!1 AT JD.\TA( IFIDEX) IF NI]T O GO TO START

I'1DM

-1 I NDIX, I
LEADR

IT O IN3 ADDRS AND *I{ETUP,N TO LEADR

* *

*
Ui,rIA
0't I L
0r-,1

*
t(

READ HEAD I N.; DAT A

f/rR

0(,Iti rrI OulJ u

r..r

7 LFE 7 4020

i4DX
I"IDM

u49

r-2

,,

SI(IP UVER
GET

CHR

CU2C
Uv LV

0\rlF

1i il I 74FF0ri4B
u 0
(r 7

40 L5

READI

LD STO I]S I
MDM

T NDLX,2 SIX

CI]UNT
DCDDE

*AT

AND

STORE

CUUi,IT

c.outiTr-1
READI

*SIX TITiES' THEN

*CONT I NUE

BR TO DCODE

SUD|I

AUVZ

0u23
\' .a

I00 t
4rl0

0FC

ll
SLA
.\

I
1'':
i'-

0u25
cr(t

26

ooir
E

STO

c0ui{T
DCOD
E

O;tZ) )

r).t

/7 .r I

READz 65I
MDI'1 r,

7 qFF 0t.t4D

c0ut'lTr-I
c,EAD2

70 FC

':.,lrLT ;j, 3 ^.11 l-.! 1, +PUT AT COUNT BR TO DCODE SUBR 'fc0ut'tT T It'lES rTlrEt't qETURN *TO CAI.L II"IG PqL-]GRAM

TAKE LAST l'lORD

READT

354.

* *
Qu21, JI 658Cr00tr0 00ec 0 c01c
(.lur2D u0
D 580[t,Lr o

REIUIfI TO CAI-LI X3
tDX
LD tsT0
MDX

PTTIGRAH

* t *

r1

l-lE AD

t
SAVE
R,ETRN
+

ouaF
0

0
L)

7 LUZ

Oull
U3

ISLJ

6,903

U0
Lr'0

650t)0!,00
ciCtJ00,CIO0

STX LDX
B

3.

tl I T2 t ReTRr{+t LIO r-0

'0

IhIPEX

JDATA A0DR5{.2 INTO xRl *AND RETURN INDEX TO

*CALL ING FROGqAM SET RETURN ADDRS

RESTI]iIE XRl

*
1$

* *
Otr35 0 0.u35 O

OE]CODI
DC

NG SUBRUUT i I{E

iF

0037 003E 0u39 0l;34

0u,00 cr r}0 E[, I6

0co:08

LD AND

10
I4.ASK+

CET JDATA( II'IDEXI TAKE tsI[S L? NO. T5

MOVE LEFT

0
L)

1004
DOT?
C.I FF

5LA

PLACES

sT0
LD
ANO

O{r3tl O03g

0 0
t)

Etl

I2

-l I
B

TEMF
14AS K

TEHP STCIRE GET JDATA ( !NDEX+1 I

{t

IAKE

IXI

TS \2

TCI .15

90,0F

TEMP

0'tu30 Lt lut,E 0{.,3E 0 18 88 ;0ru3F C'I D'4B00uit+8 00,41 0 7I FE 0u,42 Ul 74O20t149

SLA
SRT

ADD PREVtOUS CHR SET SIGi\ siTS PtJT AT HDI\TA I NC C0UtrtTERs

IN
}

sT0
MOX
14D14

IIADRS

-2

lNDcXr2 ER TO CALL POINT

:F

oL,lrli I 0q+6 uI
J

?4FF0ur4B
IrC EO'J035-

MDTI

HADRST-I
DCOOE

* *

8SC c,oNs irAN

DC

*
O,tJ4E 0

rs
0

*
'*

0Jo0
0'o00

HAORS

HDATA ADDRS LOCN

00dt9
0tlztC 0'04D
OO,4E

OU/IA 0 0048 0
u

0006 o0e0 0000

oct01 000F

:SIX

INDEX

cou,rdT

DC DC DC

0 6
0 0

TEMP

0
U

ONE
+
rl.

EC
DC DC

TEI'{PORARY STOR,AGE ITASK [J000

:MASK4

l00orF

0000 0000 XIIt

*
*

+??? + i'it++'*'t***** ******'tr{'***#**r}*lt*'t* *'# * {. * * dr* * #** * **.tr+ *l|*'}F+ +.*.+:+ {. +.!r:r d(:s+t+;ry+ F.al.F
END

0u50

355.

0u00

2J.b4',5C++

* * ' * TIMI.T AFTER TAFE HAS BEEN + OfiIE sET AT A * *. READ IIT;I(] A dUFFTR BV PAFITB. * * THE 9411-lirlG SESUENCE tS # CALL TFTEAD(IYPE,INFOTSPUI{T INDEX'JDAIAI + * * TYFE IS 0 Fll'R A |.IUN-READ ACTIONI ti-NDl * * 1 F.UR A1ID, DATA + * 2 FOR BLCICK PIARK * * -l FoR l'rcc * :IT SPU:R I S A SP'UR I UUS CHR COUNT. * TNbEX XS TIIE CUR|TE|{T EI-EHEI.IT OF AN ARRAY + * * STAIITINS AT JDATA AND 5IJO l.lORDS LBNG. ALL VARI Ai]LE S AA.E ONE IJ'OID TNTEGERS. 'ft 'F *$ *+ + *, +* + *.s + + + tr$ * * * * * * *'} * * * *, {t * # *** *'1. * * * * * * * * *
d(
1F

TR EAD E.NI * * * * *+ * lt rt,rri.* * * * * * * f,- * + * * *,+ * * *,* * + **:{q * *{. Jfr tf + # t {. * * * * * #* TREAD DECODES DATA FRCII"l A PAPER TAPE

d(

:F

rF

0100

0u0t

0r100

TREAD

DC

ouoJ 0 00ir3 0 t

b94A 6Aqti

STX

5TX
I-DX

65 80e'U0O 0,c05 ci) c5 8G0CI03 OOCIt r) D06Z

0u0E 0[ 00oA Oil c48000c0

O,UOC 0 BO5E

LD 5TO
MDM

I 2 II II I
L2

SAVEl+I
SAVEE+I
TREAD
3

?/i0r+0u00

lNDEX TREAD, +
TREAO
ONE

LD
,l ^

TYPE ADDRS*z .SAVE CONTENTS OF XRl SAVE CONTgNTS OF XRz TYPE ADDR.S+2 INTO XRl GET I hIDE X AND A5S ! GN *A LO]CAL STORAGE INC TI"TEAD TO JDATA ADDRS*2 GEI JDATA ADDRS AhID *ADD ONE AND SUBTRACT

OUOD 00018

C
ts

000F

Oirtl

i.)0
U

905C D0il1 66Q00u00 co6 3

D05
E

LoAD
rF

5 sT-o

INDEX LEAD+I,
0'
Z Ef{U

*IIXPEX, LATER INTO

SET COUhIT TO
JDATAI INDEX } AODRS
ZERO

XRZ

t-Dx
LD

0LILZ

,sT0

COUNT

*
0u13 0014 0{r15

TAKE THO EHRS FROM EUFF'ER. CHECK ID CODES

BST
RE AD

* *
+
)ft

0bl6

0 0 0
0 0

4,03D
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CHECK

LCI

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1,8

88

SRT

ou17

I8 d6
IOEZ EO56 90 56

o0!9 0
O[,IF

o0r8

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AND

a 6
2
MAS Kdl

PTEK UP T!{O CI{RS *AI'ID SEPARATE ID *coDE5

s
gr.
5
BE

F0ult
IrTCC
FOUR DA.TA
FOUR

IF ID=4 THEN PTGC

001,4 J1 4 C L B0ir30 05IC ii 9J53 OOID UI 4C I800;39

O*rZ0 tl I
U

90i0

5
D

IF ID=8 THEN OATA IF lD=12 IH]EI\l BI-OC:K

* * *
INC INDEX AND CqUNI
TEST SIAE CIF INDEX
MOVE

4C 1 80t.1?

* * *

bz

CLOCK

If'IVALID
MOM
iJ.D P

ID

CODES

't l' 1 tr'.t L,J'J 7 I 002{t i) 40,38 o0e7 a coqS 0,J28 .u 1'iQ I
0,-r 2

a,a22 01 7401,t064

rt

IND;EXr

cO,u'tT,
T EST A,R,EA

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LD

SLA

*'OUT AND iSRTNG. IN

FTRSf

C}IR

356.

C-r

O,-i2A 0
or.',trAU O

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L)

Dr)43 cz 00

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STO LD AND
A

,\REA
0 MASKE AIR EA

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0tt20 u
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*
00
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0

* PTCC LD

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CU|IMANID

* '*
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SET TYPE T'0

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0 C(r 39 (lu l+ t) l.003 CI035 o Etlf9 0u 36 tj0 D5 80000

t
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7004

LD I SRA ^REA AND MASK4 SIIJ II 1 BACK B

DATA
DECOD I
ONE

PUT LAST FIJUR BITS

*II'IT0

IIIFO
SUBR

BR TO RETURN

fIG

ROUT I NE

0 eLr3l 0,u34 'J0 D5,800000 0D3C 0 c030 Otr30 (), 1u03 o'i 3E 0 l8, E 1{J03 OU 3F o Ou/+O o r 084 00(t I 00 E5 80000 t
01.,39

DATA

LD sTo Il. tD SLA SRT

Slf

SET TYPE TCI +I

DEC0TDE SATHPLE DATA

* * *

0 AREI\
V
;$

*AND PUT INTO INFO

sha

'!
t+

* js *

STTJ I1 I

RE-TURN

T0

C ALL I

lllc

PROGRAM

* * *

0t,:43 0 0C4{r 00 Ou46 0 a047 00 0u49 o

co2'6, D5 80000.3 CIJ2A D5BOO002 ?l 05 004A rj 6e0 5 004b oo 6r 0010000 004D Jo 66f-t0,0000

B.ACK

0u4F

(10

4c0000u0

RETURN INDEX TO ST'OPT :I.O IND X STO IT 3 ]COUNT RETURN SPUR TO STOPT LD sro Il z $]ET RETURN ADDRS ITIDX 15 STX I RETIIN+I RESTORE XRI 5AVE1 LDX LI O RESTOR.E XR? SAVEA LDX L2 O L O SETRN ts ,h * TAPE READIf\tjJ ROUTINE

*
,$

00 51 rl

00,00

* READ DC

0c52 OI 74020064 4uilA 0u 5/f \,f. Ou55 0 c200 0r,56 ,\ 10 c8

,cto

0,u,58

0vi'l
0CI5A

57 0 o
J

DUt5
C.EF.F

ci I )

0u5 o 0',tiG 0

8012 D0l t
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005D u1 4C80005I

MDF4 INDEX I 2 TEST BSI LD Z A 8 SLA ST'O AREA I.D ?, -1 y,\SKt} ,lrlD AREA A AREA STO I,|,DX ? -Z 6SC I READ

INC INDEX AND TEST *FOR SIZE

READ ONE
REACI
CHR

?GND

,CHR

UpDAfE J0I\TA(llil,DEXl AI|DRS qETURN TO CALL POINT

3i57.

t
0u5F 0061
O;$'6:2
U

*
INDEX TiST ITOUTIf{E
ES'T

*
oo,bQ !f
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*
T

{.

0000 cc0e
90

t2

u,l 4C L ClQC,6,6 Ov6t 01 /, c tr000 5F o066 t) c00E 0u67 u;0r D5 8OOCr00

01,r,6'9

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* * *
I [\IDE
0,N,8
X

DUO LD S BNN tssc I LD 5T0 Il ,B

sss
DrC

TNDEX

VCI
OFLOU

IF INDEX GR,EATE.R TH'1.N $5OO BR TfI O\TERFLOW

sET TYPE TO O
BR TO RETURN
SU6R

rEsr

/ERO
0

tlAcK +3

l.

CT]N,STANTS

* *

00bA OU6A

0000 o(!00
OriU
L

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0

036G 006C
Ori6F

0060 0c6E

u 0 0 0
O

DC

I
0 0
z.

0i)00 0000
0{J0? 00{)F 9U04

oc
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TEI4P STORAGE AREA

DE
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MA5K4 FgUR
COUNT
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q

MASK
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0000 0000 0000 lt11 0000 0000 1111 ttrl

0,071 () 9u12, 0

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OOFF FF.FF

DC

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0073 0074 O0 75

a
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0t F5

VCI
ZERO
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/ CIOFF
501 / c0c0 IO
0 6

0.U76

cilco
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0u7?,J 0078 0
(,p,

TEN
TE MP

DC DC DC DE
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TEHP STORAG,E AREA

oil00
0O,06

sIx

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!F

0074 0I 74Q,Z0o7I 0u7c 0 ?ue'7 o07D o C0EF

*
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CLOCK D,ECODtr NG
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s
CLOCK LO
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firEcK
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MOVE ATiEA TO AREA-I rANrD READ Tt/0 l.{0RE *cr-,rRs ltcT0 AREA CH"ECK I D CO.DE5 *OF SECOND SET GO TU

0ij84..t CJEg 0085 u0 058C0000 0u3? 0 eUE4 008'8 0 10J3 ou8e il IBOE OU8.A O AUEC 0r,3$ 0 I r;90 OUEC, O DOEE. 0080 0 CODE 01,6E U 1&85 008;F 0 1803 0u9,0r 0 liBt OJ91 'J Eri0D

BNZ

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LD

sTo
LD

I1

T t{CI

*NOTZ IF INVALID sET TYFE TO +2

0 AREA-I
3

SLA
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M

t4 I6

1.EN

SEPARATE IO,TI.I.OURS *C0NVER"T Tr0 HUtTRS *T.,Y PIULT I PLY I NG BY IO *AhIE TE[4P STORE SEFARATE 1*HOURS *ADD TO IG4HOUil5 +ANE MU].LTIPLV BY 6 *TO CONVERT TO I,O*HIN]5 ,*AI'JD TEHP STORE

SLT
STO LD SRT SRA

TENP
5 3
1

AqEA. I

SLT
AI.JD

I'1ASK4

358.

I I

OtlZ "t tli)t-5 l-t,t9 3 (,| Ai,tt 5 Q1i94 t.t l(rcJt) 0,. ji ti Dtrt-Z 0tr9b J C'.ril5 Q1t97 (J E tlf 7 0r-,i8 U I rJ I O{. cJ9 .,r t},lDE i)'9,\ J Alf)c OU'/L J I J9i) Ot 9C o Dtt93 0r.,rD tl cricE
r.1

T F I.'IJ

/r- U LJUJ 0 lri0l OirAO C, I Uil3 0L,AI 'J tJCl) 0,1 itZ ,:J iJ U D 5 00A3 ir AuiS 0uA4 0 I'i 90 U v ,\:r ,,1 D 'tD2 riu.\b rl CJC6 0L)d7 U 183,5 OUAS O IJUB Ur-iAy u lrjr-lc O.JAA U LUEI 0UAti ',1 BrrCC Ou.\C {r0 D5tj0O001 O,,rAf J 7u94
r)(.i

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F1 SLT 5I0 L.D Ai{u SI1A A l'1 SLT 5T0 LDD SLT SRA SLT

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I

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16

*ADD T0 pREVI[rg5 Sut'',l, .itf,.LlLTlPLY irY i0 TU

'lCt)l'IVERT T0 Fl l NS :k/rr\D TE|']P STO|?E

SEPAp./rTE I0'}'l1lNS

AREA-I

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AND A l'1 sLT !T0 LD SP.T SLA sRA SLT A

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T

3 3 3

S[PARA'TE I*I'/INS AND ,:.irUD PR,EV I Ol.iS 5Ui''l /iiJD *FlIJLTIPLY I,Y 6 TO

*CI)NVIRT TU 1O*'SECS itAtllJ Ttl'lP ST0RE

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5

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SUI,1

11

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TEMP

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ST0 II I DACI( U

SIDRI: IO*SECS AT INF0

BR Tl.J RETUR|!
SUBR

{(*(**)k>i(*f.<d<rlr*:>k{t>l:rt*/,{'}'ki.(*',1,**t*t'<*t>3ltri:**'ir1<**1k+****+*iY)t}t*4(

O.IL}U

END

359.
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I /052C00

ENT

PAK
lF

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,1.

*
*t

rk

BITS
DC

*
0u00
0ut, I (_l 0 u02 ,JI 0 Ji)4 rlo 00(16
OU U-/
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. ^LrAtit OTU o ur h r 7
A

eTu150F
I II II
0

i.iUM ARE PLACED

IN

BI

TS

* *

*
I'IUM ADDRS*2 SAV-c CtlNItiilTS UF XRI NUM ADDRS INTO XRI

0 t, (,,0

PAK

69(rf: 6tC,00(t00 c5B{)000c

1.J09
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5 rx LDX LD

SAVI+I
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ir

0003 00 ct{J0000I
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I1 I
I

9 TEMP

GTT NLIt4' LEFT JUSTIFY *AND SIORE AT TEMP

GET DATA' REMOVE BITS *[ TI] 6 AND ADD hIUN STI]RE COlIBINAT IUN AT DATA SET RETURN ADDRS

) o

i:.J J
B

.)

i.lAStie

OuilC r-!O 7 LU? 000 E Ll 6e i)3 OO JF 0

009 D58[,0u01
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sTu
MDX

II I
L

TE MI) ?

0010

UO

OULZ UO

SAVE RETRi,l DSC

STX LDX

I RETRI'l+I
L1 0
U

RESTI]'iE XRI

*
fr

CONSTANTS

* *
MASK 0000 0001 TEI.tP STORAGE
at v,.

0u 14 u
0'J

OIFF 0'J 00

MASKg
T
,:(
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DC DC

/ OLFF
0

llrl

1111

**
0{rl6
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2+551 a5Z

*:rt {<ds* * *d<*'t i( *{< END

****+*

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t{t* **:i;{r* ** **8+ *+* ***:li* **

*,F * :* * * * * *

* *

* * + * *4 /r I *. * + * +,i. rr * * * * {< * + * * * * + :B * * * + +'fi * + * * * +'|l * [JI.IPAK SI.PARAIES DATA AND FLAG PREVIOUSLY * * COI'ILINED t}Y PAK * SE(TUENCE I S THE CALL TNG

Ei'lT

Ul',lPlrK

0U01 ,.r 6 /10 Oo02 iJ I 6 5 tlO0tJO0 0C04 rr0 C) uuov.ul uu d6 ('l Itj09 0007 00 Dr800,;00 0009 00 ci 80000 I 0UUd r/ I t07

0uCrJ,J

00

i0

* I S DATA I I] ITS O TO 6 ARE * ArriD RI-TURNED AS NUM SEPARAfID * :l .t * *,'F * 4* * * :F i. *'t * d.,t * * * *, *,* * * * * + >i * * ),k S + + + )t *'F * * * * * * * * * * NU14 ADD;TS*2 O ut'IPAK DC

* *

4*

CALL

UTiPAK ( I"IUM r DATA

COFIL I |.'IED I,.IORD

000c

0i)0D \() D:iflt)0Ll0l

OL,UI:
0C

J
U

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l0 o,rIl 0i; I3
I6

i1

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65 0rr,J,-100

4C()00i)00

* *******

SIX I S.iV[+1 LDX I I UNPAK LD II I 9 5RA II o 5TO LD lI 1 7 SLA 7 SRT STO II I f4DX I 2 STX 1 RCTRN+I S,\VE LDX LI 0 RET;{,\ BSC L O
:rv

S,iVE CCIITi:ITS OF XRl NUi"l ADDRS*2 IrtlT0 XRI GET DATA,\ND SEPA!?,{TE

*FLAGI STORE AT NUI4

GET DATA AND SET 2TS

*CUMPLEMENT SIGN AND +STORE AT DATA

SET RETURI',I
RESTORE XRI

ADDRS

),t

)* \k

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t(

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r,.

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * :t * * *

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360,
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NE

DUFPX

C*f**{.hr+*+**+**+/,::1.{r***+****f.i(*:F**t*':r*+r}$**\k,B**+*+**++:}rt***:t*St**lr****** DUYPx PRINIS INDEX Et\TRIES CF ThCSE pAGES Ili DAIA FILE RSTAR * c+ c* CIJq?ENTLY IIi USE *lr C****{**{:t**}t***t<***++***>lr****{.***rl***+****t**Jr***{)**********r}*+******f
INTFCER BECIN DIT/ENSICN INDEX( IO )r IT (6)
EEGIN=0 LEFT=96

c* c* c*

tiRITE(5,1001
READ AND hR

ITE

INDEXES

CF

TI-OSE PAGES

OCCTP I ED

* * *

DC 3C N=1r90 READ(2OIN)INCEX

20 iF(8EGllil22tZLt22 2L EEGIfr=l
I

tF{lNcEX(l))?0r10r20

HlltTE(5,ICI) 22 LEFT=LEFT-l 30
l,iR

CALL TII/EX( If\DEX (7 ) I IT I

N=LEFT*6

I TE ( 5' l"C2 ) l{ r ( INDEX ( J I t J=Zr6 ) r lT r INDEX ( B } r INDEX ( 9 ) r INDEX ( l0 CUI'lI I NUE

hRITE(5rio3)LEFTTN
I

RETUR.N

C* C*****rtrr******++*+*)$******rt*+*f

c** FORMAT(lHlr3CX'r***** 100

*t///////l
END

{.*+**)ir!f t ***'*******+***S+**4(**S*'}*d(*:l***
RSTAR DATA

'f

t'0I FCRilAT(IH rrPAGErr3XtrTAPE NC.r1lrXrrSCAN FRCMrr?XrtDECN.'t3XrtGAIN * | t 4 X , ' p i G E B e G I N t I 3 X , ' I N V A L I C h D S , | , ZX t I A V E R A c E 0 F , r 5 X r I F I L T E R t / I ' I O2 FCRFAT ( i H r [ 3 r I B r I 9 , | 00 TCI r I 3 r ' 00 t r I B r I I r 6Xr 2 I I r 1X t 2 I I r I XI 2 I I r * I 10r I I I r ' SCAN ( S ) | r I8) lO3 FCRf',lAT(lH0r30XrI3rr UNUSED PAGES (,rl3rr RECORDSI IN RSTARtt//l///

FILE INDEX

*****tt//l

c+*
c*

C******++*********)8*************:r***:F****:(r+t**+)i*)t***+****************
rl

SUI]RUUT I I{E T II.1EX ( ITI I'1E, I T ) C,l +*+,ir*+ ++it.$>t t**)i< A+* #)f ii* ++ rF+:1.+ trk+ t\:**,i<.!,i.,F*+:k:ir f:t rir+* ***.*)i(rF*****t*;ic***tt

c+ c{.
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USED BY CI-IART Ai.,ID

-w

IiMEX C0NVIRTS DEKAStCTIi\iDS (lTI\iE] INT0 DEKAT'l0URS' H0URST rJ[K,;i'iI;rUIE5, ,'il.tUTE-' De(ASLCLJi'i.,S A.'D SeC!it;S (iT(6)].
DUMPX

****
+
{<

DIMET,ISIt-li'l IT(61 r IFACT(4)

DATA IFACT/ IhIPUT=ITIME tJO tJ I'l=Ir4

56UO r 36U

t6At6/ *I f (.ll

l0

I T t ttt )=l r\PUT/ I FACT ( N ) I'lPttt=l IPIJT- I F,1if ( \ll Cui't l' l,'lUc

lT(51=Ii'IPUT

Il'(6)=0
R'E f
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U'i''l

r,'.

+** ++**

++

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E hJD

I
36,I.

C*{..,.*,t***+$**+*t***+****-{r* 4.#{t:t*t****f t+*:F******t{***lF****+*****+******* iC+ pARTy CgICKS T1E PAi-] tl Y uF A 50ir HU4D ARRAY STARTING AI JOATA * C+ AFT[[l. ITEING READ gY PAPI'ts. .- - * Ert lF TAI,E i|'JA.RACTER H,A,D EVrrN PAR,IIYT TI{EN IT 1S LEFT 'AL]{J'NE' * C+ IF TAPE CrIA'r{CIER HTD ODD PAl-TITY T}{[ IT5 [DENTIFTCAT ION CODE * NG' t s cl-lAi{,i,ED Irl C,lLJSE A SPUR IilU5 C|IARALTER DUR I NG DCU'D:tr c* * A5 IPAR. truMbER uF tJF,O PARITV CHnRACTER$ IS I-ETURNED

5UTJ"I{UUII

NE

PARTY ( I PAR }

c*
e

r*rl::<rt+*.*dcrr**'+*,lr+*+:f :it'*+*r,ei:** *,N******lk*/r<*:ir++****t*******'***''!'*****lt**'*** COM}.IIUIr JDATA ( 5ICI I

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J0AI A t K't - 256],20r lu r I 0 tF JDATA(K'-320 l I1, 12,'lz

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L2 JC)AlA(Kl=0 I PAR= I PAR+l ?u CON;T I NUT,

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cs** ******+-*;#+**lF**+*'+ 'B+**'******c?*'t'f'**

*****+*!F++*f **+*'x*{(**++*****'***'8

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ct**,F*t1*g{f;*,{z*x*****+*}fi!t ***r*$*.+tF+:**+*r.:t.**,!t*+:R***+*li* o$*r*,,r+*+*,*****,**** - "C+ ERA,SE DE]I-ETE'5 T'H,E IN0'EX EN'TRtrES (FILE ZOt OF PL'EN PAGES O:F T FIL.E IOT BEGTNNING AT_PA6E PBEG. C* * A M,ODIFIED INDEX IS PRINTED. * * tt * + + ** t* * * s'** * *{.*r{.**:****,*,**r*,** Cr c* + * * * ** rs.* r. * rr * * * f * ** * * * #* *{t + * * * t * * + tcarr+
INTEGER. PBEG I FLEllr PF FF I NqP BE.$+PL EN*

STJSROUTINE

ERASEIPBEGTFLiEN'

I{RITE(2OIJI IZ
lOO CONTINUE CALL DUTIPX
r.i- a.&! r&..& &* *,.rr&,& *il..* *,& *.*** tr.*r {t *'** *'* l egg f,*$nlr***tltt t*'i|*+'l' [ * *,* * * * * t * * **+ * fF''r,* * + * * + * * dr** * * * !r tr* ts * * * * * * *+ *'**
C

00'lO0'

IZ=,O

lN

.!=PBEGTPFIN

RETURN
END

Gos*

36?.,

f, rr

* *:* *

C4'

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c+
i-+

C+

c*
c+

*'t + * * )k * * * + * t * F a * {t f * * * 'X * * + + + * + +'* * * * +rl :k * t<* * * * * }r * * ,* * * D5CT.|'I DU]MFS IJAIA FROI'I DIS.K FILE IO ON TU THE LINE P;IINTER OR + * 0N T{J CA,RDS. * rF ,t]'f.'IIT tS O OrR -'VEr IIJ.IIN DUMP I5 ON PR.INTER * IF Ur,IIT IS +VEI THEI'I DUT'IP [S UN CARDS * DATA IS D-Ut-il,80 STARrINc F|RO-M pAG,E PCEg, Ahl0 CO,NTI:NU.ES FOR
dt

SIJBftOU

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rk

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* *.*

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c*
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PLE:{ PAGES. DSGi\i{-a PRIri[5 20 AUERAGE0 ;ftDU/S FUR EACI-l RECOnq DSOAN-I FR I r'.lf,S EVERY lfl I RD DAIA l{tl.qD DSEA,I{.O P{INTS }2 DI\TA ItiJtJQDS PLI,S FLAGS IDECUDEDI PFR tIt\E. DEEAI{I PUNC;HES L2 DATA bJi]RDs PLUS FLA.6S ( CUDED } PER CAfiD.
DSCA'hII. REQUIRES 3T CAROS PE]|T I'AUE. DATA DUI'IPED FRIJO4 .OSCANI CAN T}T RESTORED

.+

* * *
IS

* BY STOCD. C+*****dr**lit,F**+'F+ri;+{;.***'F***>icd.a!*f,4**++,F*.****rh{<-*dc+z"t**vrrt*****+**++S8+*iF I NTEGER UNIT, ttllEG r PLEI'l'r PF It{

COMIII]N NUM ( 60 } , KDATA ( 6O }

c+

*
SELECT TIUTPUI DEVICE
r*

c* c*

EALIE{,,LAIE L/TST PAGE +*

P,fi t

IFtuNITtSr5r to

f,l=FtlEG+ PL Elil-

NUN t T=5

t0
c:*
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:Hfttr[E(5rz00l G0 [0, L5
I T=2 REA0(2,?0,31
f.lrUt'l

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READ DATA AND OUTPUT

15

REOU I RED

D0 1G0

irl=PtsEGr PF trftl ft,EADt20 r N l t KBATA{ KD r K=1, r l0 l td,R ITETNUNI T rZ0[ ]F,tr tK0ATA( K) 1K=2 Nl-l=N*6

l0

tll=i:tH-5 DO 100 J =NL r iil'i R:EAD(l0rJlKDAfA lF(Unll f l30r30rZCl 20 frRlIEl2,7OZ)KDArA G0 Iu 100 30 D0 35 K=l r6(t 35 EALL U'N['AK( i{UMTK',KDATA( K ) I lFtt-tNITl50r40r1O0 G0 T0 I00
50 I F | [Jtxt T+.1 | 7u r'60,r

40 IJRI IE ( 5r e03 ] {'l'{Ul'4(K I r KDAtrA (K,l ; K'tr p60l 60 i{R trTbt5, 203t ( krraTA{ oo To 100
70 ,[J]U i,l0 K= 1 r 2O Y=KE/TTA( 3*K I +KDATA INUE

I00
K

I rK=2r 5s

t3l

r00

80 NUM(K)=Y13.+.5 ., 1, I I -' I r r -ii l t,.iJ,'l ( K'), r 6=l r,Zv l

G.B:IgI
]RE TU RT{

I3*K-I I +KDATAI3*K*2I

c*

363.

C,e**+*** f***ltr+rF+***+*4r**rlr*$r.* *t*{r*g:ir8*****${.**{.++***,F+******s***t'******

C4:

tl:

200 F0RMAT(lt-tll 20'1 F]0.R,PIAT ( IFI r I PAGE t r I3 r | . T,XPE, i ' 9t7l 202 FUft,fiiAI ( [aI6 ] 2O3 FCIRMAT( lti r ISrZJISl

c+

c*

c**+ *+ ** **** 4!** #.* #*** **,**t!*+***{<** +**+**+*+ ***+r*#*t*#****tlt* 't*** **** **
Eih0D

*#

c*+*r[(*{.*:f{rt:r:tt*r*fr*,*******tF**+'f +_*+t'++****jtrt***it*j}*'f **tr*******#****'f )s**{.:t Cr STgCD STnRES DATA 0N DISK FILE [0 FR0H C,\RI]S pREVI0USLY * * C$ DUMPED EY DSEANT. . FOR PLEN PAGES. * C,, STORAGE BEGINS AT PAC PBEGr AND CONTINUES

sUflROUTINE STOCDT PTECrPLENI

* PAGE. *ts*'t**********{rtt( +-rl+rl{r*it+**s*lk**f'**'*+*****'** c***********,'li***+{c.*:s*,lrs,+rtf

C*

'REULRE:S

3I

DATA CARDS PER

INTEOER PBEGIPLENT PFIN

N=PBEGTPFIN

CO;I4MON KDATA I60 } PF TNt-PBEG+PLEN-1

READ ( 2r200 I t KDATA( K ) K,DATA( I, I =I . l+RlT.E t 20 | N,l (KDATA(K l

D0 100

rt(=2r

1,0

I
l'

r6=1 r l0

lllH=N*6 NL=NF{-5

DU 100 J=NLTNH ttEAD(?t201)KDATA l,rlRITE( lOr J !'KDATA

!,OO
SOMT INIj|E

CALL DUfiPX
RETURI'I r;

3l****nn*,****rr+**r*****trt!*,,t t*,+*-*!t *-+*r.******:ts**'**lt:t*+*+***lt*+,*f-*tr****:***

G**

?00 FoRr4AT ( r 3X,9I7 I ?'0r F0R!|ATt l,2I6l G** g**+*+rir**f ***r$*'r***,s*':*****rF****t#rNs*t+'Fl|*'t**$**{t*r*'F+***+ **rt +***{.*+f *****
G+ END

364.
,C*

* II4E FLDI SII'4ILiIR TD THA I]F A FEN ITECOI?DER. * PLEl,r PA;ES nnE PL0[[ED U[;l:Ji'iINC AT PEEG. + StlE tS ll'lE M0DULUS UF T:-lE PEA[i DLFLECTITJi't 0F THE lNPUf. + I9AGES OF DISK D,'ITA Aq.E PLtITlHD PER pRlNfER P,\GE. T}{tt [****d:***r*+,**r**<]'F+++r*+St*'rr*'!****+rtr?F,***/4u***rlr**++*,s++r/.*s***+**+*****+**** INT{-5'Ji{ PSEG, PI-;N 1S I ZE.r SLAi.IK r AS T 5I( r V.AX I5 HAX I S cot4MoN i,tAl'{ luo},triAx( [?0) rMl,!{ 12.0| ,lTt26 ) ' DATA ULAt{KTASTSKTVAXISTHAXI S/ | | t t*r t | . r tt-'I

SUERUUTINE CHfi,RT ( PBEG' PLEi.'t TS IZE I * **,r?***:s*,*#****.+*+*-* * **+*****#+$+*+fi*t*S*+***S* ***,****** **.**+****'**x C* CHARI IS A PLOTTING StJU.ROUTI.\E i,ii|ICh PRODII,CES A DISTOLACEI''IENT *

E* C/lt C+ C*

NE}{=

E*
c*

c*

I PA;E=PdEG
tF

READ HEAOING DAT/\ AI.ID ,HEAD PAGE

rF

rlr

READ( 20 | I P'AGE) tl4AP (.J I r,J,=l r 101 hl:R I T E I 5' 500 I ltiAP ( 2 f r t4AP ( 9 t' HAp ( 3 ] r MAP ( 4 ] r lslA'P ( 5 I r MAP ( 10 I

c*

ITIME=I'iAP{7}

*r

CJT g* 5

READ DATAT SCALET ANE SET PEN RAISE A,ND LOhIiR ARRAVS.

,f

EO 5,t) J=lr3 t{RC"C=l*( J,-,[ ) +G+l pAGE-5 R.,EAD ( trI) NII.EC) IlAP '

D0 l4 K=lrl.2O

9 MAf,, ( Kl =iaAP ( K ) *L2. /S IZE+iO. l0 IYIAP{ K }=13-'FIAP( K I IF(iqAPtK)lI['L]'11 l1 MAF(Kl=1

L2 IFIrlAP(K)-25 I t4 r 14r l3
L3 MAP(Kl=25
14
CTIIT T I NU E

lF(l':AP(KllSrlt)r9 I t4AP( K I =MAP(K l+t.2./SIZE-0.5 GO T0 l0

5

CALL'UJ{PAK(NIJMrfiAP(

}I

GiO

TU lrt

DO b0 K=lr40 K3=l(*3

K?=lt1-L K tr =K3-2

X5 K4=K3 GO TO

IF(K-40)t.6r15,15
L7
tr

I6 K4=t(3+ l7 IX=lJ-t)*40+K I F { liAP(K I l-Frrpr(KZ I } l8' l8 tlAXllX),=${AP{KII

HINt IXI;fiAP(KZl
GO

).8 r 20

rO

25

2el MAx(IXl=l4AP(KZl MIN(XXl=MAF{K1l 25 IFtMAPIK3I-MIN( rXl | 35r 45r30 30 MIN(lXl=HAF(K3I

365.
75 tr F IF:AF' /r0 MAX( IX
6rJ ro 45
K3 I;F (MA,P

l-Fl/tX t I X I )40 t45 t45

45

=t4AFr

(K3I

46 ltllN(tXl'=MAF(K4l

K+) -M,l r.l(

IX) l,i7'5Or 46
50

c#

60 rti 50 +7 lF( I'lAP(K4l-l'jAX( IXI )48'SCti 48 MAX(IXl=l{AFlK4l ,A CUlJIll.lUL

SET UP C[}ROth}I\T.E
L
L

GS cr

*
rf
rF

GR.IO

l{E=.1

D0 55 K=lr6
IJO

c*

IFIJ-1152t52t55 gZ MAf'l IX,;VAXIS 55 C0l$[ li\iUE

LotitER PEf,ls

I X= ( K-1 I *?0+.J l,l'AP( IX)=8LAi{K

55 J=Ii20

'c*
c*

a +

60 D0 70 l(o116 D0 70 J=lr20 lx= lK-Il*20+J 61

l4AP(IXl-ASTSK

IF( LII*IE-MAX(
PENS

lxl 163 r6l, '63

* * *

c*
C*(

C+
65

RAISE

6x

IF

(L

IFIATJ{

6,8 t4API lX -VAX ! S

IF{J-T oBr68r?0

INE-,plIN ( XXI -1t 70, 65 r 70 tX = B,LAlt{K

c* c*

70 CONT IT{U r

C*

*
RUI'J
rF

Pt I it{T ,0,rlE

7Z

|.{R

IF(LINE-13t7Zr73t72 I:rE ( 5n 50l t t4AP

IF(LIhtE-25)60,60r9C
I r.,tE+1

LI I'th=L

C*
c*

c*

PI{INT ZERO /\XI$

* *
rF

73 D0 15 J= [ r 1,20

74 MAP(Jl=ttAXIS, 75 C0i'.1r I,NUE

T7 80

I F ( MAp ( J | _SLA:i\K ) T5 tV4t7 5

! F ( 14Af,I J I -HAX I 5 I 80' 77 r BO l'4AP(JI=E,LANK coi\l I I .!.t E

!',RtIE(5r50t,lMAP gO uC J=l,li3

366.

Ci{ Ci' C:'

LlNt=LIllE+l GO fil 6u Ptlrvl TINE SCt\Li 90 D0 9, J=l16

1 X=4 *J- 3 CALI TI,'1:X( I I III:, IT( IX} tTIXt:=I IIl"l[{e,O

*
*

t)5 C0;!l I i,tr.JE lil{lT[( t' 5u3 ] ( I l- ( J ), J=L,24

g6

IPA'lF:=li'AGE+l I F ( I Pr\G--Pt-lIG*PLtl-l i,Jll.l=rtIfl+

1.

I 96 r

IfJ0 r IU J

97 hRif[(t'502) G0 t0 5
'?B
NEW=

IF(Nt_t'r-z)97,97t.9?

IUIi Cr\
C ri(

I 3tr ]'Ll

RETUIlN ***,'t * **;* )ff.t* *

'it >krt

*
)3,F*

**

tr.:<

C+ )J0 FORIIAT(Iil1rr0,\TA FRril"l TAP[:trlSlrrrrI3rr ,1.|(-)(-),^l DECi.l. I I IlrI |. FILIiRt r I4,/ | 501 FtJRt,iAT( lt1, l20AI
)

*:t * it+,k;il* '! **d.:i.

)F

tr)i.:F:i<**d<*** * + rk*f+ *** ** * ***f:lf

d<*
rk

SCAtiS FROMrrl3rr00 T0trl3r

"s02

FUP.i'14

C'i.

503

FURI\iAT (

I ( IFlO' /

lll tbl2l l,' .' t?lLr I5X )

C'frr*'k+.*>1.{<,'r*;i<*ri**+-",.f*,i:>i,rjr>i..i<;i:*+*v,(,if*,iilt**j('k*:*.{.)i:***)tts)ir**t.>krFtk\tt'i********rk>l'**vr

c**

E l.'lD

367.

Crr*'1.********++*+:tt**+**+*****rtr***'fiti.**+x++*****d(****+********t#****++**{(* i* cHiA.UVEt\iTrS CRIilEtRt(Jr{ sutlRrilJTiNr rrt* cs * C{, NSET SCAI,ISI EACH FLEI{ PA6E5 LUi{G' STARTING FROM PAGE PEEG c* AiiE thAf.llr\rED Ar.lD THAT DATA rrrt{I,Ci-,t IS Ut{LIKELV Tg e,,EL0NG TO ITS *
c+
G

SU.SRJ.UT I

NE

CHAU

I:PbEG r PL

E.N.r

t{5 ET r T'A,NS

cf

***

C[JLLATE],AL SET il 5 It=''EC I [0. TI.IE AVE'R,AGE OF THE ACCEPTABLE D,AIA + * IS I,ilITITTEN IN PLEI! PAGES I}EJII'JNIIIG AT PA|.IS ** ***+ 'F *f + ++8+**'F+** **** +*++ **+* **+{.** ********** * {r:lr+****,**'**s**f ** INTTGIR PDEGIPLINr Pili5 r UI SKXI 1O I Dt I4ENS I ON ERROR ( 3O } C0f4Mtll[ l DAfA ( 60 r 3Q ] r Ntl( 3'J I r I X t 30 ] r tr l\VAL t 10 I r JDATA ( 60 I r DI SKX

C'r

c* c*
c* c* c*

REJECTtr0tr{ TCRITERIoN ARRAY

#
r

*
f
ri :*

DATA EfttOt/ I .36 r t .63 r I " ?71 I .87 r I "95 t2.01 r 2. Od r 2. n0 r ?. l4 r 2. [8 *2. z.tr t2, 24 r 2'.26 r 2. 28 t2. 30 | 2. l? t 2.14 1 2. 36 r 2'. 38 | 2-40 t 2.4I r 2. 43 t *?. t+4 t 2. 46r. 2, 47 t 2. 4B t 2. 49 r 2. 50 r 2, 5 L t 2.52 |
CHECK ThJAT NUI,IBER UF SCANS

IS

L'ESS THAN 30

l*RITE(5r?00), G0 T0 tIO
C'ft
C't*

IF(f.lSET-30l6t6t5
,t
SCAN PAGE +

c* c*

SET PAGE NU;MBER IIII EAC}I

S,ET REQUI RED RECORD

l0ITHIN EflCH

D0 100 I=lrPLEN DO E K=I'NSET

{NVAL{K}=0

D0 S0 J=lr6
CrF

.INVAL=0

G,*

READ OI'IE R.ECORD FROM EACI-I SCAN

* *
f

G*

D0 l5 K=lrNSET
I5

cr
c*
C*t,

TN.REC=6* ( FBEG+ I K-L l*PLErN+I-2 l +J READ ( 1,0 | Nll,ECl ( IDATAllN,riKN q ll=l, p50

tl|ORK THROTJGI{ EACI-I CLILLATEI{AL DATA SET

OF

*
hIES6 Pg[AftDS
+

IX{KI=TDATA(L'KI EALL UhIPAKIINDIKI I TX(KI

LS
2,A

DU DO

50 L=1r60 ?0 K=lrNSET

Ntl(Kl=0

IF{i{0{K}ltBrZ0r20

CONTIITIUE

e*
:e*

.*
+

c*

CALCTJLATE AVEI{AGE AND STAI{DARD DEVI /rT IOt{ 2? 5t-lid=i. SUf4S 8=0 "
Ill,JM=0

00 23 K=lrNSET

368.

5Ul!45Q*SUMSQ+Nt,( K I *I X ( K ) * I z'3' NUM:NU[4.}NO ( K I i FI N:l.rM |'l+ r 2q ,25 24 AViIG=O. J IIIVAL=J NVAL + 1

SUPl=SUM+NU(Kl*IX(Kl

(K

Gt

TO 4b
i.jU14

25

A r, tt'3 = SUfil/NUM

c*
C.'-to

STDV=SeqT t ALS ( AVRGv..,lVtiG-SU,!45(t/

*
{t

c*

CALEUTATE M;\XIMUM D]HVI&TION

DMAX=0 r
t I'IDEX=0

26

Dtl 30 K= X r il|5 tT IF(N0(Kl 126 r26,2i IX(K)=[\tf,g+r5

GO TO
3(J

?T DEV*AB5(TXIK)-AVRG} IF t CEV-DMAX I 30 r 30r 2,8

e8 '0l4AX =D.E V I NDIX=K 30 C0l'l f ,[NUE

rc+

c* c*

CFIEC,K l,||I TH. /ILIOI4AE.LE DEVIATTON ADEV=ERROR ( NUM} *ST.DV r F ( Df"tAX-AD:EV 140,40 | 35

* * *

c* c* c*

35 NOI TNDEXI=O INVl.L ( If{DIX } =I NVALI TNDEXI +I G0 T0 22

WFIFI..I

ALL DATA OF T}{I5 COLLATiERAL SET I S

K=trrNSET
)

VAL

ID'

R;EPACK

* *

+o DO

42 IDAIA(LrKl=tX{Kl 45 JOATAI L ! =AVRS+.5

CALL PAK(NIO(hiI ? I X(KI CALL

4e

PAK{f,J'Ul'ir JEATAT L I NUE 50 EONT

II
t;

c* c*

c+

HRTTE COLLATERAL RE.CORCI5 ANO AVEITAGEO DATA BACK

ott

DI SK

rt

DO 6U K=lINSET
NREC=6* ( PBE$+ ( K-1 ) *FLEI'l+ I -2 I +J 60 'rtRtr TE tIu tr{REC! ( I DAI'AtNr K I rN=l '601 N/\riS: ( PAi!5+ I -2 l *6+J WRI TEI IO.| NAilIS ) JDATA 80 COI'lT t hlUE

c+ C*

E'N.D OF A PAGE **

UPDATE TNDEXES

* *
,*

NFAGE=PBEG+ ( K-1 ) +P[-EN+ I 'R,EAD ( 2O I NP,A,GE I O I SKX

O0 90 K=1r FlSET

-1

369.

90

DI SKX(B ) =DI Stix( B ) + I iVAL ( K ) ll? I IL. ( 2r;ri"j['itGE ) DI SKX

DISKX(l)=I

c* c*

t0{i c0i!I

i.llSliX(8)=J|J\.'AL DISKX(9)=l\l5i:T IAi.ls=pA,,,lS+I_i t,l1 I TE ( 2u I l/ri\S ) DISKX

I NUE

C*

I'l1lTE MESSAJe ilrtl Pltl,.lT[R

I'J!l

* *

IIO CAtL DUI,lPX

P.ETURl.,l

I TE ( 5, ziJ I ) ''JSET, PbL C, PLEN, PANS

c*
C****dr\kl(:t****'f

tF**4 )F**{<*}t,F***{.il**:'ktr',,f
1.10,'E

,,1*4:4<*d<*r,:**<tt

t *****i./,.**tt+********{.**1k

C*r
c*

200 [:r.rRriAT(IH0rr{.*** TtlAN 30 SETS r,F DATA T0 Bt AVERAGEDT ) ?OL FilP.i'lAT(il10rl3rr SET5 0F DATA STi'TRTIIJG FQOM PAGEr'I3'rrrrl3r
:NI PAGES LOi.J- AVERAGiD AT PAGEI,I3}

C****drik*,i.+lt**,k**/F{(*v6ttFll+{<d.*,i<*)rk,F*/,if*:t,it)i(.l**+*{.*,i******,i<*****4.***+t4(+nt+**

c+

,6

EI'lD

370.

* C'S TFIE PREVIOUS SIX POINTS EXCEEE LIJ.,ltrT. ***+rlrl****,*/***s*+*8f ** **++,*'$*,*.**# +* #* ***********'*++**.'F*!t'l.ti*'ls*{t*** c****

SUd;R,0UTXNE REJK ( PgES r p,l.ENrr,lSET,I Il'll T I c'! ***,**.** * $# *++**+ +*** ****d.* *$ * ***+* * r.** **sr$it****4 * r**+* **+***+** + ***+* E4 RiJLK REJIECtS T}|OSE DA:TA t,lHFII,E IhE STA^IDA&D DEVIATION OVE]R f

C+ c*

c**

II.ITEGER PDTS, PLEN,DiSKX COt'41{elN IX( f B06l TDISKX

REA.D I Cr!,

(IOI

F4AXIPIUII'I

IJF FIVE PAGES OF

DATA

i.

MAX_ t,pLEN+

+l l5

00 I00 'J,= T,NSET tr ='[

DO 100 I r MA,X
NPAGE=5

5 NFAT,E=pLEt{-5* ( l.4AX-l } 7 ND=360*[$I-,AGh+5 tr.itREe =6*(pEE5+{ I-L}*pLEN+5t(J*1 l-t }+t trlEAOI l0' NREC I ( I X (K I r K=6rNE )
10 IX(Kl=IXtb)
D0 10 K=1r5 c*
IX(,N0+Ll=l,X(tlDI
GAFS

IF(J-,MAXl7r5r5

C* C*
c*

t
+
{F
IF

ULA.fE STAFiIDARD iDE\rlATtotts EXAMNNE DATA FUIR ZIRO F.LAGS AND BEIDGE AMY
CALC

JFLA$=0 D0 60 K=lrNpACE
I NVAL=O

D,O

IXL=lX(INDEXI CALL UNPAK(NOT IXL} IFIN0)30r30r2;O

2O
SUl4=-0.

IIIDEX= ( K- I l'h360+L+5

50 L=Ir360

SUllSO=0.

BO Z5
ttl= I

ill=

r'6

Z5 CALL

NDEX-6+ta CALL UNPAKINOI SUM=SUM+trX(Nl sUMSQ=5dMSg+1 X

FAK tNL,

X(N}I

Zq I NVAL= I f{VAL+ L 30 JFLAT3=JFLAG+1

LA5T

Fll+1x(Nl Nl I ' STDV=SQRT t AtS ( suFl/61**2- ( suMsSl6l ) ) I F ( STDrI-L I tr{ I T | 49 t49,29

IX =.I l,lDiE X - J, F LAG IXL= IX { LAST I I XN= [X:{ I f{DEK+ I I CALL UNPAK ( I.I, t XL ) UNPAKnn'1t

CALt

DI FF= ( [ Xt,r-lXL I / ( JFLnG+1 ] DO 35 14=ITJFLAG M1=LA5T+M

lXrill

371

LirLL f,/rN(,,), I l,1l ) ) ^( UO l-t) 5,J

t+9
c.N

I X ( ii

) = I XL

+l.i'iD I Ft:

Jl-Liil=Lt cui.tl I l'tu:

t-ND

c*
Ctr

0F PAGE */;*

*
UPDATE
)
,F

I NDi XES
t;' +

I i'AJ[=P;EG+ 1 1-I ) *PL!,1+ (.J-I R,i-/iD ( 20 | I l)rn ii ) D t SKX i/I 5i(X ( ii ) =D I jr'.;i ( i) ) + I i,!/iiL I,/R I r F (2d' I r,A3[ ) DISKX lC=iC+li',lV/it-

K- I

c*
Crf

60 cuhtT I f'tuE l,lR.l 1 [ t IU t N|{EC ) ( I X ( K )' l(=6r 100 cui"l't I i,lu t

j,jD

'r'r,l

IE

MIJSSAGE

L)

\j

*
f

PP.l NI

ER,

cs
K=NSt'.T*PLEhl HR I I E (5, 20) ) IC, K,
RT 1 URN
Pi_

[G

c*
C****ir{<;F{<,.ic:,tYr*.k:'t,*+rk*'Fr'F***rFtr)Ftr('lr+ri*rtttf*:{:rt*:vr*{<4r*,i*,F*,F,it*:*{<*.rk:k*:t***rt**.***)rt***

c*
c*
C

*
,F

2OO FOI{l'1AT(lH0rl4rr SPUIIIOUS DATA PUINTS REJECTED FRUI,'lrrI4 *rr PAGES llEGli',li{lNG AT Pr\.lE',I3)
rir 'i( i<:h

******

**

{<

>F

t(

:F

rt

)t

>F

c*

* 'l *

++

,i( ,+ /5

rl f, rf ii i. *

\t(

):<

)t

)k

t(,h rt *

* lt,it i! *. + :N + + \k * * * *

t,

*,i: *

d{ t<

EI{

372,

5UBRtlruTi NE AvRG ( Pir[ "I PLE.i{, i\lSETI i!AtrlS ) C***rl*.+****&:rt#*'iF****+****,**t*******rl{.*ttt8*+*(**,t('t**********'lr,*t(**'*t****'***, d,vR; rrvERAGEs l'l5Er 5:ETS LJF DATA sTAt{rING AT PAG'E Pac0r EACFI CrF c* SET BE I ,IG f'LEN PAGES LON3, AND I.JITITES TI.iE AVERA6E IN PLEI'I PA$ES SEGIt'rNlNe AT PAltlS. c* THE tII:UEX EIITRY FOR THE AVERAGE I5 TT\KEN FRCII'1 TI-1E FIRST SET c* OF RAI{ DATA. c* I,iIEIGIHTIITIG IS ACCOC.DII\I6 TO TItE FLAG ,TSSOCIATED WtTH EACH }iORD. c* iC+***.{c*+ ** *,**{4 ******** *,& *** **** + *t${*** *#ilE***t*++*' ++*+***+***t********* INTEGEq PBECr PL.Ei:Ii PAhISI DI SKX t IO}
-

* * *

c*
clF

DIMEI{SIUN A.VG(60I eoFtf4,ui'I I DATA ( 60 ) rN,Ulii ( 601 r i-ll $Kx

*
*+
r*

SET PACE

c+ c+

N.UIMDER IN .EACH SCAN S,ET RESU I RED REC0RD !'l I TH ltl EACH PAGE

D0 I00 l=lrPLErN
DO

IO
c+

AVG ( Kl =0. t\l,tJM(Kl=0

90 J=l16 D0 l0 K=I r60 *

!F
rfi

I NVAL='0

c* c*

R,EAD ONf, REC0t{D FR,Urlt4 EACt-l SCAN N&EC=g+ t PBEG+ { K-I ) *t'LEl'l+1-l I +J REAO(lIOINREC } IDATA

D;g

A0 K=Lrf,lSET

DO 2A L=I160 CALL UNPAK( N, IDATA{LI

IFtiltll5'Ibi16

L5 N=O L6 ruUiltL)=r{tJM(L)+'N

c*
c+

a0

AVG (

L)=4VGt L ) +I0ATA(

*f\l

g*

CALCULATE AVERAGEO SCAN

D-O

* *

zz IDAfA(Kl=0 lN'VAL=I;\ AL+I GO TIJ 30

2rt I DAT
A(KI

IFII,IUM(K) lZAt22t24

30 K=lr60

CALL PAK(iTUi.iTK} TIDATA(K}

=AV0 ( K I /NUM ( K l +.5

}

c* c* c* c*

30

oNT I i{uE

I,IRITE AVERAOE ON DI
IrlAt{S=6* [,rANS+ I -2 | +J hJR l TE ( LtJ'r 1$[fl!$ I I UA,TA eo C0it-1t tliili/E
(.

$K

* *

* *

e* p*

EftlD UF PAGE **

tlP

DATE

I l.lrJEXES

!f

IPA3E=PBEG+l-1

373.

i\iPA;L=i'Ari,lS+l-I

IJ0 Ct);lIIi'rUr:
l"lR

R l- A;) ( .j il ' I l-' i'''i ) l) I i:li. X DlsK,,((l)=1 LIISKX(tt1-li\V/rL DI SKX ('/ l ''l'iSiT f{l( I T [- ( L,.t | ;]PA;t ) l,I st'-X

I I L l'lt-.'r5i*-'[- U'J P'i. i i'iIEii

I Tt: ( 5,200 ) \Sf;

c4,
i'J?.

I,

PiiLG

c* c*

RI TUiIN

'

Pl--11' 1)ir(S

*
6

CY;r:.t,v,<.1.***ti(t{r:.';.):r****Srl,4'.'^i<ilrdr***qk,ir{:>ii/,t>i.d<{t/;rfri<d<:i:tl.)f)FtF***rk)i.v'(+++******}h******:tt\k LX

2AO FORli,iT(IilU,ztXri3rr 5i:TS OF DirTA FRU:'I /,.AVIi],AGf,) AT pAGE,, I .]l

1:

PA(lEtrI3r'rrrI3rr

PAGES LONG

C***{<

c*

'F***:I*+,F{.
END

",r*,,tr**{: it:;.,i(+

4,

***'1.'i<dlt{, t *** +:i?*;i ,i.*>k*:t:F*vl {e5l,td:*{..*f*** f*)t******

374.

l'lE F' I LIR ( PbEG I PLi-N t PAI{S t,Nt'lAT E r LENfFI I f,lk***+***.r,,r*{c****+Sl..ri*ik+,t*t*rr*rt:i:$,{<f{{cri;rt++**+**'}+**+*rt*+*+S***t***{t*.tc'ttt(t! * C{{ DIGITAL FILIERINi SUO1UUTINE *}F t'ItIGHTINC FUNCTIU,N CAN +I00 DEKASECUt'.iDS (LENTH=lo0l ** 201, t,.JEIGHTS{' C'h ExTIN,D FR'o,ll -io0 TO
SUURCIUf I

ALHAYS CENTRED ON II]I c * * *+ #** *r,r **rf **.******t't **** +* *'! TNTE$ER PbEG, PLEN I PANS

C+

t**t*i|(r1.*f

* *s+,*#s*++

!'r

**.+***,$* **.**+***** *s

Elr.lhNsIuN hArE(aor]
COI.T''4OT.I

tNrESE,R 50ATA(60) TDI5KX( 101 IDATA( 29U} r SDATATDTSKX *

CtF

C*

c*
z
5

.C,fflECK

TllAtr hlEIGiiT IING FUfiCT [0N l-ENGTfl D0ES NLII EXCEED t2

I201
}

201

* *

I F t LE'NTh-tj00 l5 r"5

l.IB,ttE{5,200t D0 6 J=Irl0,0

LEl,lTl-l=X,UO REAO( 30INWATE} IIJl1TE ( J I r J-IOI

NqlLtI-j 6 hAT[(NI=tlATE( J+101 lMIll=l0l-LEI.tTli

=6*lj AN5-5
I

iMAX=101+LEl'lf11 NREC=6*P BEG-5 AIF I N=6+ { PB EG+ PL Eii.l- I I

NAhIS
d PAG E

I PAiE=louEG =FANS
N,D=

c*

tr

C*

e**

IN T T I A;L TZE IDATA

ARRAY
j I r.J=lOI,280
I

'F f

READ( 10| f'tREte,! ( I DArA'(

I,O CAL]t. U'.'lPAKIi\tuMI IDATAIJ ) )

DO L0 J=I0l'2BO

20 IDATA(J)=IDATA( 101 l C:{< C* EAL.EULATE FILTERECI VA.IUES

ITIRFC=ltREC+3 D0 20 J=l r 100

c**

FOR ONE fTECORD

* *

2.2.

E0 30 J=l

60

25

26 S0ATA(Jl"X-.5 GO TO 28 g? SDAfA(J|=,(+.5

X=0. DU 25 K=tt4ItrrlF|AX N= K+J- I X= I DATA ( t{) *k'ArE ('K t +X tF t x 128 t21 t21

2'8 CALI. PAK{Ir.SDATAIJI

C+* C}T

g0 CONT I [rUE
bIIR

I
!*

c*

TT.E

I LTERED

DATA

t'

}JRIIE{IOINANS}SDATA

376,,

c* c*

|,{ANS =NArr,lS+ I illDr= I ND+ t

tr

C* 3l

C,HECK FTJII EN.D

OF

PASE

rt
{i

IF(ti'tD-6135t15,3t
REIID(20r IPAOE I0ISKX
DI SKX ( IO I =NhATE l'rlR' I T E ( 2;i ! .J Py'.GE I DI 5Kl<

IPAr,f=IPAGE+l
JPA'.rE=JPAGE+I
trND= I I;F ( JpAGE-pANS-r'LEN

l 35,r 80,80

c#

c* cr

READ ANUTI{EI{ RfCORD OF 'I D.tT"f'

35 D0 4r0 J=Lt2'20 40 ITDATA ( J I =IDATA( J+60 I I F ( tIREC*NF I N I 4 2 t tt?r 5Q t+2 READ ( 1u,i''llEC I ( I DA rA ( J I r J=221r e8D NREC=hilREC+I DU 45 J=22 1 zgn ' CALL UI-IPAK(NUI{' ID/\TA( JI I G0 T0 a2
I

* *

4,

50 'D:ll 52 J=ZZLraBd) 5Z IDAIAt J] =r$ATAtZa0

GO T,g 22

c+

C*
c*

*
!t

['|RITE I'IHSSAGE ON PRINTER

80 N=pBEG+pLE;{-l
l"JR

*
E

I TE { 5I AOt ! PBE6I

r FAN S, r{LIAT
dt*

C*
:Q,{a,*

RETU{in{

*'ltr*rlt***+#$+***'lc**t'r******
,br l

rc*

'f **$*+**+-**+**s***+** *r*** **** ******#** ***

'rt

eo0 F0RMAT ( ltliqr,4X1| I'JEIGHTnN'd F,tii,rCTIUU LENGT'H f{AS BEEN TRUNCATFD,

T0 2ol

c+* *#a**+ ***.*+**+**+rF*+*.***,**++*,******'B*+*1**s*f ******

C*
C,*
EN.D

e0l FoR.MAT(Ih0r4XrfPAGESrrl4,i TCrrl4rr FIL *NG F]UO{CTILJNII r I4I

ERED ATf

rI4rt

WITt{ IdEIG-HTI

*+rf

*-*+*$#+********

376.

g{r*******$,**tt rr*****+*r*{rt+'tt*,+**,*+*,tr**********'***********t**)***#*'14****{c#* StDtR IS A tlAINL INE pRUGlAjri hrrilCH 'C/.T,LCULAIES L[JCAL SIDEREA,L * ctr * c* TIFiIE AT IN'TIRVALS [JF LOCAL /ONE TTI'41 * I llrtlrUT DATA I 5 A.S F0L l-tl',,S cs

c* c* c* c*
g* g*
c+
6,s

c*

c#
e

c*

't,*.#*+*ir+#+{tl++'t**+**** It'l.TEG[R Hr,U r N r Trl'l

OLT ** TNCRGME[,tT lN LOCAL TllllE It'i F10.4 rf s'Ec{.}ND CARo Ar,lD SrigSg6gIi,lI CARDS * YEAR till \4 COLU?.t,'rS I TO 4 H,uNTFt Ihl A5 CoLUl,l 'lS 7 T0 I1STARTIt'l,; LIIrTL If.l I? CtlLtJ!.l"lS !4r15 * R Il'l 12 12 F6. a COLUM'\S 18 f 0 3l * Nr0AYs Ir{ I4 eOLUf4\E 32 T0 !5 & gULrJf.lhl 38 NCI\ CuNf Il{t,ATlut\t GLrUI{f ER Irr I ! {r R lS FR0M TADLES FI!]R 00 ltR U.T' ON DATE t NC'{ IS O OR -VE FOR LAST GARD *it* f **** fi+** **,**,***'}**+*****+}il **'#*rF'it****]*****'F++
INTE6ER YEAR I DATE DIMTNSION t-ST( I I,LT(8) rJR{8
II,FAD II.IPUT E.ATA AND
!

I R.ST

CAi?.0

* *

c* c*
c$

,I.,JEAD FA6E

* * *

REAO(2,IOOIDLID
DLT= DLT D+36rr000,,
tr0 LZ

FLT= , D0 LA K= Il

Lf{Kl=0

I
H

r 1T; r ' NPT=ltl0r.\Y 5+24. / DLTD+, 5 tt,= 100.* ( z+60. r ( lY+6u.* I x l l D,gLR =DL [*2 36 55 . 623r'fi 640000, R,=il-DELR*l?. I DLTO FLoirlG=9,+I0,0.*l 4.+60 r* ( 39. *6O,.*23l 30 WR ITE ( 5 r 2tJ0 ) f'lsLIr N r T rll rYEAltr !,t'RtTF(5r2O!l

READ I Z

101 I Y EAR f''lt tJ r N

DATE r I

y.

r I Y r Z ti{DAYS r t'lCN

ilR I TE{:5 r 20P }

c*
c+

JE,LT=[ LC.N'f =4
CAt.CUL,ATE LOCAL 5IDEREAT- TIME
lrO
F

c*

* f

L.ST=F.LT +R+

LONG

CALL f YFiE t FLS l'r LST i LD I CALL TYHE ( R T JRT J'RD )

lF(JDLT)6Ir6Ir60 21Ol

C{.

*
+

c* c*

Pf{II.IT TIMES AND DATi

60 tIRITE( 5r

DAfErLTnLSTTJR

cs

c* c*

NED=0 LCITIT=LGNT+Z G,O IO 70

rr

PRINT TIMES
'6I kliLl TE( 5'

*
*
LT rLSTrJR

2tr1l

LCNT=LCiVT+I ?0 NF T=r\lr T- I

IFtl.,lPTI90r90rg0

sv7,
C,,t

,l UPOATE VALUHS OF

f,*
G*

R Ai'iD LOCAL T I ME

80 R=il,+DLLR
FLT=F]LT+DLT

CALL TYt"iE{ FLT r LT r JD'LT }

DATE=DATE+.JDLT

c*

90 IF (l{CINt e5,95 | l0 95 c** STop c:lc**t(*:F* ***+**** 'r****:t*\r***t*+.**

IOO FI]RI'iAT F10.4.)
2OO

1F(Le,NT*56)40r30r30

*+*++ **,***'lt

+*+*****+***+*'F***+******:t+

IO1

FCIi1}4AT

FORi,]AT

zOE FO{MAT 21O FORM"AT

EOI FORM,AT

C+**r$t{i+*+.'t+**+)F:+t

c**

alI

Fr]R,il{Ar

I4rZX' 5AL r 3 ( 2X' l2 ) 2X' F6 .2t14r 2X r I I I ' 1l'fl'7X'fLOCA|. 5tDene*l Ttl'lE F0F( | rSAIrr rrrlSrr .t t/l I t{ r T DAT E t r T X r r L . T ! r l 3X 1 r L . S . I r r l*X r r R r ,] lfj rlXr3(6Xr'Hlt. I'll.l SECrll Il't0 r I 3 r 3 ( !+X t?l I r 2X' 2 I I r 2X'2 I 1 r | . r t 2 I I I I l..H: rlXr3lt*XtZI ITZXTZL Ir ZX rZI I r r. r r2[ I ] )

c*

*****stlr:*******+F**+tt*t*+***#*++*++*******fi********'tt}

bND

C* C+ C* C*

c*

***

* *' r?.ATIUiNAt-ll'E0 TIFIE * lT = ARRAY FOR c+*+'t-.r +* ++**+*+s+ + *-*+*{isi#+r/*'t* *****'}++ *****,.$****{.****+********r**f **'l. **
DIMEN,SI,UN IT(Bl I D-VULG./t}64fJ000. VULri=VULG-861t00O0, * I

SUIJROUTINE TYI.XE ( VULS r IT r I DI * * * * * * * * * * 'F rr *.* * * *.* * rr * * * * {c + * * * * ** * * ** * * * * #* * * *'* * * * 't TYI",!E I5 U'.SED EY 5ID:R FOR RAT]O,\IALIZING A VUI-GAR I U, ,= D,[VS VUL,G = VULGAR TtrillrE trrl(r .Ol SECUN,DS

TII{EI

*+* * * * *** * *

ITtal=VUu,j./3600O0!

REI4=VULi-36U000.

XTtll=IT(21/LA

*IT ( Zl

IT{A)=trT{e}-10*tT(11

t T { 4 ) e,R,,EM/ 6.0:!10. R,EM=REM-:60Ort.+ IT ( 4 I I TI4 | =[T (4,]-r0*IT( 3 I IT(Ol=R:EM/100, REH=REfri_,!.O{.J. * I r ( 6l

ITl3)=II(+l/La

IT(5)=IT(61/I0
I
T ( S,) =

IT (6 l=I T ( 6 )-I0*.IT( IT (81=RElil+O.5

5I

IT(71=IT(81/I0
RETURi{
c

I I ( t:l-Lfl'f.I Tt

c** * f *****':r#*s,** *+ *+ #fr*.*f *n(* *t***!f,* ******t****:{c****4r*:*,t(**'*****+**,1.******

c*+
ENO

378.

Arupnrlj1_a_
Log_i

i i"c-ui

]lyffl4]g

AB.1 The

NAND Gate

n n--]

p
c

----LJ
Q=

-.. J l,--o lrY

A'ti'C'
shown,

Tlris syrrbol

is alse u5rtd for an ittverter; only one'input'is

Q=A

i.e.,

AB.2 The Capaci t j vel y-Coupl

cd

IIAND Gate

A--Jffi a -lH li_-a c __1__-z

Q=o[
n - rn q- ur1 dB+C
(pos'it'i ve I ogi c )

(jg+c (rregative logic)

AB.3 The Type D Flip-F1op

I
c

is transferred f rom the D input to the Q outPut on a posi ti ve cl ock transition. SandCare invcr[ed leve'l direct. sei and clear i nputs.
Data

379.

AB.4

The Monostable Mul ti vi brator

output pul se of fixed durat'ion tion at the input.

Arr

js

triggered by a pos'it'ive

(O't; transi-

AB.5 The J-K Flip-F1op

when

The behaviour of n represen'l"s the

wi se

by the following truth-tab1e, state before a triqgering transjtion (0+1 unless otherspecified) and n+1 represents the sLate fol'lolv'irrcr the trans'ition.
device

this

is dictated

Jn lrn
0
1

Qn*rl

Qn+1

Qn

Qn

; l\n

Kn

380.

AB.6 The Decade

Counter

z2

z4

z8

to 9, and on the next trigger puise they reset Lo 0. Thc Z 1 output 'is the cor:ff ic'ient of 20, the 72. output tlrc cocffjcjcnt of Z) , tlie 2,, otrtput Lhc coeff icjent of 22 and tlre Z6
These courrters count
1n na

tura I b'inary cocle up

output the cor-:ff icierrt of

23

AB.7 The RS

F1

i p-F1op

Th'i

conrbi

nati on

of

NAND

gatcs forms a basic

Q

nrenlory

el ement

=S+

Q.R

i.e.n

is set to 1 by a

0-n1

trarrsit'ion at S, anci'is reset to 0 by a

&+1

transition at. R.

391..

AFpendi*9
I

lr,

,,

Ssme

Additional Circuit Details

I
/

Thi's appendix cont-ains: ctrcuit detai:ls of the tape handler the ge,neral po$re,p sup,ply'n and the cl,ock pov{er supply.
Figune

unit,

A9.1,:

Tape handler mains wlnihg Tape handlc,r pungh control

Page 382;
38:1.

49.2:

'

A9.3t 'l

385.

A9.4:

49.5: J

)Genera,I poltr supply I

386' 387.
3gg.

49.6:

Clock ptilrer supply

382,

(@

Figure A9.1: The paper-tape handler mains wiring details.

Key:-

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Motor on-off switch. Motor se'lf-Iocking relay.

'Motor start'microswitch; norma'lly open, closed by the tension arm at the bottom of its travel. rMotor stop'microswitch; norma'lly closed, opened by the tension arm at the top of its travel. Motor indicator l*p; this'lamp shou'ld be on if the motor switch (1) is on and the 'tape-break' condition is not present. 'Tape-break' microswitch; prevents (3) frorn starting motor if there is no tension on the tension arm. 'Tape-break' indicator 'lamo: wi'l'l be il'luminated if motor switch (1) is on and 'tape-5reak, switch (6) is open. rTape-break' override button; can be used to start.motor when tape-break condition is present.

383.

'Ll--.-.-

sl

G'
!5

o gr
GL

E o

o.t-

a
.tJ,

ftt
o,

.9 0 !

*.r' e,

o ct

'(t

E
ia. =

L ,(u

f=l t=l
t:t

19

,G G'

o 'fr
'g +|'

o EL
CL

'I

(!

Gll

;\t
.LI

otl

.l

<l

o,lr

=l 9{ t!l

i"Y-____-.-Yj

.i.

tr

384.

Key

to Figure A9.L27 volt input; I = +27 volts, 2 = ground. contro'l switch; allows punch and e'lectronics to operate disconnected from the frbnt-panel switch (3). Punch on-off slvitch.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. L2. 13.

when

'Tape-tightr indicator lamp; wi'll be il'luminated the punch switch is on and the 'tape-tight' condition is present. rEnd of tape'indicator lamp; wi'l'l be i'lluminated the punch switch is on and the ''end of tape'condition is present.

if

if

'Tape-tigh!, microswitch; normally open, closed if the tape jams in the supply drawer. 8-way connector to front-panel of hand'ler. Punch indicator lamp; wiil be i'iluminated if the punch switch (3) is on ant-tape tight or end of tape ionbiiions are not present. I'linchester connector to punch. 'End of tape, microswitch; located in punch. Data-input socket; punch wi]l not operate if these two tennina'ls are not bridged.
rPunch

inhibit, line to punch gates

rPunch activate' switch; with data input disconnected^ punch shou'ld operate continuously (a'l'l' eight cnanneti)' when this button is depressed.

385.

h4o363

+Ev Rqgutotcd

2N697
1K5

-il0
II

T
tK5

Lomp Suoply To Rqutotor

(b)

I;cl

FiEure

A9.3: 5 volt general logiq po!iler supply; (a) ttre vo'ltage regu'lator circuit, (b) the rectiiier, and (c) tneove_rl oad indleator ci rcuit.

395.

2x

(16-0-fltt rrn6

(q)

pA723!

(l
Figure

A9.4l t15 volt

reg,ulators.

power supplies; (a) the overall configuration sho-uring the two ldentical regulatons, and (b) details of one of the

38.,7.

l,t
BA

BtCt78

(sl

+1'5v t5v

(bl

Ftgure 49.:5:,

snpply.

t 15 volt pov{er supplles (csn,tinued); indicator circuit, and Fl an overloadeonnector of tlre g6neral (b) output
lne

388.

\-j4v

RcAuloted

uA723

2x

1N3255

150-0-150 rms

Reg u

lo tor

(b)

Fiqure

A9.6:

Thb clock power and (b) thb

indicator is as for Figure A9.3c.

rect'ifibiiiriuits.

supply; (a) the 4 volt regulator,

Overload-