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This paper is derived from a presentation given at the Chicago October 2002 URISA Urban Regional Information Systems Association conference.
Introduction
With the advent of microprocessors and, more importantly, the means to universally distribute information (via HTML, Perl, etc.) through the Internet, data now becomes something that can be reviewed, sorted and transported rapidly; thus the rise of neural networks. With greater processing and distributing speed, developers now view intelligence not so much as a matter of larger processors, but rather that of faster and more network distribution over wider areas. As of this writing, cost effective neural network software exists (particularly for mid- to larger sized agencies) automatically reviewing, sorting and analyzing street reportage (arrest / report records) or other relevant material employed in a wide variety of services. When queried, neural networks can automatically review and determine patterns, activities and delineate trends that were not easily recognized all in mere seconds. Neural networks represent a fundamental shift in the way organizations operate. Planners and other professionals must now come to recognize the potentiality and power that neural networks offer, embracing and mastering these developments while defining our roles in regards to these powerful tools.
automatic notifications of any new patterns developing within the last 24 hours from a trained neural network; similarly, that same detective who would conduct their inquiries would work with a neural network that knows what kind of information that particular detective seeks when any new queries are entered. Neural Networks are an evolutionary stage in computer development involving creating advanced, dynamic relationships between users and data. Once the domain of high-end users, neural networks are increasingly being offered to local and regional government entities at costeffective levels. Neural networks try to imitate human mental processes by creating connections between computer processors in a manner similar to brain neurons. How the neural networks are designed and the weight (by type or relevancy) of the connections determines the output. Neural networks are digital in nature and function upon pre-determined mathematical models (although there are on-efforts underway for biological computer networks using biological material as opposed to hard circuitry). Neural networks work best when drawing upon large and/or multiple databases within the context of fast telecommunications platforms. Neural networks are statistically modeled to establish relationships between inputs and the appropriate output, creating electronic mechanisms similar to human brain neurons. The resulting mathematical models are implemented in ready to install software packages to provide human-like learning, allowing analysis to take place.
Neural Networks: Can simulate choices based upon pre-determined values. Can suggest patterns and offer active linkages to other relevant data sources. Can learn users preferences based upon set pre-conditions and desired routines. Cannot pass the Turing Test An Artificial Intelligence: Cannot act as a fully cognitive entity. Cannot act outside of its programming framework. Cannot expand or change its inherent programming dynamics. Could (theoretically) pass the Turing Test
There are presently a wide variety of functional neural networks. By definition, neural networks primarily serve as reliable pattern recognition engines and powerful subject classifiers, with the ability to generalize (within statistically accepted norms) in making decisions about imprecise input data. Neural networks are often classified by their method of learning, as some employ supervised training while others are referred to as unsupervised or self-organizing. Supervised training is akin to a student guided by an instructor while unsupervised algorithms cluster data into similar groups based on the measured attributes serving as algorithmic inputs in this case, the student learning totally on their own. Neural networks offer ideal solutions to a variety of classification problems such as speech, character (written and/or print) and signal recognition, as well as functional prediction and system modeling where the physical processes are not understood or are highly complex. Neural networks offer many advantages chief among them their resilience against distortions in the input data and their capability of learning. Neural networks represent a revolutionary method of programming - and deploying - computing processing. Neural networks are exceptionally good at performing pattern recognition and other tasks difficult to program using conventional techniques. Programs employing neural nets are capable of learning on their own and can adapt to changing conditions something which any busy network administrator can well relate to.
Neural networks (in theory) existed since the 1950's, but it wasn't until the mid-1980's that algorithms became sophisticated enough for real neural network applications.
1943
McCulloch and Pitts groundbreaking work, A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity lay the theoretical groundwork for neural network processing. 1950 - International Business Machine research efforts in advanced computing link academic institutions to private research; this model became the basis of future research and largely, the standard operational method by which additional advanced computing research is carried out. 1958 - The Perceptron model was developed, becoming the primary basis by which adoptive mathematical models mimicked the basic processing functionality of the human neuron. 1960 - ADALINE (ADAptive LInear Element) developed by Bernard Widrow and Marcian Hoff. Also known as the least-mean-squares rule, ADALINE minimises output error, enabling a neural network to learn and develop self-correctional ability as it functions. 1969 - Minsky of MIT and Papert question the entire concept of neural networks viability; development is slowed and the concept is thrown into ill-repute. At this time, computational hardware plateau, and thus it was not until the arrival of more advanced processing in the coming decades did neural network research resume in strength. 1985 With enhanced computing processing resulting in advanced microchips, ART (Adaptive Resonance Theory invented by Stephen Grossberg in 1976) neural networks attain sophisticated algorythms allowing for more stronger approximations to biological neuron learning models, thus paving the way for practical neural network applicability. 2003 - Neural networks are now regarded as cutting edge technology with viable commercial applications.
Specific aspects of a human neuron, identifying its functionalities, suggesting potential mathematical / mechanical replication.
Input is received
Dendrites (Routers)
Synapses (Routers)
In this chart of a Perceptron neural network model (on the left), we transfer the electronic neuron into a template, viewing an individual electronic neural in a two-dimensional design.
Note the structural similarities between the biological and mathematical schematics, as the electronic model seeks to mimic the biological in basic functionality.
Functional neural networks are multilayered three dimensionally, better approximating the human brain both in terms of function while adding more sophistication in terms of being able to selflearn through feedback and correction. Referring back to the Perceptron model, we dimensionally expand the model to add more dimensionality and hence, increase connectivity and potential computing power. Within neural networks, computing power is largely pre-determined by the amount of connectivity and speed between connections. In one recently celebrated event, 30,000 desktop PCs were linked together to track proteins within human bodies, breaking down the calculating time from 30 years to just two years (UPI, October 20th, 2002, Nature). Similar efforts take place with international volunteers allowing SETI (Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence) to link users worldwide via their desktop, underscoring the power of distributive computing.
Used in: simple logical operations and pattern classifications complex logical operations and pattern classifications. speech analysis pattern association and optimization problems. optimization problems and simulations
Perceptron
Hopfield
Back Propagation
Kohonen
Neural network typographies possess inherent abilities ideally suited to meet specific functions with most applications of neural networks falling into the following five categories: Classification: Inputted values are reviewed to determine classification such as reviewing video data pictures. Pictures / images are reviewed for matching specific types and for data filing / classification. Data Association: Similar to Classification, Data Association recognizes data containing errors, not only identifying scanned characters but notifying when scanners are not working properly. Data Conceptualization: Inputs are analyzed so that relationships can be inferred, such as extracting the names of those most likely to buy a particular product or are involved in criminal enterprises. Data Filtering: Used for input signal enhancement i.e., noise removal from telephone signals or identify specific voice tones for classification and future retrieval; also used in voice recognition systems. Prediction: Inputted values are reviewed for predictive determination - such as choosing investments, weather predictions or identify people with specific health risks.
Neural networks adaptive probabilistic concept modeling analyzes correlations between features found in items relevant to a query or profile, finding new concepts and item. Concepts important to sets of files can be determined, allowing new files to be accurately classified. Neural networks function within the context of fetches that is, software / hardware / communication interfaces accessing other databases. Other fetches include interfacing with large-scale databases (such as Oracle) or GIS routines or mass-media sources. Neural networks are designed to access a multitude of databases and files over wide areas; the greater access a neural network has, the more powerful that network becomes.
Some federal applications of neural networks involve: Military / Defense: War Games Anti-Terrorist Initiatives Long-term Economic forecasting Large-scale transportation railroad controls Utility / power grid system management Airline traffic oversight Political role playing / Scenarios Strategic analysis encompassing all of the above Neural networks are not solely for larger commercial and federal agencies. Some suggested state applications for neural networks can involve: Income tax / revenue forecasting Labor market / job pool determinations Highway / transportation network cost management Weather determinations (high snows raising the demand for more road salt, hurricanes impacting against shorelines, rain leading to flooding, etc.) And, some suggested applications of local / county government can entail: Population studies Aging localities Income level shifts Demographic / Ethnicity shifts Redevelopment / Development Targeting likely areas for redevelopment Calculating future assessment values on an individual block level Merging census data and other sources for extrapolation Calls for Services: Efficiency studies Fire / Emergency Medical Services Police Services Public Works / Road Construction Tax revenue distribution Neural networks are increasingly employed by law enforcement. In the Camden / Philadelphia HIDTA (High Intensity Drug Trafficking Agency), efforts are underway enhancing existing networks toward cross-referencing criminal records, case files and other relevant crime information into a region encompassing three states, over a dozen counties and a multitude of local jurisdictions. For law enforcement, neural networks are a boon, readily accessing:
NCIC / SCIC (National Crime Information Center and State Crime Information Center) enhanced
access Experian / Equifax / credit bureau review Regional (such as the Philadelphia / Camden HIDTA High Intensity Drug Trafficking) network enhancement Probation records (monitoring criminal recidivists) Federal, state and local court records Interpol / international data services Inter-state record records (such as MAGLOGEN) On-Line Internet databases
Similarly, at the municipal level, other records can be accessed: Zoning and Planning Tax Assessors Office Finance / Grants / Procurement Redevelopment (Brownfields and Tax Title Liens) Fire and Police Court County, State and Federal Services
Neural networks are potentially powerful means of managing and coordinating large-scale and multi-jurisdictional GIS / mapping databases, merging previously disparate databases into cohesive services allowing for large-scale automated data retrieval and/or GIS routines.
Cost savings also play an important role when considering neural networks. Neural networks offer a powerful means to initiate cost savings while enhancing existing network service routines. Neural networks do not require the introduction of large and expensive big iron mainframes; rather, they ideally function within existing distributive network environments. With selected hardware installations and upgrades, medium to largescale / regional / local governments can enjoy the power of neural networking.
Neural networks, in conjunction with Intranets, offer potent new means to distribute information universally across many platforms. Using neural networks accessed through Intranet platforms, users can access, review and obtain vast stores of information whether they are in the field or in their offices that otherwise would be time and/or resource consuming.
But just as neural connectivity is vital, so too does network speed play a large part in determining neural networking capability. Telecommunications advancements benefit neural networking development and applications, more readily allowing for wide-area systems encompassing both private and public informational sources and processing services. Neural networks could be accessed from work, home or from wireless services. The potential for applications and access is only limited to the budgetary constraints and defined by need. In some situations, shared cost servicing offers viable means of both ensuring distributive services and equal database access. Additionally, the power of voice recognition routines offer a means to both issue commands as well as access recorded messages across many mediums.Neural Networks are not artificial intelligence, but the foundations for more advanced computing. Despite such developments as IBMs Big Blue, we are still short of achieving Turings ideal of artificial intelligence. Nevertheless, neural networks represent an important step in computer evolution.
(Picture courtesy of MGM studios, from the film 2001: A Space Odyssey)