Water Treatment Standards

A Comparative analysis of Water Treatment Standards Around the Globe

Report By: Akshay Vajpayee

Technion- ISE

Water and Wastewater Technologies- Prof. Noah Galil

Introduction
Water treatment describes those industrial-scale processes used to make water more acceptable for a desired end-use. These can include use for drinking water, industry, medical and many other uses. Such processes may be contrasted with small-scale water sterilization practiced by campers and other people in wilderness areas. The goal of all water treatment process is to remove existing contaminants in the water, or reduce the concentration of such contaminants so the water becomes fit for its desired enduse. One such use is returning water that has been used back into the natural environment without adverse ecological impact.

Different Forms of Water Supplies and Treatments

1. Drinking water treatment
Several organisations and groups play a part in the production and management of drinking water. These are: Water suppliers, who produce and supply drinking water for their consumers Health protection officers and drinking water assessors working within public health units, who have responsibility for checking whether water suppliers are meeting the requirements of regulations and for providing advice the Ministry of Health of various governments, which develop regulations, tools to encourage the good management of water supplies, support material to assist water suppliers in managing their supplies, and distributes support funding when it is available.

A combination selected from the following processes is used for municipal drinking water treatment worldwide:

Pre-chlorination - for algae control and arresting any biological growth Aeration - along with pre-chlorination for removal of dissolved iron and manganese Coagulation - for flocculation Coagulant aids, also known as polyelectrolytes - to improve coagulation and for thicker floc formation Sedimentation - for solids separation, that is, removal of suspended solids trapped in the floc Filtration - removing particles from water Desalination - Process of removing salt from the water Disinfection - for killing bacteria

2. Waste-Water Treatment
Sewage treatment is the process that removes the majority of the contaminants from wastewater or sewage and produces both a liquid effluent suitable for disposal to the natural environment and a sludge. To be effective, sewage must be conveyed to a treatment plant by appropriate pipes and infrastructure and the process itself must be subject to regulation and controls. Some wastewaters require different and sometimes specialized treatment methods. At the simplest level, treatment of sewage and most wastewaters is carried out through separation of solids from liquids, usually by sedimentation. By progressively converting dissolved material into solids, usually a biological floc, which is then settled out, an effluent stream of increasing purity is produced

Sample Plan for a Waste Water Treatment Unit

3. Industrial Waste Treatment

Two of the main processes of industrial water treatment are boiler water treatment and cooling water treatment. A lack of proper water treatment can lead to the reaction of solids and bacteria within pipe work and boiler housing. Steam boilers can suffer from scale or corrosion when left untreated leading to weak and dangerous machinery, scale deposits can mean additional fuel is

required to heat the same level of water because of the drop in efficiency. Poor quality dirty water can become a breeding ground for bacteria such as Legionella causing a risk to public health. With the proper treatment, a significant proportion of industrial on-site wastewater might be reusable. This can save money in three ways: lower charges for lower water consumption, lower charges for the smaller volume of effluent water discharged and lower energy costs due to the recovery of heat in recycled wastewater.
Corrosion in low pressure boilers can be caused by dissolved oxygen, acidity and excessive alkalinity. Water treatment therefore should remove the dissolved oxygen and maintain the boiler water with the appropriate pH and alkalinity levels. Without effective water treatment, a cooling water system can suffer from scale formation, corrosion and fouling and may become a breeding ground for harmful bacteria such as those that cause Legionnaires' Disease. This reduces efficiency, shortens plant life and makes operations unreliable and unsafe.

Drinking Water Standards In Various Countries

In this report we will analyze the water treatment standards in the following regions:

1. USA 2. Multiple Standard Comparison

USA Water Treatment Standards (EPA)

Contaminant MCLG1(mg/L)2 Potential Health Effects from Long-Term Exposure Above the MCL (unless specified as short-term) Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

Cryptosporidium

zero

Gastrointestinal illness (e.g., diarrhea, vomiting, cramps)

Human and animal fecal waste

Giardia lamblia

zero

Gastrointestinal illness (e.g., diarrhea,

Human and animal fecal

Contaminant

MCLG1(mg/L)2 Potential Health Effects from Long-Term Exposure Above the MCL (unless specified as short-term) vomiting, cramps)

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

waste

Heterotrophic Plate count

n/a

HPC has no health effects; it is an analytic method used to measure the variety of bacteria that are common in water. The lower the concentration of bacteria in drinking water, the better maintained the water system is.

HPC measures a range of bacteria that are naturally present in the environment

Legionella

zero

Legionnaire's Disease, a type of pneumonia

Found naturally in water; multiplies in heating systems

Total Coliforms (including fecal coliform and E.

zero

Not a health threat in itself; it is used to indicate whether other potentially harmful bacteria may be present5

Coliforms are naturally present in the environment; as well as feces; fecal coliforms and E. coli only come from human and animal fecal waste.

Coli)

Turbidity

n/a

Turbidity is a measure of the cloudiness of

Soil runoff

Contaminant

MCLG1(mg/L)2 Potential Health Effects from Long-Term Exposure Above the MCL (unless specified as short-term) water. It is used to indicate water quality and filtration effectiveness (e.g., whether diseasecausing organisms are present). Higher turbidity levels are often associated with higher levels of disease-causing microorganisms such as viruses, parasites and some bacteria. These organisms can cause symptoms such as nausea, cramps, diarrhea, and associated headaches.

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

Viruses (enteric)

zero

Gastrointestinal illness (e.g., diarrhea, vomiting, cramps)

Human and animal fecal waste

Contaminant

MCLG1(mg/L)2 Potential Health Effects from Longthe MCL (unless specified as shortterm)

Sources of Contaminant in

Term Exposure Above Drinking Water

Bromate

zero

Increased risk of

Byproduct of

Contaminant

MCLG1(mg/L)2 Potential Health Effects from Longthe MCL (unless specified as shortterm) cancer

Sources of Contaminant in

Term Exposure Above Drinking Water

drinking water disinfection

Chlorite

0.8

Anemia; infants & young children: nervous system effects

Byproduct of drinking water disinfection

Haloacetic acids (HAA5)

n/a

Increased risk of cancer

Byproduct of drinking water disinfection

Total Trihalomethanes (TTHMs)

--> n/a

Liver, kidney or central nervous system problems; increased risk of cancer

Byproduct of drinking water disinfection

Contaminant

MCLG1(mg/L)2 Potential Health Effects from Long-Term (unless specified as short-term)

Sources of Contaminant in

Exposure Above the MCL Drinking Water

Chloramines (as Cl2)

MRDLG=41

Eye/nose irritation; stomach discomfort, anemia

Water additive used to control microbes

Chlorine (as

MRDLG=41

Eye/nose irritation;

Water additive

Contaminant

MCLG1(mg/L)2 Potential Health Effects from Long-Term (unless specified as short-term)

Sources of Contaminant in

Exposure Above the MCL Drinking Water

Cl2)

stomach discomfort

used to control microbes

Chlorine dioxide (as ClO2)

MRDLG=0.81

Anemia; infants & young effects

Water additive microbes

children: nervous system used to control

Contaminant

MCLG1(mg/L)2 Potential Health Effects from LongTerm Exposure Above the MCL (unless specified as short-term)

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

Antimony

0.006

Increase in blood cholesterol; decrease in blood sugar

Discharge from petroleum refineries; fire retardants; ceramics; electronics; solder

Arsenic

07

Skin damage or problems with circulatory systems, and may have increased risk of getting cancer

Erosion of natural deposits; runoff from orchards, runoff from glass & electronicsproduction wastes

Asbestos (fiber >10 micrometers)

7 million

Increased risk of intestinal polyps

Decay of asbestos cement in water mains; erosion of natural

fibers per liter developing benign

Contaminant

MCLG1(mg/L)2 Potential Health Effects from LongTerm Exposure Above the MCL (unless specified as short-term)

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

deposits

Barium

Increase in blood pressure

Discharge of drilling wastes; discharge from metal refineries; erosion of natural deposits

Beryllium

0.004

Intestinal lesions

Discharge from metal refineries and coalburning factories; discharge from electrical, aerospace, and defense industries

Cadmium

0.005

Kidney damage

Corrosion of galvanized pipes; erosion of natural deposits; discharge from metal refineries; runoff from waste batteries and paints

Chromium (total)

0.1

Allergic dermatitis

Discharge from steel and pulp mills; erosion of natural deposits

Copper

1.3

Short term exposure: Gastrointestinal

Corrosion of household plumbing systems; erosion of natural

Contaminant

MCLG1(mg/L)2 Potential Health Effects from LongTerm Exposure Above the MCL (unless specified as short-term) distress Long term exposure: Liver or kidney damage People with Wilson's Disease should consult their personal doctor if the amount of copper in their water exceeds the action level

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

deposits

Cyanide (as free cyanide)

0.2

Nerve damage or thyroid problems

Discharge from steel/metal factories; discharge from plastic and fertilizer factories

Fluoride

4.0

Bone disease (pain and tenderness of the bones); Children may get mottled teeth

Water additive which promotes strong teeth; erosion of natural deposits; discharge from fertilizer and aluminum factories

Lead

zero

Infants and children: Delays in physical or mental development;

Corrosion of household plumbing systems; erosion of natural

Contaminant

MCLG1(mg/L)2 Potential Health Effects from LongTerm Exposure Above the MCL (unless specified as short-term) children could show slight deficits in attention span and learning abilities Adults: Kidney problems; high blood pressure

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

deposits

Mercury (inorganic)

0.002

Kidney damage

Erosion of natural deposits; discharge from refineries and factories; runoff from landfills and croplands

Nitrate (measured as Nitrogen)

10

Infants below the age of six months who drink water containing nitrate in excess of the MCL could become seriously ill and, if untreated, may die. Symptoms include shortness of breath and blue-baby syndrome.

Runoff from fertilizer use; leaking from septic tanks, sewage; erosion of natural deposits

Nitrite (measured as Nitrogen)

Infants below the age of six months who drink water

Runoff from fertilizer use; leaking from septic tanks, sewage;

Contaminant

MCLG1(mg/L)2 Potential Health Effects from LongTerm Exposure Above the MCL (unless specified as short-term)

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

containing nitrite in erosion of natural excess of the MCL could become seriously ill and, if untreated, may die. Symptoms include shortness of breath and blue-baby syndrome. deposits

Selenium

0.05

Hair or fingernail loss; numbness in fingers or toes; circulatory problems

Discharge from petroleum refineries; erosion of natural deposits; discharge from mines

Thallium

0.0005

Hair loss; changes in blood; kidney, intestine, or liver problems

Leaching from oreprocessing sites; discharge from electronics, glass, and drug factories

Contaminant

MCLG1(mg/L)2 Potential Health Effects from LongTerm Exposure Above the MCL (unless specified as short-term)

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

Acrylamide

zero

Nervous system or blood problems; increased risk of cancer

Added to water during sewage/wastewater treatment

Alachlor

zero

Eye, liver, kidney or spleen problems; anemia; increased risk of cancer

Runoff from herbicide used on row crops

Atrazine

0.003

Cardiovascular Runoff from system or reproductive problems herbicide used on row crops

Benzene

zero

Anemia; decrease in blood platelets; increased risk of cancer

Discharge from factories; leaching from gas storage tanks and landfills

Benzo(a)pyrene (PAHs)

zero

Reproductive difficulties;

Leaching from linings of water

Contaminant

MCLG1(mg/L)2 Potential Health Effects from LongTerm Exposure Above the MCL (unless specified as short-term) increased risk of cancer

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

storage tanks and distribution lines

Carbofuran

0.04

Problems with blood, nervous system, or reproductive system

Leaching of soil fumigant used on rice and alfalfa

Carbon tetrachloride

zero

Liver problems; increased risk of cancer

Discharge from chemical plants and other industrial activities

Chlordane

zero

Liver or nervous system problems; increased risk of cancer

Residue of banned termiticide

Chlorobenzene

0.1

Liver or kidney problems

Discharge from chemical and agricultural chemical factories

2,4-D

0.07

Kidney, liver,

Runoff from

Contaminant

MCLG1(mg/L)2 Potential Health Effects from LongTerm Exposure Above the MCL (unless specified as short-term) or adrenal gland problems

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

herbicide used on row crops

Dalapon

0.2

Minor kidney changes

Runoff from herbicide used on rights of way

1,2-Dibromo-3chloropropane (DBCP)

zero

Reproductive difficulties; increased risk of cancer

Runoff/leaching from soil fumigant used on soybeans, cotton, pineapples, and orchards

o-Dichlorobenzene

0.6

Liver, kidney, or circulatory system problems

Discharge from industrial chemical factories

p-Dichlorobenzene

0.075

Anemia; liver, kidney or spleen damage; changes in blood

Discharge from industrial chemical factories

1,2-Dichloroethane

zero

Increased risk

Discharge from industrial chemical

Contaminant

MCLG1(mg/L)2 Potential Health Effects from LongTerm Exposure Above the MCL (unless specified as short-term) of cancer

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

factories

1,1-Dichloroethylene

0.007

Liver problems

Discharge from industrial chemical factories

cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene

0.07

Liver problems

Discharge from industrial chemical factories

trans-1,2Dichloroethylene

0.1

Liver problems

Discharge from industrial chemical factories

Dichloromethane

zero

Liver problems; increased risk of cancer

Discharge from drug and chemical factories

1,2-Dichloropropane

zero

Increased risk of cancer

Discharge from industrial chemical factories

Di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate

0.4

Weight loss, liver problems, or possible reproductive

Discharge from chemical factories

Contaminant

MCLG1(mg/L)2 Potential Health Effects from LongTerm Exposure Above the MCL (unless specified as short-term) difficulties.

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate

zero

Reproductive difficulties; liver problems; increased risk of cancer

Discharge from rubber and chemical factories

Dinoseb

0.007

Reproductive difficulties

Runoff from herbicide used on soybeans and vegetables

Dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD)

zero

Reproductive difficulties; increased risk of cancer

Emissions from waste incineration and other combustion; discharge from chemical factories

Diquat

0.02

Cataracts

Runoff from herbicide use

Endothall

0.1

Stomach and intestinal problems

Runoff from herbicide use

Contaminant

MCLG1(mg/L)2 Potential Health Effects from LongTerm Exposure Above the MCL (unless specified as short-term)

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

Endrin

0.002

Liver problems

Residue of banned insecticide

Epichlorohydrin

zero

Increased cancer risk, and over a long period of time, stomach problems

Discharge from industrial chemical factories; an impurity of some water treatment chemicals

Ethylbenzene

0.7

Liver or kidneys problems

Discharge from petroleum refineries

Ethylene dibromide

zero

Problems with reproductive system, or kidneys; increased risk of cancer

Discharge from refineries

liver, stomach, petroleum

Glyphosate

0.7

Kidney problems; reproductive difficulties

Runoff from herbicide use

Heptachlor

zero

Liver damage;

Residue of banned

Contaminant

MCLG1(mg/L)2 Potential Health Effects from LongTerm Exposure Above the MCL (unless specified as short-term) increased risk of cancer

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

termiticide

Heptachlor epoxide

zero

Liver damage; increased risk of cancer

Breakdown of heptachlor

Hexachlorobenzene

zero

Liver or kidney problems; reproductive difficulties; increased risk of cancer

Discharge from metal refineries and agricultural chemical factories

Hexachlorocyclopentadiene 0.05

Kidney or stomach problems

Discharge from chemical factories

Lindane

0.0002

Liver or kidney problems

Runoff/leaching from insecticide used on cattle, lumber, gardens

Methoxychlor

0.04

Reproductive difficulties

Runoff/leaching from insecticide used on fruits, vegetables, alfalfa,

Contaminant

MCLG1(mg/L)2 Potential Health Effects from LongTerm Exposure Above the MCL (unless specified as short-term)

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

livestock

Oxamyl (Vydate)

0.2

Slight nervous

Runoff/leaching used on apples, potatoes, and tomatoes

system effects from insecticide

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)

zero

Skin changes; thymus gland problems; immune deficiencies; reproductive or nervous system difficulties; increased risk of cancer

Runoff from landfills; discharge of waste chemicals

Pentachlorophenol

zero

Liver or kidney problems; increased cancer risk

Discharge from wood preserving factories

Picloram

0.5

Liver problems

Herbicide runoff

Contaminant

MCLG1(mg/L)2 Potential Health Effects from LongTerm Exposure Above the MCL (unless specified as short-term)

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

Simazine

0.004

Problems with blood

Herbicide runoff

Styrene

0.1

Liver, kidney, or circulatory system problems

Discharge from rubber and plastic factories; leaching from landfills

Tetrachloroethylene

zero

Liver problems; increased risk of cancer

Discharge from factories and dry cleaners

Toluene

Nervous system, kidney, or liver problems

Discharge from petroleum factories

Toxaphene

zero

Kidney, liver, or thyroid problems; increased risk of cancer

Runoff/leaching from insecticide used on cotton and cattle

2,4,5-TP (Silvex)

0.05

Liver problems

Residue of banned herbicide

1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene

0.07

Changes in

Discharge from

Contaminant

MCLG1(mg/L)2 Potential Health Effects from LongTerm Exposure Above the MCL (unless specified as short-term) adrenal glands

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

textile finishing factories

1,1,1-Trichloroethane

0.20

Liver, nervous system, or circulatory problems

Discharge from metal degreasing sites and other factories

1,1,2-Trichloroethane

0.003

Liver, kidney, or immune system problems

Discharge from industrial chemical factories

Trichloroethylene

zero

Liver problems; increased risk of cancer

Discharge from metal degreasing sites and other factories

Vinyl chloride

zero

Increased risk of cancer

Leaching from PVC pipes; discharge from plastic factories

Xylenes (total)

10

Nervous system damage

Discharge from petroleum factories; discharge from chemical

Contaminant

MCLG1(mg/L)2 Potential Health Effects from LongTerm Exposure Above the MCL (unless specified as short-term)

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

factories

Contaminant

MCLG1(mg/L)2

Potential Health Effects from Long-Term Exposure Above the MCL (unless specified as short-term)

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

Alpha particles

none7 ------- Increased risk of --- zero cancer

Erosion of natural deposits of certain minerals that are radioactive and may emit a form of radiation known as alpha radiation

Beta particles and photon emitters

none7 ------- Increased risk of --- zero cancer

Decay of natural and man-made deposits of certain minerals that are radioactive and may emit forms of radiation known as photons and beta radiation

Contaminant

MCLG1(mg/L)2

Potential Health Effects from Long-Term Exposure Above the MCL (unless specified as short-term)

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

Radium 226 and Radium 228 (combined) Uranium

none7 ------- Increased risk of --- zero cancer

Erosion of natural deposits

zero

Increased risk of cancer, kidney toxicity

Erosion of natural deposits

Multiple Sources Comparison (US, Canada, WHO, EU, Taiwan)