Chapter 2.

Electrostatics
Topics to cover:
1) Coulomb's Law
2) Electric Field / Electric Field Strength
3) Electric Potential
4) Flux and Flux Density
5) Material Properties
6) Gauss' Theorem
7) Capacitance
8) Electrostatic Energy
Introduction
In this part of the course we will first look at electric and magnetic fields. We will try to
understand fields and their effects from a macroscopic point of view; that is in media
that consists of large homogeneous material bodies. The concept of a field is used to
describe "action at a distance" - a disturbance or input at one point can have an effect or
output at a distant point. The region where the effect of this coupling media is felt is the
field, described by its (vector) field strength.
Historically the study of electricity began with electrostatics, the interaction of
stationary electric charges in free space. A study of magnetism followed. The
relationship between magnetism and electricity was developed during the 19th century.
Two kinds of electric charges (+,) and two magnetic polarities (N,S) are known to
exist. Electromagnetic field theory was originally developed from the concept that these
charges and poles give rise to electric and magnetic fields.
This chapter addresses electrostatics.
Coulomb's Law (1785)
Experiment has shown that a force exists between any two bodies that have a net
electric charge, that is an excess of positive over negative charge or vice versa. When
these bodies are at rest, these forces are called electrostatic. Such forces were studied by
Coulomb who experimentally determined a law about them.
If two charges of magnitude Q
1
and Q
2
respectively are situated on bodies whose
dimensions are small compared to the distance, R, between them, then the resulting
electrostatic force between them:
(a) is proportional to Q
1
Q
2
,
(b) is inversely proportional to R
2
,
(c) acts along the line joining the bodies, and
(d) is attractive or repulsive according to whether Q
1
and Q
2
are of unlike or like
signs respectively.
Thus the force experienced by Q
2
due to the radial field of Q
1
can be written as:
48531 EMS Chapter 2. Electrostatics
Page 2-2
r F
2
2 1
R
Q Q k
E
(N)
where k
E
is a proportionality constant and r is a unit vector in the direction from Q
1
to
Q
2
(see the diagram below).
R
F
Q
1
Q
2
r
In the SI system of units, the constant of proportionality is defined as

4
1

E
k
where =
r

o
is the absolute permittivity (often simply called permittivity) of the
medium,
r
a dimensionless quantity known as the relative permittivity or the dielectric
constant, and
0
9
10 36

. For free space,
r
=1. (What is the SI unit for permittivity?)
When more than two charges are present in free space any one of them will experience a
force that is the vector sum of the forces resulting from each of the others, considering
them one at a time. This is the principle of superposition.
Exercise:
Consider 5 charges as shown. The test charge q' is 2 nC and is assumed sufficiently
small so as not to affect the field due to the other charges. Determine the force
experienced by the test charge due to the other charges if q
1
=20 nC, q
2
=+10 nC,
q
3
=30 nC and q
4
=+50 nC. Assume free space.
50 mm
50 mm 50 mm
q
1
q
2
q'
q
4
q
3
(Answer: 52 4 76 4 . . N )
48531 EMS Chapter 2. Electrostatics
Page 2-3
Electric Field and Electric Field Strength
The region in which forces are experienced due to the presence of electric charges is
called an electric field. At all points within this region the electric field strength will
have a magnitude and a direction. E, the electric field strength, is defined at any point
to be the force acting on a unit positive charge placed at that point (with the proviso that
the introduction of the unit charge in no way disturbs the distribution of the existing
charges in the field). We can obtain an expression for the electric field using the
Coulomb's Law. If the test charge is set to unity, we can write
r E
2
R
Q k
E
(Vm
1
)
when the field is due to a single charged body sufficiently distant from the field point so
that the body can be considered a point charge of Q.
When the field is due to n point charges then we can write

n
i
i
i
i
E
R
Q
k
1
2
r E (Vm
1
)
Example: Distributed Charges.
Consider the electric field at a point P, a distance d above an infinite charged plane.
The density of charge on the plane is Q coulombs per square meter. Determine E at P.
P
d
S
d
dr
r
dS
Solution:
Consider the geometry above. The force on a unit positive charge placed at point P due
to the charge on dS is ( ) Q r r d r d d 4
0
2 2
+ in the direction of SP. This can be
resolved into two orthogonal components:

( )
Q r r
d r
d
d r
d d
4
0
2 2
2 2
+
+
at right angles to the plane and

( )
Q r r
d r
r
d r
d d
4
0
2 2
2 2
+
+
parallel to the plane.
48531 EMS Chapter 2. Electrostatics
Page 2-4
If a full ring of charge is considered then it is clear that the parallel components will
cancel and the force will only have a normal component. As d

0
2
2

, the force
normal to the plane due to an incremental ring of charge is

( ) ( )
2
4
2
0
2 2
3
2
0 2 2
3
2

Q r d r
d r
Qd r r
d r
d d
+

+
The total force is found by summing the contributions of all incremental rings
(integrating over the surface). That is the magnitude of E is:

( )
E
Qd r r
d r
Qd
d r
Q

]
]
]

2 2
1
2
0 2 2
3
2
0 0
2 2
0
0

d
The electric field strength at P can therefore be written as
E n
Q
2
0

$
where
$
n is the normal unit vector to the infinite plane. Note that for this special case
that the field strength is not a function of d.
Electric Potential, Potential Difference, Volts
The electric potential difference between two points (e.g. A and B in the diagram
below) in an electrostatic field is defined as the external work needed to move a unit
positive charge from one point to another against the field strength vector.
Consider a unit positive charge q = +1 C placed in an electrostatic field produced by a
point charge Q. To move q against the field for a distance dl, the external work required
is
cos Edl d q dW l E as q C +1
which (with reference to the diagram below) can also be expressed as
EdR dW
and so the potential difference between points A and B is

,
`

.
|


A B
E
B
A
R
R
E A B BA
R R
Q k dR
R
Q
k d V V V
B
A
1 1
2
l E
48531 EMS Chapter 2. Electrostatics
Page 2-5
Q
dl
P
A
B

dR
R
R
A
R
B
P'
E
The potential difference is a scalar, and it is independent of the integration path.
Furthermore, if we make some arbitrary choice of point (possibly, but not necessarily, at
R = ) at which the potential is taken to be zero, then we can attach a unique value of
potential to every other point in the field. The unit for potential difference is Volts (V).
It is also noted that
r E
dR
dV
(Vm
1
)
at any point P in the field, where r is a unit vector in the direction from Q to P.
Example:
Calculate the potential difference between point A (3,4) m and point B (0,0) m situated
in an electric field produced by a charge Q
1
(of 20 C) at point (0,4) m and a charge Q
2
(of 10 C) at point (3,0) m. This arrangement is shown below.
Solution:
Using previous equations, and applying superposition, we can write
V V
q
R R
B A
i
B A i
n
i i

|
.

`
,

4
1 1
0 1

So in this case
(V) 10 47 . 22
4
1
3
1
4
10 10
3
1
4
1
4
10 20
3
0
6
0
6

]
]
]

+
]
]
]

A B
V V
(Note that the negative sign indicates that A is at a higher potential)
O
B
4
3
A
Q
2
Q
1
48531 EMS Chapter 2. Electrostatics
Page 2-6
Flux, Flux Density
In his sphere experiment (right), Faraday showed that a
charge (+q) placed on an inner sphere induces a charge (-q)
on an outer sphere; independent of medium or earthing. We
can imagine fields to consist of lines of force (connecting
these charges in the direction that a free positive charge
would move). These lines of force are also known as flux
lines or streamlines. A line of force is defined as a line
whose direction at every point is the direction of the resultant
E vector at that point. (Since this vector has a unique direction at each point, the flux
lines cannot intersect.) Lines of force are close together where the field is strong and far
apart where the field is weak. Below are some examples of flux lines.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Examples of flux lines
The electric flux density, D, (Cm
2
) is the amount of flux per unit normal area.
Referring to the figure below we can write:

dA
d
A
A

0
lim D
and

dA D
where is the electric flux. In a medium, the
electric flux density vector D is related to the
electric field strength vector E as
D E
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
area dA
n
48531 EMS Chapter 2. Electrostatics
Page 2-7
Gauss' Theorem
Gauss' theorem states that for any closed surface the total outward flux is equal to the
algebraic sum of all the free charges enclosed within the surface. Mathematically stated
that is
enclosed
A
q d

a D
Applications of Gauss' Law:
r
r
0
conducting sphere
Gaussian surface
r
0
r
0
r
Gaussian surface
infinitely long conducting cylinder
(a) (b)
a) Spherical conductor in free space.
Consider a spherical conductor in free space, radius r
0
, with uniform surface charge q
Cm
2
. Determine the electric field strength at a point at distance r from the centre of
the sphere. Consider two cases: r r >
0
and r r <
0
. Assume that there are no other
charged bodies in the vicinity. (This is implied by the uniform charge distribution.)
Solution:
To solve this problem construct an imaginary sphere of radius r, concentric with the
conductor (called a Gaussian surface) and apply Gauss' theorem to this (closed)
surface. By symmetry E (and D) will constant over this surface and radially directed.
For the case r r >
0
the charge enclosed by the sphere is the surface area of the
conducting sphere the surface charge per unit area, that is:
q r q
enclosed
4
0
2

This quantity equals

A
da D . As the flux is radially directed, the dot product is
DdA DdA cos as 0 . Therefore
D r dA D d
A A
2
4

A D
and so the electric field strength is found to be
48531 EMS Chapter 2. Electrostatics
Page 2-8
E n n
|
.

`
,

q
r
q r
r
enclosed
o o
o
4
2
2

$ $
where
$
n is the unit outward radial vector.
For the case when r r <
0
the enclosed charge is zero and therefore E is also zero.
(As an exercise consider the same charged sphere coated in a dielectric material with

0
. Let the coating have a uniform thickness d. Determine the field strength at a
point inside the coating and at a point outside the coated sphere.)
b) Infinitely long uniformly charged conductor in free space.
In this case the charge is uniformly distributed along the surface of the conductor with
Q Cm
1
. Determine the electric field strength at a point at distance r from the centre of
the conductor.
Solution:
The symmetry (implied by the infinite length and straightness of the conductor) ensures
that the field strength at a point r distant from the conductor axis will be radial. As a
Gaussian surface we choose a concentric unit length cylinder. The charge enclosed is
therefore Q. The radial nature of E (and therefore D) means that no flux passes
through the plane circular sides of the Gaussian surface. D is constant on the curved
part of the Gaussian surface. Also the angle q between the vectors D and dA is 0
o
.
Therefore, Gauss' theorem in this case leads to
rD dA D d
A A
2

A D
and so
n E
2
0
r
Q

where, as before, n is the unit outward radial vector.

(As an exercise determine the electric field at a point P, a distance d above an infinite
charged plane using Gauss' theorem. Assume the density of charge on the plane is Q
coulombs per square meter. Compare your answer with the answer obtained earlier
using Coulomb's Law)
Capacitance
If we consider an isolated conductor of any shape and place charge Q on it then its
electric potential will rise. Assume that it rises to V volts. Now we place another
charge of Q Coulomb on it. Using superposition the conductor's potential rises to 2V
volts. That is, as charge is added the potential rises proportionally, or Q V . We define
48531 EMS Chapter 2. Electrostatics
Page 2-9
the proportionality constant, C, as the capacitance of the isolated body. Capacitance is
a measure of the body's capacity for storing charge. We can now write
Q CV
The unit of capacitance is Coulomb per Volt (CV
1
) which is called the Farad.
A capacitor, which consists of two conductors separated by free space or a dielectric
medium, is a device of considerable practical importance. The conductors can be of
arbitrary shapes. When a d.c. voltage is applied between the conductors, a charge
transfer occurs, resulting in a charge of +Q on one conductor and Q on the other as
shown in the figure below.
A two conductor capacitor.
Electric flux lines originate from the positive charges on the surface of one conductor
and terminate on the negative charges on the surface of the other conductor. (Note that
these flux lines are perpendicular to the conductor surfaces, i.e. each surface being an
equipotential.) The voltage between the two conductors is V
12
. The capacitance of this
capacitor can be written as
C
Q
V

12
The capacitance of a two conductor system depends on the geometry of the conductor
system and the permittivity of the medium between them, but does not depend on the
charge Q or the potential difference V
12
. Capacitance can be determined by (1) assuming
a V
12
and determining Q in terms of V
12
, or (2) assuming Q and determining V
12
in terms
of Q.
The circuital symbol for a capacitor is
When two capacitors of capacitances C
1
and C
2
are connected in parallel, the total
capacitance is
C
1
C
2
C
p
or
C C C
p
+
1 2
C
48531 EMS Chapter 2. Electrostatics
Page 2-10
When two capacitors of capacitances C
1
and C
2
are connected in series, we have
C
1
C
2
C
s
or

1 1 1
1 2
C C C
s
+
Example:
A parallel plate capacitor consists of two parallel conducting plates of area S separated
by a uniform distance d, as shown in the diagram below. The space between the plates
is filled with a dielectric of a constant permittivity . Determine the capacitance.
Solution:
For this problem, it is obvious that the appropriate coordinate system to use is the
Cartesian coordinate system. Following the procedure outlined above, we put charges
+Q and Q on the upper and lower conducting plates, respectively. The charges are
assumed to be uniformly distributed over the conducting plates with surface densities
+
s
and -
s
, where
s
Q S . The electric field strength is zero inside a conductor and
normal to the conductor surface. Applying the Gausss law, we have
D a
y s
or E a
y s

in the dielectric between the conducting plates if the fringing of the electric field at the
edges of the plates is neglected. The potential difference between the two plates can be
calculated as
( ) ( )

d y
y
s
y s y
d y
y
S
Qd
d dy d V
0 0
12

a a E l
Therefore, for a parallel plate capacitor,
C
S
d

which is independent of Q or V
12
.
48531 EMS Chapter 2. Electrostatics
Page 2-11
Example:
A spherical capacitor consists of two conducting spheres of an inner radius R
i
and an
outer radius of R
o
. The space between the conductors is filled with a dielectric with
permittivity . Determine the capacitance.
Solution:
Assume charges +Q and Q on the inner and outer conductors
respectively. Applying Gauss' Law to a spherical surface of
radius R, ( ) R R R
i o
< < , we find
n E
4
2
R
Q

where n is the unit outward pointing radial vector. Next we can obtain the voltage
between the conductors from
( )

,
`

.
|

i
o
i
o
R
R o i
R
R
R R
Q
dR
R
Q
dR V
1 1
4 4

2

n E
Therefore, for a spherical capacitor
C
Q
V
R R
i o

4
1 1

(Note: The capacitance of an isolated sphere of radius R

i
can be obtained by letting

o
R , giving
i
R C 4 )
Electrostatic Energy
Since the electric potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the work required
to bring a unit positive charge from infinity (zero potential) to that point, to bring a
charge Q
2
(slowly so that the kinetic energy and radiation effects may be neglected)
from infinity against the field of a charge Q
1
in free space to a distance R
12
, the amount
of work required is
12 1
12
2
1
12
1
2 21 2 2
4 4
V Q
R
Q
Q
R
Q
Q V Q W
o o
e


or
( )
12 1 21 2 2
2
1
V Q V Q W
e
+
Extending the procedure of bringing in additional charges, we have an expression for
the energy stored in a group of N charges as
R
R
i
o

48531 EMS Chapter 2. Electrostatics

Page 2-12

N
k
k k e
V Q W
1
2
1
where V
k
, the electric potential at Q
k
, is caused by all the other charges and has the
following expression

N
k j
j jk
j
o
k
R
Q
V
) (
1
4
1

For a continuous charge distribution of density the formula for the electric energy
becomes

'
2
1
V
e
Vdv W
where V is the potential at the point where the Coulomb charge density is and V' is the
volume of the region where exists.
In terms of field quantities, we have

'
2
1
V
e
dv W E D
where E D
2
1
is the energy density. Using D=E for a linear medium, we have
W dv
e
V

1
2
E
2
'
or W dv
e
V

1
2
D
2

'
In terms of capacitance, we have
2
2
1
CV W
e

Reading Material
Conductors in Static Electric Field
So far we have discussed only the electric field of stationary charge distributions in free
space or air. We now examine the field behaviour in material media. In general, we
classify materials according to their electrical properties into three types: conductors,
semiconductors, and insulators (or dielectrics). In terms of the crude atomic model of
an atom consisting of a positively charged nucleus with orbiting electrons, the electrons
in the outermost shells of the atoms of conductors are very loosely held and migrate
easily from one atom to another. Most metals belong to this group. The electrons in the
atoms of insulators or dielectrics, however, are confined to their orbits; they cannot be
liberated in normal circumstances, even by the application of an external electric field.
The electrical properties of semiconductors fall between those of conductors and
insulators in that they possess a relatively small number of freely movable charges.
48531 EMS Chapter 2. Electrostatics
Page 2-13
In terms of the band theory of solids we find that there are allowed energy bands for
electrons, each band consisting of many closely spaced, discrete energy states. Between
these energy bands there may be forbidden regions or gaps where no electrons of the
solid's atom can reside. Conductors have an upper energy band partially filled with
electrons or an upper pair of overlapping bands that are partially filled so that the
electrons in these bands can move from one to another with only a small change in
energy. Insulators or dielectrics are materials with a completely filled upper band, so
conduction could not normally occur because of the existence of a large energy gap to
the next higher band. If the energy gap of the forbidden region is relatively small, small
amounts of external energy may be sufficient to excite the electrons in the filled upper
band to jump into the next band, causing conduction. Such materials are
semiconductors.
The macroscopic electrical property of a material medium is characterised by a
constitutive parameter called conductivity, which we will define in the next chapter. The
definition of conductivity is not important in this chapter because we are not dealing
with current flow and are now interested only in the behaviour of static electric fields in
material media. In this section we examine the electric field and charge distribution
both inside the bulk and on the surface of a conductor.
Assume for the present that some positive (or negative) charges are introduced in the
interior of a conductor. An electric field will be set up in the conductor, the field
exerting a force on the charges and making them move away from one another. This
movement will continue until all the charges reach the conductor surface and
redistribute themselves in such a way that both the charge and the field inside vanish.
Hence, inside a conductor (under static conditions), the volume charge density in Cm
3
= 0. When there is no charge in the interior of a conductor (=0), E must be zero.
The charge distribution on the surface of a conductor depends on the shape of the
surface. Obviously, the charges would not be in a state of equilibrium if there were a
tangential component of the electric field intensity that produces a tangential force and
moves the charges. Therefore, under static conditions the E field on a conductor
surface is everywhere normal to the surface. In other words, the surface of a
conductor is an equipotential surface under static conditions. As a matter of fact,
since E = 0 everywhere inside a conductor, the whole conductor has the same
electrostatic potential. A finite time is required for the charges to redistribute on a
conductor surface and reach the equilibrium state. This time depends on the
conductivity of the material. For a good conductor such as copper this time is of the
order of 10
19
(s), a very brief transient.
Dielectrics in Static Electric Field
Ideal dielectrics do not contain free charges. When a dielectric body is placed in an
external electric field, there are no induced free charges that move to the surface and
make the interior charge density and electric field vanish, as with conductors. However,
since dielectrics contain bound charges, we cannot conclude that they have no effect on
the electric field in which they are placed.
48531 EMS Chapter 2. Electrostatics
Page 2-14
All material media are composed of atoms with a positively
charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged
electrons. Although the molecules of dielectrics are
macroscopically neutral, the presence of an external electric
field causes a force to be exerted on each charged particle
and results in small displacements of positive and negative
charges in opposite directions. These displacements, though
small in comparison to atomic dimensions, nevertheless
polarize a dielectric material and create electric dipoles.
The situation is depicted in the figure on the right hand side.
Inasmuch as electric dipoles do have nonvanishing electric
potential and electric field intensity, we expect that the
induced electric dipoles will modify the electric field both
inside and outside the dielectric material.
The molecules of some dielectrics possess permanent dipole moments, even in the
absence of an external polarizing field. Such molecules usually consist of two or more
dissimilar atoms and are called polar molecules, in contrast to nonpolar molecules,
which do not have permanent dipole moments. An example is the water molecule H
2
O,
which consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The atoms do not arrange
themselves in a manner that makes the molecule have a zero dipole moment; that is, the
hydrogen atoms do not lie exactly on diametrically opposite sides of the oxygen atom.
The dipole moments of polar molecules are of the order of 10
30
(Cm). When there is
no external field, the individual dipoles in a polar dielectric are randomly oriented,
producing no net dipole moment macroscopically. An applied electric field will exert a
torque on the individual dipoles and tend to align them with the field in a manner
similar to that shown in the figure above.
Some dielectric materials can exhibit a permanent dipole moment even in the absence of
an externally applied electric field. Such materials are called electrets. Electrets can be
made by heating (softening) certain waxes or plastics and placing them in an electric
field. The polarized molecules in these materials tend to align with the applied field and
to be frozen in their new positions after they return to normal temperatures. Permanent
polarization remains without an external electric field. Electrets are the electrical
equivalents of permanent magnets; they have found important applications in high
fidelity electret microphones.
Electric Hysteresis and Dielectric Constant
Because a polarized dielectric contains induced electric
dipoles, the relationship between the electric field strength E
and the flux density D in the dielectric is different from that
in free space. The figure on the right hand side plots the
magnitude of electric field strength, E, against the magnitude
of flux density, D, in a polarized dielectric as the electric field
strength E varies in one direction periodically at a slow rate.
It is shown that the variation of D lags that of E. This is
known as the electric hysteresis of the dielectric. The area enclosed by the D-E loop
A cross section of a
polarized dielectric
medium
Electric hysteresis of a
dielectric
48531 EMS Chapter 2. Electrostatics
Page 2-15
equals the power loss in the dielectric due to the hysteresis effect, known as the electric
hysteresis loss, and can be calculated by
P d
hyst

E D
When the electric hysteresis of a dielectric is ignored and the dielectric properties are
regarded as isotropic and linear, the polarization is directly proportional to the electric
field strength, and the proportionality constant is independent of the direction of the
field. We write
D E
where the coefficient =
r

o
is the absolute permittivity (often simply called
permittivity), and
r
a dimensionless quantity known as the relative permittivity or the
dielectric constant.
Exercises:
1. Use Gauss' Law to obtain the electrostatic flux density, D, and hence the field
intensity, E, at a distance d (in free space)
(i) from a line charge with uniform charge density of q Cm
1
.
(ii) from a plane of uniform charge density of q Cm
2
(Answer: (i)
d
q
o
2
E (ii)
o
q
2
E )
2. A spherical cloud of charge of radius R carries total charge Q. The charge is
distributed so that its density is spherically symmetric, that is it is a function of the
radial distance from the centre of the sphere. Explain why the charge cloud is
equivalent to a point charge of Q Coulombs at the centre of the sphere. Determine
the force experienced by an electron, charge e, orbiting the sphere at distance d,
(d>R), from its centre, at constant velocity .
(Answer: r
4
2
d
eQ
o

, where r is the unit radial vector pointing to the electron.)

3. A straight rod AB lies along the x-axis and it carries charge q/unit length, uniformly
distributed. Show that the x and y components of the electric field E at point P are
given by:
( ) ( )
B A
o
Py A B
o
Px
b
q
E
b
q
E

cos cos
4
, sin sin
4

where: P is a point in the first quadrant, b is the distance from P to the x-axis,
A

and
B
are the angles AP and BP make with the x-axis.
Also show that for a semi-infinite line charge (A at origin, B at ):
135 ,
2 2
,
4
P
o
P
o
Px Py
b
q
b
q
E E E E

and for an infinite line (A at , B at ):

48531 EMS Chapter 2. Electrostatics
Page 2-16
0 ,
2

Px
o
P Py
E
b
q
E E

, (field cylindrical)
(n.b. The problem is identical to magnetic field around a long straight conductor)
4. A cylindrical capacitor consists of an inner conductor of radius a and an outer
conductor of radius b as shown below. The space between the conductors is filled
with a dielectric of permittivity , and the length of the capacitor is L. Determine
the capacitance of this capacitor.
(Answer:
( ) a b
L
C
ln
2
)
5. A cylindrical capacitor of length L consists of coaxial conducting surfaces of radii
r
i
and r
o
. Two dielectric media of different dielectric constants
r1
and
r2
fill the
space between the conducting surfaces as shown below. Determine its capacitance.
(Answer:
( )
( )
i
r r
r r
L
C
0
2 1 0
ln
+
)

(Problem 4) (Problem 5)
6. Assuming the earth to be a large conducting sphere (radius = 6.3710
3
km)
surrounded by air, find
(a) the capacitance of the earth, and
(b) the maximum charge that can exist on the earth before the air breaks down.
(Answer: 0.708 mF, and 1.3510
10
C)
7. Prove that the following formula for electrostatic energy hold true for any two
conductor capacitor:
W CV
e

1
2
2
8. Einstein's theory of relativity stipulates that the work required to assemble a charge
is stored as energy in the mass and is equal to mc
2
, where m is the mass and c
310
8
(m/s) is the velocity of light. Assuming the electron to be a perfect sphere,
find its radius from its charge (1.60210
19
C) and mass (9.110
31
kg)
(Answer: 1.6910
15
m)