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Comparators

3.1. Uses of comparators:

3.5. Electrical Comparators: Home


3.1. Uses of comparators:
The various ways in which the comparators can be used are as follows: i) In mass production, where components are to be checked at a very fast rate. ii) As laboratory standards from which working or inspection gauges are set and correlated. iii) For inspecting newly purchased gauges. iv) Attached with some machines, comparators can be used as working gauges to prevent work spoilage and to maintain required tolerances at all stages of manufacturing. (v) In selective assembly of parts, where parts are graded in three or more groups depending upon their tolerance.

3.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of various Types of Comparators: Advantages of Mechanical Comparators:
i) These are usually cheaper in comparison to other devices of amplifying. ii) These do not require any external supply such as electricity or air and as such the variations in outside supplies do not affect the accuracy. iii) Usually the mechanical comparators have linear scale which is easily understood. iv) These are usually robust and compact and easy to handle. v) For ordinary workshop conditions, these are suitable and being portable can be issued from a store.

Disadvantages:

i) The mechanical comparators have got more moving parts than other types. Due to more moving parts, the friction is more and ultimately the accuracy is less. ii) Any slackness in moving parts reduces the accuracy considerably. iii) The mechanism has more inertia and this may cause the instruments to be sensitive to vibration. iv) The range of the instrument is limited as the pointer moves over a fixed scale.

Advantages of Optical Comparators:


i) it has small number of moving parts and hence a higher accuracy. ii) In the optical comparators, the scale can be made to move past a datum line and thus have high range and no parallax errors. iii) It has very high magnification. iv) Optical lever is weightless.

Disadvantages:
i) As the instrument has high magnification, heat from the lamp, transformer etc. may cause the setting to drift. ii) An electrical supply is necessary. iii) The apparatus is usually large and expensive. iv) When the scale is projected on a screen, then it is essential to use the instrument to a dark room in order to take the readings easily. v) The instruments in which the scale is viewed through the eyepiece of a microscope are not convenient for continuous use.

Advantages of Electrical Comparators:


i) the electrical comparators have got small number of moving parts. ii) It is possible to have a very high magnification and the same instrument may have two or more magnifications. Thus the same instrument can be used for various ranges. iii) The mechanism carrying the pointer is very light and not sensitive to vibrations. iv) As the instrument is usually operated on A.C. supply, the cyclic vibration substantially reduces errors due to sliding friction.

v) The measuring unit can be made very small and it is not necessary that the indicating instrument be close to the measuring unit, rather it can be remote also.

Disadvantages:
i) It requires an external agency to operate i.e., the A.C. electrical supply. Thus the vibrations in voltage or frequency of electric supply may affect the accuracy. ii) Heating of coils in the measuring unit may cause zero drift and alter the calibration. iii) If only a fixed scale is used with a moving pointer then with high magnifications a very small range is obtained. iv) This is usually more expensive than mechanical instrument.

Advantages of Pneumatic Comparators:


i) The gauging member does not come into contact with the part to be measured and hence practically no wear takes place on the gauging member. ii) It has usually very small number of moving parts and in some cases none. Thus the accuracy is more due t less friction and less inertia. iii) Measuring pressure is very small and the jet of air helps in cleaning the dust, if any, from the part to be measured. iv) It is possible to have very high magnification. v) The indicating instrument can be remote from the measuring unit. vi) It is very suitable device for measuring diameter of holes where the diameter is small compared with the length. vii) It is probably the best method for determining the ovality and taperness of the circular bores.

Disadvantages:
i) It require elaborate auxiliary equipment such as accurate pressure regulato. ii) The scale is generally not uniform. iii) When indicating device is the glass tube, then high magnification is necessary in order to avoid the meniscus errors.

iv) The apparatus is not easily portable and is rather elaborate for many industrial applications. v) Different gauging heads are required for different dimensions.

3.3. Reed Type Mechanical Comparator:


In mechanical comparator, the gauging head is usually a sensitive, high quality, dial indicator mounted on a base supported by a sturdy column. Fig. 3.1 shows the reed type mechanical comparator. The reed mechanism is frictionless device for magnifying small motions of spindle. It consists of a fixed block A which is rigidly fastened to the gauge head case, and floating block B, which carries the gauging spindle and is connected horizontally to the fixed block by reeds C. A vertical reed is attached to each block with upper ends joined together. These vertical reeds are shown in the figure by letter D. beyond this joint extends a pointer or target. A linear motion of the spindle moves the free block vertically causing the vertical reed on the floating block to slide past the vertical reed on the fixed block. However, as these vertical reeds are joined at the upper end, instead of slipping, the movement causes both reeds swing through an arc and as the target is merely an extension of the vertical reeds, it swings through a much wider arc. The amount of target swing is proportional to the distance the floating block has moved but of course very much magnified. The scale may be calibrated by means of gauge block (slip gauges) to indicate any deviation from an initial sitting. Comparators using this type of linkage have sensitivities of the order of 0.25 micron per scale division. The mechanical amplification is usually less than 100, but it is multiplied by the optical lens system. It is available in amplifications ranging from 500 to 1000.

Fig. 3.1.

3.4. The Sigma Comparator:


Fig. 3.2 shows the constructional details of the Sigma Mechanical Comparator. The vertical beam is mounted on flat steel springs A connected to fixed members, which in turn are screwed to a backplate. The assembly provides a frictionless movement with a restraint from the springs. The shank B at the base of the vertical beam is arranged to take a measuring contact, selecting from the available range. The stop C is provided to restrict movement at the lower extremely of the scale. Mounted on the fixed members, is the hinged assembly D carrying the forked arms E. this assembly incorporates a hardened fulcrum (provided with means for adjustment of controlling the ratio of transmitted motion) operative on the face of a jewelled insert on the flexible portion of the assembly.

The metal ribbon F, attached to the forked arms, passed around the spindle G causing it to rotate in specially designed miniature ball bearings. Damping action to the movement is affected by a metal disc, mounted on the spindle, rotating in a magnetic field between a permanent magnet and a steel plate. The indicating pointer H is secured to a boss on the disc. The trigger J (opposite K) is used to protect the measuring contact. At the upper end of the vertical beam, an adjusting screw is provided for final zero setting of the scale. A new patented feature is shown at K. this is magnetic counterbalance which serves to neutralize the positive "rate" of springs reaching on the measuring tip. In this way a constant pressure over the whole scale range is achieved. The instrument is available with vertical capacities of 150 mm, 300 mm and 600 mm and magnifications of 500, 1000, 1500, 3000 and 5000. the scales are graduated in both English and Metric systems.

The least count which one division represents is of the order of 0.25 microns. Advantage: it has got a bold scale and larger indicating pointer. Disadvantages:
i) Due to motion of parts, there is wear in the moving parts. ii) It is not as sensitive as optical or other type of comparator due to friction being present in the moving parts.

Fig. 3.2.

Amplified by a simple optical system involving the projection of an image. The usual arrangement employed is such that the mechanical system causes a plane reflector to tilt about an axis and the image of an index is projected on a scale on the inner surface of a ground- glass screen. Optical magnifications provide high degree of measuring precision due to reduction of moving members and better wear resistance qualities. Optical magnification is also free from friction, bending, wear etc. The whole system could be explained diagrammatically by Fig. 3.3, which gives very simple arrangements and explains the principle of above comparator. In this system, Mechanical amplification l2/l1 And optical amplification = l4/l3 2 It is multiplied by 2, because if mirror is tilted by an angle , then image will be tilted by 2 . Thus overall magnification of this system = 2 (l2/l1) (l4/l3)

Thus it is obvious that optical comparators are capable of giving a high- degree of measuring precision owing to high magnification and the reduction of moving members to minimum. Further these possess better wear resistance qualities as the only wearing members are the plunger and its guide and the mirror pivot bearing. Another advantage of the optical comparators is that provision of an illuminated scale enables readings to be taken without regard to the room lighting conditions. The point of importance in optical comparator is that mirror used must be of front reflection type and not of normal back reflection type. In normal back reflection type there are two reflected images, one each from front and back, see fig. 3.4. Thus the reflected image is not well defined one, as one bright and other blurred image are observed. If front reflection type of mirror is used, then it requires considerable care in its use to avoid damage to the reflecting surfaces.

Fig. 3.3. Principle of optical comparator.

Fig. 3.4.

3.1. Uses of comparators:

3.5. Electrical Comparators: Home


3.5. Electrical Comparators:
Electrical comparators are also known as electro- mechanical measuring systems as these employ an electro- mechanical device which converts a mechanical displacement into electrical signal. Fig. 3.5 shows a block diagram of an electro- mechanical measuring system.

Fig. 3.5.

Fig. 3.5 block diagram of an elementary electro- mechanical measuring system. Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is the most popular electro- mechanical device used to convert mechanical displacement into electrical signal. It, in effect, is a transformer consisting of three symmetrically spaced coils carefully wound on an insulated bobbin. It works on mutual inductance principle and consists of a primary coil wound on an insulting from (bobbin) and two identical secondaries symmetrically spaced from the primary. AC carried excitation is applied to the primary and two secondaries are connected externally in a series opposition circuit. The lead wires exit through an opening in the outer shield, usually in the end- cover washers. A cylindrical shield of ferromagnetic material is spun over the metallic end- washer after the windings have been vacuumimpregnated with a potting compound suitable for the application environment. The finished transformer thereafter becomes quite impervious to humidity or ordinary magnetic influences. The device thus also becomes extremely rugged and reliable. There is a noncontacting magnetic core, made from a uniformly dense cylinder of nickel- iron alloy, carefully annealed to improve and homogenize its magnetic permeability, which moves in the centre of these coils wound on the insulating from and the motion of this core varies the mutual inductance of each secondary to the primary, which determines the voltage induced from the primary to each secondary. If the core is centered in the middle of the two secondary windings, then voltage induced in each secondary winding will be identical and 180.

Fig. 3.6.

Out- of- phase, and the, net output will be zero. If the core is moved off middle position, then the mutual inductance of the primary with secondary will be greater than the other, and a differential voltage will appear across the secondaries in series. For off centre displacements within lineal range of operation, the output is essentially a linear function of core displacement. The various unique features of LVDT are: Due to no physical contact between the core and coil its mechanical components do not wear out; as a result the friction is absent and true infinite resolution with no hysteresis is obtained. The small core mass and the lack of friction enhance response capabilities for dynamic measurements and thus it because very suitable for taking measurements for on- line machining. Further as it is not affected by overload, its reliability is high.

Fig. 3.7.

3.6. Electronic Gauging:


The electronic gauging system is designed to fulfill the increasing demand for equipment particularly suited to the accuracy and versatility require by up-to date engineering practice.

3.7. Principle of Operation:

The principle of operation is shown in Fig. 3.8. The movement at the probe tip actuates inductance transducer which is supplied with an alternating current from the oscillator.

Fig. 3.8.

The transducer converts this movement into an electrical signal which is then amplified and fed via an oscillator to the demodulator. The current in D.C. form, then passes to the meter and the probe tip movement is displayed as a linear measurement. Various measuring and control unites can be incorporated which provide for an extremely wide range of single or multiple measurements to be made simultaneously. Fig. 3.9. shows another design of electronic indicator capable of reading better than 1 micron. It consists of a gauging head and an amplifier. The mechanical movement of the contact probe alters the output or voltage of the gauge head proportional to displacement. The small alteration in voltage is amplified by means of a sensitive meter, calibrated in terms of unites of length. Switching selection enables a convenient range of magnification. Such an instrument has many functional advantages like high magnification, range of magnifications, light gauging force (40 graes or less), rugged construction, immediate response, unlimited applicability to inspection procedures.

Fig. 3.9.

3.8. Differential Unit:


The differential gauge unit is used with two probes to show the combination of two readings and by selection of the appropriate probe input sockets, may add or subtract the readings obtained by the two probes. The sum, or difference of the two readings is amplified and displayed on the unit as a single scale reading. The magnification and output are exactly same as in the standard gauge unit, but an additional feature of this unit is a switch which enables one of the two probes to be isolated. Differential units have many applications, including the measurement of tapers irrespective of changes in diameter of the component; diameters, regardless of eccentricity and also for the normal measurement of both diameter and run- out as shown in Fig. 3.10.

Fig. 3.10.

3.11. Electroshock Gauges:


This gauge simply shows whether the dimention of a component falls within a predetermined tolerance range without measuring the actual dimensions. It can also be used as an automatic check on machines in operation to stop the tool when the dimension is out of prescribed limits. It employs reed mechanism in its measuring head and reeds are caused to bend when the floating (movable) block is moved. The bending movement causes the extension arm to break an electric circuit. Electric contacts control signal to indicate whether the dimension is within tolerance or not. The gauge has first to be set by precision slip gauges to the maximum and minimum limits of tolerance.

3.12. Electricator Gauges:


This gauge combines the advantages of both dial indicator for actual measurement and tolerance signals in the form of sound or light.

3.13. Electro limit gauges:

It combines mechanical gauging with electrical magnification by wheatstone bridge. The degree of magnification of instrument is adjustable and arrangements for zero setting are also provided. This gauge eliminates the errors due to senseof feel in taking measurements and provides the accuracy needed for statistical quality control. It has wide range of applications and speed of gauging process is increased very much by its use.

3.14. Electronic Measuring Equipment:


This provides a reliable means for making external and internal measurements with a remarkable accuracy and ease. This equipment employs a highly dependable Wheatstone bridge circuit in the form of a strain gauge. Due to the deflection of gauging point because of change of dimension, a minute change is experienced in the electrical resistance of the bridge circuit. This creates voltage signals which are amplified and they in turn operate the indicating meter. It can be used for a variety of internal and external measurements and special attachments are provided to make it more versatile.

3.15. The Electronic Comparator:


It is based on the principle of application of frequency modulation or radio oscillation. A special ratio oscillator is used which produces impulses of a definite value at a definite frequency. The frequency is controlled by the measuring head. When the measuring head is applied to the part to be measured the frequency of the instrument oscillator is modified because of the variation of the dimension from that of the preset standard. The modified frequency is annulled by suitable controls to restore it back to the basic value. The measuring instrument dial is graduated directly in terms of the physical standards of length which compare with the electronic standards of wavelength. By using various adaptors to suit the work, the comparator can be put to many applications such as external and internal gauging, flatness testing, thickness gauging, tube wall thickness, measurement of electro- plate coating, gauging on curved or flat surfaces etc., to a very high limit of measuring precision. In Fig. 3.11, the comparator is shown being used as a thickness gauge. With high frequencies, it is extremely sensitive to such variables, as temperature, mechanical and electrical changes. Using different

frequencies, the sensitivity of the instrument can be easily changed and it is achieved by providing a multi- position switch.

Fig. 3.11.

3.16. Possible Instruments:

sources

of

errors

in

Electronic

The following possible sources of errors from electronic instruments have a bearing on working accuracy: i) Repeatability or short run ability to repeat readings. ii) Drift. The indicator may be relied upon for a datum but wanders over a period of time. iii) Temperature. The changes in temperature, apart from the temperature of the work piece, may alter the calibration of the instrument. iv) Magnetism. Some electronic instruments may be influenced by even the lightest residual magnetism. v) Voltage fluctuation. Electronic indicator may be subject to short- run wandering due to voltage fluctuation, specially in high magnification range. vi) Loss of linearity. Periodic adjustments for linearity may be required, but short- run changes stemming from unstable components can be dangerous in the inspection procedure . vii) Degree of linearity. Electronic indicator is comparator and can not be relied upon for wider ranges.

There are, in addition, sources of error in the environment, such as dirt, oil, air film, stability of the set- up, finish and geometry of the work piece, deflection, angle of the probe tip to the work, vibration, temperature, parallax, etc. not related to the instrument itself.

3.17. Pneumatic Comparators:


Air gauging has rapidly increased during some past time due to the following important characteristics: Very high amplifications are possible. It can be used to measure diameters, length, square ness, parallelism, concentricity, taper, centre distance between holes and other geometric conditions. As no physical contact is made either with the setting gauge or the part being measured, there is no loss of accuracy because of gauge wear. For this reason, air spindle and air snap gauges last very long. Also very soft parts which are easily scratched, can be gauged. Internal dimensions can be readily measured not only with respect to tolerance boundaries but also geometric form. In other words, while measuring a bore it can reveal complete story of size, taper, straightness, camber and bell mouth etc. It is independent of operator skill. High pressure air gauging can be done with cleansing of the parts which helps to eliminate errors due to dirt and foreign matter. gauging pressures can be kept sufficiently low to prevent part deflection. (In general, high pressure gauges are suitable for those parts in which tolerance are relatively large and low pressure air gauges are preferable for highly precise work). Dimensional variations throughout the length of shaft or cylinder bore can be explored for out of roundness, taper ness, concentricity, regularity and similar conditions. Not only it measures the actual size, but it can also be used to salvage oversized pieces for rework or to sort out for selective assembly, i.e., it is suitable both for variable inspection

(measurement of size) and attribute inspection (GO and NO GO) gauging and limits. The total life cost of the gauging heads in much less. It is accurate, flexible, reliable, universal and speedy device for inspecting parts in mass production. It is best suited for checking multiple dimensions nd conditions on a part simultaneously in least possible time. It can be used for parts from 0.5 mm to 900 mm diameter having tolerance of 0.05 mm or less. It can be easily used for a line measurement of parts as they are being machined and corrective actions.

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