Principles of Turbomachinery in Air-Breathing Engines

ERIAN A. BASKHARONE
Texas A&M University

CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS

Contents

Preface 1 Introduction to Gas-Turbine Engines Definition Advantages of Gas-Turbine Engines Applications of Gas-Turbine Engines The Gas Generator Air Intake and Inlet Flow Passage Engine-Exhaust Component Multispool Engine Arrangements Thermodynamic Cycle in a Single-Combustor Engine Importance of Metallurgical Progress 2 Overview of Turbomachinery Nomenclature Definition of a Turbomachine General Classification of Turbomachines Stage Definition Coordinate System Velocity Diagrams Multiple Staging Viscosity and Compressibility Factors Stator/Rotor Interaction 3 Aerothermodynamics of Turbomachines and Design-Related Topics Assumptions and Limitations Energy-Conservation Law Introduction of Total Properties Ideal Gas as a Working Medium Entropy-Based Loss Coefficient

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Contents Compressibility of the Working Medium Sonic Speed in Ideal Gases Mach Number and Compressibility of a Flow Field Total Properties in Terms of the Mach Number Definition of the Critical Mach Number Total Properties in Terms of the Critical Mach Number Definition of the Pitch Line in Turbomachines Continuity Equation in Terms of Total Properties Isentropic Flow in Varying-Area Passages The Sonic State Nozzle- and Diffuser-Like Airfoil Cascades Bernoulli's Equation: Applicability and Limitations Favorable and Unfavorable Pressure Gradients Design-Point and Off-Design Operating Modes Choice of the Design Point Variable-Geometry Turbomachines Means of Assessing Turbomachinery Performance Total Relative Flow Properties Introduction of the Relative Critical Mach Number Losses in Constant-Area Annular Ducts (Fanno Line) Fanno-Flow Relationships Exhaust Diffusers Definition of the Momentum Thickness Problems Energy Transfer between a Fluid and a Rotor Stationary and Rotating Frames of Reference Flow and Airfoil Angles Components of Energy Transfer Definition of the Stage Reaction Reaction of Axial-Flow Stages Invariant Thermophysical Properties The Total Enthalpy {ht) The Total Relative Enthalpy {htr) The Rothalpy (I) Importance of the Invariant Properties Total Relative Properties Incidence and Deviation Angles Problems Dimensional Analysis, Maps, and Specific Speed Introduction Geometrical Similarity Dynamic Similarity 39 39 40 40 41 43 45 46 48 51 52 54 58 63 64 65 70 74 75 77 80 94 97 103 112 115 119 120 122 122 124 124 124 125 125 128 131 157 172 172 172 172

Contents Buckingham's n Theorem: Incompressible Flows Application of Buckingham's Theorem to Compressible-Flow Turbomachines Compressor and Turbine Maps Choking of Compressors and Turbines Specific Speed Application of Specific Speed to Incompressible-Flow Turbomachines Application of Specific Speed to Compressible-Flow Turbomachines Design Role of Specific Speed Traditional Specific Speed Approximations Problems 6 Radial-Equilibrium Theory Assumptions Implications Derivation of the Radial-Equilibrium Equation Special Forms of the Radial-Equilibrium Equation Further Simplifications Problems 7 Polytropic (Small-Stage) Efficiency Derivation of the Polytropic Efficiency Multistage Compressors and Turbines Problems 8 Axial-Flow Turbines Stage Definition The Preliminary Design Process Stage Design: A Simplified Approach Definitions of the Incidence and Deviation Angles Detailed Design of Airfoil Cascades Airfoil-Cascade Geometry Variables Airfoil Aerodynamic Loading Geometrical Discontinuities Performance-Controlling Variables Aspect Ratio Tip-Clearance Effects Reynolds Number Effect Incidence-Angle Effect Suction-Side Flow Diffusion Location of the Front Stagnation Point Trailing-Edge Thickness 173 173 175 178 180 182 183 185 186 200 208 208 208 210 213 214 226 234 234 237 243 250 250 250 255 276 280 283 285 287 290 290 291 294 295 296 299 300

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xii Design-Oriented Empirical Correlations Stacking of the Vane and Blade Airfoil Sections Shaft-Work Extraction in Low-Aspect-Ratio Blades The Supersonic Stator Option Shape of the Stagnation Streamlines Simple Component Adaptation Means Hot-to-Cold Dimensions' Conversion Cooling Flow Extraction and Path of Delivery Problems 9 Axial-Flow Compressors Introduction Comparison with Axial-Flow Turbines Stage Definition and Multiple Staging Normal Stage Definition Standard Airfoil Profiles Real Flow Effects Compressor Off-Design Characteristics Rotating Stall and Total Surge Compressor Behavior during Start-up Means of Suppressing Start-up Problems Problems 10 Radial-Inflow Turbines Introduction Components of Energy Transfer Flow Angles Stage Reaction Other Performance-Related Dimensionless Variables Total Relative Properties and Critical Mach Number Conventional-Stage Geometrical Configurations Compressibility Effects Stage-Design Approach Closed-Form Loss Correlations Effect of the "Scallop" Radius and Backface Clearance Stage Placement in a Multistage Turbine Cooling Techniques Problems 11 Centrifugal Compressors Component Identification Impeller Inlet System Inlet-Duct Total Pressure Loss Compressor Thermodynamics 301 304 306 306 312 313 314 316 335 347 347 347 350 352 354 357 360 360 363 364 385 398 398 398 399 400 401 402 403 408 415 418 425 454 455 458 471 472 475 475 476

Contents

Contents Impeller Blading Options Components of Energy Transfer and Stage Reaction Performance Consequences of the Static Head Performance Consequences of the Dynamic Head Acceleration Components within the Impeller Slip Phenomenon Slip Factor Stage Total-to-Total Efficiency Volute Flow Field One-Dimensional Approach to Volute Design Total-to-Static Efficiency Tip-Clearance Effect Multiple Staging Impeller/Stator Unsteady Flow Interaction Problems 12 Turbine-Compressor Matching Problem Category 1 Problem Category 2 Performance-Related Variables in Propulsion Systems Gas Generator Operating Lines on Compressor Maps: Constant Tt4/Tt2 Lines Required Post-processing Work Problems References Index 477 481 482 485 486 488 488 489 489 492 493 494 495 496 515 529 533 536 538 541 544 560 573 575

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