What caused Lloyd Geerings heresy trial with the Presbyterian Church and what was the verdict?

Introduction
In 1967, the Presbyterian Church of New Zealand charged Professor Lloyd Geering with heresya charge that the Church ultimately dismissed. This essay will identify what caused the charge and why the Church dismissed it. These events took place in the mid to late 1960s, which was a time when new ideologies, challenging old, reached a crescendo in the Western world. This essay will argue that the heresy trial eventuated when Geering

attempted to reconcile Christianity with post-Enlightenment ideologies, which challenged traditional Reformed Presbyterianism ideology. The trial forced the Presbyterian Church of New Zealand to formulate a stance on the liberal theology engendered by Geerings attempted reconciliationa stance that illustrated a departure from fundamental Reformed Presbyterianism.

The Reformed Presbyterian Tradition

To understand how the Presbyterian Church came to charge Geering with heresy, we must first examine the Reformed Presbyterian tradition, as Geerings teaching challenged that tradition. Presbyterianism had its roots in the Calvinism of the 16th century, which was one strand of the Protestant Reformation.1 Presbyterianism adopted standard Reformation

thought, particularly embodied in the Westminster Confession. The Presbyterian Church of New Zealand viewed the Westminster Confession as authoritative from its earliest time.2 The Church referred to the Confession as authoritative at the time of Geerings trial.3 The key thrust of this Confession was its focus on the divine inspiration and authorship of Scripture.4 The Churchs Book of Order reflected this: The Word of God, contained in the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, is the supreme rule of Faith and Duty, and is the Supreme Standard of this Church. [Reg. 1 (a).]5 Thus, the Presbyterian Church traditionally held Scripture as the highest authority, which, as we shall see, was at odds with ideologies that stemmed from the Enlightenment.

1 2

Jonathan Hill, The New Lion Handbook, the History of Christianity (Oxford: Lion Hudson, 2007), 268. Dennis McEldowney, ed. Presbyterians in Aotearoa 1840-1990 (Wellington: Presbyterian Church of New Zealand,1990), 11. 3 A Trial for Heresy - Charges against Principal Geering 1967, (Christchurch: Presbyterian Bookroom, 1968), 7. 4 Hill, The New Lion Handbook, the History of Christianity, 273. 5 A Trial for Heresy - Charges against Principal Geering 1967, 7.

Page 2 of 10

The Rise of the Enlightenment

The Enlightenment championed human reason as the highest authority,6 an ideal that steadily infiltrated Western culture, particularly academia, from the 17th century. This bred developments that challenged the Reformed Presbyterian tradition. An example was secular materialism, as advocated by Feuerbach and Marx.7 Another example was Friedrich

Nietzsches pronouncement that freedom came from being conscious of the lack of divine purpose or providencethat self-direction should govern ones self and not some cosmic order, governed by Deity.8 A further example was the rise of Secularisation Theorythe idea that humanity no longer required religion, which would eventually die out. It held that human beings could rely on human reason for direction, rather than religious authority. Developments such as these amplified Enlightenment ideology in the West.

1960s Humanism and the Churchs Challenge

The 1960s was a time of radical social change in the West, particularly with the rise of human rights, which informed social aspects such as gender and race relations. This

followed the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, declared in 1948 following the experience of the Second World War.9 These developments championed human rights as the supreme authority in human relations. This was a natural development from the authority of rational humanism espoused by the Enlightenment. Human thought, free of controls, led to the horrors of the Second World War. Therefore, humanity needed to create a code that would manage the boundaries of human thought. The United Nations relegated religion as subject to human rights, as one can see in Article Two of the Declaration:

"The Enlightenment," Encyclopedia of Britannica, <http://www.britannica.com.ezproxy.otago.ac.nz/EBchecked/topic/188441/Enlightenment>. 7 Diarmaid MacCulloch, A History of Christianity (London: Penguin Group, 2010), 863. 8 Ibid., 864. 9 "The Universal Declaration of Human Rights - History of the Document," The United Nations, <http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/history.shtml>.

Page 3 of 10

Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion (Emphasis added).10 People were free to choose their religion, which meant people had authority over religion (by definition, the freedom to choose or decline gives a chooser authority). This was a

schismatic departure from the Reformed Presbyterian tradition, which gave religion the authority, through the Christian Scriptures (as per the Westminster Confession). This created an obvious challenge for Presbyterianism how could it proceed in a world that championed rational thought and human ideals, when it championed faith and Gods ideals as revealed in Scripture?

The Radical Responses

From the early 20th century, liberal theologians responded to this challenge by seeking to reformulate Christianity in terms of rational humanistic thought, which led to a variety of radical outcomes.11 Such theologians wanted to remove the mythological garb that

Christianity had worn and bring it into the new age, clothing it in terms modern people could understand.12 This reached a crescendo in the early 1960s, escalating alongside the

humanism climax discussed earlier. The liberal theologies aimed to reconceptualise God within the framework of postEnlightenment rational humanism. This went on in academic circles in the first half of the twentieth century,13 but it crossed over into popular piety when an Anglican bishop, John Robinson, published Honest to God in 1963.14 Robinson tried to adapt theological language and thought into terms familiar to modern audiences.15 Other works followed such as Paul van Burens The Secular Meaning of the Gospel, Harvey Coxs The Secular City, and Gregor
10

"The Universal Declaration of Human Rights," The United Nations, <http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/>.http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/ 11 Hill, The New Lion Handbook, the History of Christianity, 432. Ian Breward, Grace and Truth - a History of Theological Hall, Knox College, Dunedin 1876-1975 (Dunedin: The Theological Education Committee of the Presbyterian Church of New Zealand, 1975), 99. 12 Hill, The New Lion Handbook, the History of Christianity, 432. 13 Ibid., 433. 14 James Veitch, A Church in Mid-Life Crisis - the Debate of 1966-1970 (Dunedin: Presbyterian Historical Society of New Zealand, 1984), 10. Lloyd Geering, Wrestling with God - the Story of My Life (Wellington: Bridget Williams Books Limited, 2006), 143. 15 James Veitch, "Towards the Church for a New Era," in Presbyterians in Aotearoa 1840-1990, ed. Dennis McEldowney (Wellington: The Presbyterian Church of New Zealand, 1990), 153.

Page 4 of 10

Smiths Secular Christianity.16 These works aimed to remove ancient thought forms from religion (including the notion of a supernatural, personal God), instead substituting modern replacements. Robinsons The New Reformation aimed to reconstitute the church so it could implement this new Christianity.17 These developments influenced Geerings teaching,

ultimately leading to his heresy charge.

Geerings Teachings
Geering conducted his liberal teaching on a number of occasions between 1965 and 1967, transmitting it via popular Presbyterian media of the time. This brought his message to the attention of everyday (i.e. non-academic) members, setting up the clash between his message and factions who held fundamentally to Reformed Presbyterianism. The first

transmission was Geerings article about the possibility of bringing the church into the twentieth century, based on Robinsons The New Reformation.18 Outlook, the Presbyterian Churchs popular magazine, published this in September 1965, in preparation for Reformation Sunday.19 An article by Geering about the Resurrection appeared in the Easter 1966 edition of Outlook,20 where he claimed that belief in the bodily resurrection of Christ was unnecessary.21 In March 1967, Geering claimed that human beings do not have

immortal souls, during a sermon he preached in Wellington.22 These were the key examples of Geering transmitting his message into the public sphere. We shall soon see what the public response was, but to understand that, we must first understand the substance of his teaching. As stated earlier, liberal theology informed Geerings teaching, which aimed to reconceptualise Christianity in the framework of rational humanism, borne from the Enlightenment. Geerings statements about Christs resurrection and his denial that human beings have human souls are examples of his liberal theology. Geering viewed the

resurrection as a pious legend, used by the early Christians to explain the continuous
16 17

Ibid. Ibid. 18 Geering, Wrestling with God - the Story of My Life, 141-2. Veitch, "Towards the Church for a New Era," 153. 19 Geering, Wrestling with God - the Story of My Life, 141. 20 Veitch, "Towards the Church for a New Era," 153. Veitch, A Church in Mid-Life Crisis - the Debate of 1966-1970, 5-6. 21 Geering, Wrestling with God - the Story of My Life, 143. 22 Veitch, "Towards the Church for a New Era," 154.

Page 5 of 10

influence of Christ after his death.23

Geering could not accept that Christ had actually

resurrected, because such a supernatural miracle did not fit within his rational humanistic worldview. Therefore, he denied the actual Resurrection, but attempted to find meaning in the Resurrection story.24 Likewise, the concept of human beings having immortal souls did not fit with rational humanism. Geering came to view the immortal soul concept as Platonic in origin,25 but not based on reality. For him, scientific discoveries regarding human biology asserted that human souls were not possible.26 Rational humanism places high emphasis on science as authority, because human reason governs science. Since science did not (or possibly could not) prove the existence of the soul, the soul concept lay outside of Geerings worldview. He did not reformulate its meaning (as he did with the Resurrection) because he believed it was never a Christian concept, but rather a Greek philosophical one.27 These examples show how Geering attempted to reformulate Christianity in the framework of the rational humanistic worldview.

Reformed Presbyterian Reaction

Factions within the Presbyterian Church of New Zealand adhered to traditional Reformed ideology. Responses of these factions to Geerings teaching gradually increased in intensity. Some responses were cautiousthe Somervell Presbyterian Church (Auckland) session noted concern over Geerings radical departure from traditional Christianity.28 Students at

Auckland University expressed reticence to undertake training in the Knox Theological Hall, given that Geering, as its principal, was following such liberal theology.29 Other responses were immediate and strong from within the Church, resulting in vigorous debate.30 Following Geerings Resurrection article, the Presbyterian Churchs General Assembly of 1966 quelled the fervour by issuing statements that affirmed Reformed Presbyterian thinking.31 However, following Geerings sermon declining the immortality of the human soul, matters

23 24

Geering, Wrestling with God - the Story of My Life, 143. Ibid. 25 Ibid., 11. 26 Ibid., 12. 27 Ibid. 28 Veitch, A Church in Mid-Life Crisis - the Debate of 1966-1970, 7-8. 29 Breward, Grace and Truth - a History of Theological Hall, Knox College, Dunedin 1876-1975, 100. 30 Veitch, "Towards the Church for a New Era," 153. 31 Ibid., 154.

Page 6 of 10

escalated further.32 This led to Robert Wardlaw and Rev. Robert Blaikie charging Geering with heresy, believing he was guilty of doctrinal error.33 Wardlaw was an Auckland

businessperson and leader of the Laymans Association, which had formed to defend traditional Reformed Presbyterianism.34 Blaikie was an Auckland parish minister.35 Wardlaw and Blaikie represented the factions that held to traditional Reformed Presbyterianism. They formally brought the charge of heresy regarding Geerings teaching, on the grounds of doctrinal error.

The Trial and Its Outcome

The resulting heresy trial was the culmination of the tension between Geerings teaching and the factions holding to Reformed Presbyterian ideology. The General Assembly met in

1967,36 at St Pauls Church (Christchurch),37 where it conducted Geerings trial. By this time, the matter had had intense media interest for the previous two years, which aroused strong community interest.38 The atmosphere was tense within the Presbyterian Church.39 The onus was on the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church to resolve the matter. In the end, the church resolved it in a somewhat anti-climactically manner. The Presbyterian Church dismissed the heresy charge against Geering.40 A number of parties had been at work behind the scenes to resolve the matter peacefully, fearing it might fracture the church and present the church poorly in the public spotlight.41 The church also had pastoral

concern for Geering himself.42 In the churchs mind, Geering was not on trial.43 However, Geering felt that he was.44 After all, the church had formally charged him with heresy. Officially, the church was charging him with heresy, but its main concern appears to have been peaceful resolution for all parties involved.

32 33

Ibid. Ibid., 154. 34 Ibid. 35 Ibid. 36 Veitch, A Church in Mid-Life Crisis - the Debate of 1966-1970, 12. 37 Veitch, "Towards the Church for a New Era," 154. 38 Veitch, A Church in Mid-Life Crisis - the Debate of 1966-1970, 12. 39 Ibid. 40 Veitch, "Towards the Church for a New Era," 154. 41 Veitch, A Church in Mid-Life Crisis - the Debate of 1966-1970, 12. Veitch, "Towards the Church for a New Era," 154. 42 Geering, Wrestling with God - the Story of My Life, 162. 43 Ibid. 44 Ibid.

Page 7 of 10

Following the trial, the General Assembly issued a pastoral letter to the church, to explain its outcomes.45 The letter displayed a middle ground allowing freedom of thought

(rationalism), whilst at the same time maintaining the authority of the church (represented by the General Assembly). The letter asserted that the church must express its message

intelligibly to changing generations.46 Geering claims that was his aim to adapt Christianity for the modern secular (as he saw it) world.47 The letter then stated that people must have freedom to think regarding how they adapt the churchs message.48 Interestingly, this

emphasises rationalism, which is a possible concession, moving away from the traditional authorities stipulated in the Westminster Confession. However, the letter then goes on to regulate such thinking, claiming the convictions of the whole church (presented in doctrinal standards or pronouncements) must evaluate this thinking.49 Nonetheless, via this pastoral letter, the church summed up its decision in this way: The decision was simply a declaration that in his endeavour to restate the Christian faith in modern terms he (Geering) had not stepped out of the bounds of reasonable liberty of thought or expression or doctrine.50 In stating this, the Presbyterian Church affirmed that Geerings theology was within reasonable bounds. This was a significant departure from traditional, conservative Reformed Presbyterianism, which would not have accepted Geerings teaching. This evidences that the church had officially shifted from fundamental Reformed Presbyterianism to a degree.

Conclusion
This essay has identified that the root cause of Geerings heresy trial was the rise of postEnlightenment thought, particularly rationalism and humanism. Geering constructed a

liberal theology, informed by rationalism and humanism, which he then brought into the public sphere. This created friction with those within the Presbyterian Church who held to Reformed Presbyterian ideology. Representatives of those factions brought the charge of heresy against Geering. The church resolved the matter by working behind the scenes ahead
45 46

A Trial for Heresy - Charges against Principal Geering 1967, 111. Ibid. 47 Geering, Wrestling with God - the Story of My Life, 141. 48 A Trial for Heresy - Charges against Principal Geering 1967, 111. 49 Ibid. 50 Ibid.

Page 8 of 10

of the heresy trial, fearful of the damage it might do to the churchs image, to the churchs stability, and to Geering. The trial found Geering not guilty of heresy. The church then issued an official statement explaining the verdict and its stance on the matter. This

statement showed an allowance for discussion of liberal theologies such as Geerings, but asserted the General Assemblys authority to define official church doctrine. In effect, this created room within the church for liberal and other non-orthodox theologies. That was a departure from the churchs pro-Reformed Presbyterian stance of 1966. Overall, Geerings trial was a test case that forced the Presbyterian Church to respond officially to liberal theology and its post-Enlightenment ideologies. The churchs response illustrated a slight, but significant, departure from its Reformed Presbyterianism roots.

Page 9 of 10

Bibliography
Breward, Ian. Grace and Truth - a History of Theological Hall, Knox College, Dunedin 18761975. Dunedin: The Theological Education Committee of the Presbyterian Church of New Zealand, 1975. "The Enlightenment." Encyclopedia of Britannica, <http://www.britannica.com.ezproxy.otago.ac.nz/EBchecked/topic/188441/Enlighten ment>. Geering, Lloyd. Wrestling with God - the Story of My Life. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books Limited, 2006. Hill, Jonathan. The New Lion Handbook, the History of Christianity. Oxford: Lion Hudson, 2007. MacCulloch, Diarmaid. A History of Christianity. London: Penguin Group, 2010. McEldowney, Dennis, ed. Presbyterians in Aotearoa 1840-1990. Wellington: Presbyterian Church of New Zealand, 1990. A Trial for Heresy - Charges against Principal Geering 1967. Christchurch: Presbyterian Bookroom, 1968. "The Universal Declaration of Human Rights." The United Nations, <http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/>. "The Universal Declaration of Human Rights - History of the Document." The United Nations, <http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/history.shtml>. Veitch, James. A Church in Mid-Life Crisis - the Debate of 1966-1970. Dunedin: Presbyterian Historical Society of New Zealand, 1984. Veitch, James. "Towards the Church for a New Era." In Presbyterians in Aotearoa 1840-1990, edited by Dennis McEldowney. Wellington: The Presbyterian Church of New Zealand, 1990.

The author wishes to express a special thank-you for the assistance of the Presbyterian Church of New Zealands Archives Research Centre for their assistance in the research for this essay.

Page 10 of 10