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Towards Community Monitoring of Rivers in Malaysia

Chris Funtera

Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree Bachelor of Environmental Science (Honours) School of Geography and Environmental Science Monash University

Abstract
Resource shortfalls and a lack of political willingness in developing regions can restrict efforts to conduct appropriate environmental monitoring and evaluation required to form the basis of effective management and decision-making. Community monitoring provides a potential pathway to involve the public in management of natural areas, whilst also increasing environmental awareness and fostering a sense of ownership. In Malaysia, the availability of water has become an important issue in recent years. Population growth, urbanization and industrialization are imposing rapidly

increasing demands and pressure on water resources. Surface water in the form of streams and rivers contributes 98% of Malaysias water supply, and increasing organic and inorganic water pollution threatens future water supply and Malaysias plans for further development. The lack of education and awareness of the general public about water resources is a key factor that has led to the state of Malaysias overall water quality. Therefore, community monitoring may provide a useful tool in rehabilitating and managing Malaysias degraded waterways. The potential of community monitoring was investigated by implementing a biological monitoring program in a Malaysian high school and comparing the results with professional assessments, in order to assess issues with data accuracy and reliability. In addition, an established community monitoring program was analysed and program managers consulted and interviewed on their views and experiences. Results show that community monitoring can provide crucial information on river health, educational opportunities for schools and the wider community and an opportunity for communities to become involved in natural resource management. However, if community collected data is to be used to inform management and decision-making, volunteer protocols need to be reinforced with standard data validation techniques.

Keywords: Volunteer monitoring, macroinvertebrate monitoring, biological monitoring, Malaysia Rivers, Malaysia Water Resources, Malaysias Water Vision

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Acknowledgments
Acknowledging and thanking those who have helped me to undertake this project is more difficult than I thought. I hope I have shown gratitude to all those who have assisted me, but here I have a chance to recognize you more formally. I am extremely grateful to Dr Catherine Yule for giving me the opportunity to work on this project which has been an incredible experience for me. Thank you for all your guidance, encouragement and making yourself available even when time was limited. I had a wonderful time working with Kenny Peavy, Mark Walsh and all of the kids from Grade 7 at the International School of Kuala Lumpur. enthusiasm and your contribution to this project. Thank you to Shafinaz Shahabudin, Regina Cheah and Dr Kalithasan Kailasam and everyone from the Global Environment Centre for your great work and allowing me to include it in this project. Thank you to Jing Khor Tien and Meaghan Raymond for your contribution to this project and help in the field. To all the students in the Monash Malaysia science laboratories, thank you for your generous spirit with which you welcomed me and assisted me with my project. especially would like to thank everyone who accompanied me on field trips. To all the wonderful people I met during my time in Malaysia who made it such an enriching experience. Terima Kasih. Finally, I would like to thank the enduring support of all my friends and family who have read my drafts, made me endless cups of coffee and provided a much needed distraction when needed. Thank you.
Cover Photo: Kanching Falls, supplied by Tan Kian Yong

Thank you for all of your

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STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

This thesis contains no material which has previously been submitted as a requirement for the award of a degree or diploma within this, or any other institution. This thesis is entirely my own work. It contains no material which has been previously written or published by another person, except where this is referenced within the text. I understand that the work submitted may be reproduced and/or communicated by the University or a third party authorized by the University for the purpose of detecting plagiarism.

Date:

........................

Signed:

........................ Chris Funtera

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Table of Contents
Abstract Acknowledgements Declaration Table of Contents List of Tables List of Figures List of Abbreviation of Terms ii iii iv v viii ix xi

Chapter 1: Introduction Objectives Thesis Outline Research Design

1 2 3 4

Chapter 2: Rivers and Water Resources in Malaysia Introduction Water Resources in Malaysia Rivers in Malaysia Malaysias Water Vision Conclusion

6 6 6 9 14 17

Chapter 3: Community Monitoring Introduction Community Involvement in Environmental Management Community Monitoring Benefits of Community Monitoring Limitations of Community Monitoring Community Monitoring and the Malaysian Water Vision Conclusion

18 18 18 19 20 23 24 25

Chapter 4: Implementation of a Macroinvertebrate Monitoring Program Introduction Biological Monitoring Biological Monitoring in Malaysia Monitoring Methods Volunteer Monitoring Materials and Methods Study Site Professional Sampling Protocol School Sampling Protocol Participant Questionnaire Data Analysis Results Environmental Parameters Invertebrate Monitoring Biological Metrics Student Awareness and Knowledge Discussion Professional Monitoring Comparing School and Professional Assessments Sources of Inaccuracy Shortfalls of Chemical Monitoring Participant Awareness and Knowledge Modifications to Improve Monitoring Program Conclusion

26 26 26 27 28 32 36 36 39 40 41 42 45 45 46 47 54 56 56 57 58 60 60 61 62

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Chapter 5: Community Management and Monitoring of Kelana Jaya Lakes Introduction Kelana Jaya Lake Pollution Problems Management Project Planning and Design Community Monitoring and Evaluation Achievements Challenges and Lessons Learned Conclusion

63 63 63 64 65 65 65 67 69 70 73

Chapter 6: Conclusions Recommendations Study Limitations

74 76 76

References

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Appendix I Student Questionnaire Appendix II Kelana Jaya Lake Report Card

84 85 86 87

Appendix III Explanatory Statement Appendix IV Consent Form

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List of tables
Table Table 2.1 Title Water Resources in Malaysia. Page 6

Table 4.1

Description of Sampling Sites.

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Table 4.2

Environmental parameters measured at each study site.

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Table 4.3

Biological metrics used to compare professional and school samples.

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Table 4.4

Classification of invertebrates based on pollution sensitivity.

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Table 4.5

Chemical and physical characteristics of selected sites along Sungai Ampang.

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Table 4.6

Summary of invertebrate monitoring results.

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Table 4.7

Variation of invertebrate communities between sites in professional monitoring.

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List of Figures
Figure Figure 2.1 Title River basins water quality trend 1997 2007 Page 13

Figure 4.1

Map of Malaysia

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Figure 4.2

Map of Taman TAR

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Figure 4.3

A Mean species richness per 20cm2 of professional monitoring ( 1 SE, n = 10). B Total taxa richness of school monitoring per site.

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Figure 4.4

A Mean EPT (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera) abundance per 20cm2 area of professional monitoring ( 1 SE, n = 10). B Total EPT abundance per site of school monitoring.

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Figure 4.5

A Mean degree of dominance (proportion of three most abundant taxa species/ 20cm2) of professional monitoring. B Degree of dominance of school monitoring.

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Figure 4.6

A Mean proportion of tolerant tax per 20cm2 area of professional monitoring. B Proportion of tolerant taxa per site of school monitoring.

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Figure 4.7

A Mean becks biotic index score per 20cm2 of professional monitoring. B Becks biotic index score per site of school monitoring.

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Figure 4.8

Distribution of invertebrate pollution classes of A professional monitoring and B school monitoring.

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Figure 4.9

School students awareness of river issues before the monitoring program. B - awareness after completing the monitoring program.

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Figure 4.10

A School students knowledge of rivers and river health before the monitoring program. B -awareness after completing the monitoring program.

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Figure 5.1

Civic science approach to community engagement.

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List of Abbreviations
FoKJ % ANOVA BCM cm Df DID E EPT EPU GEC GEF IWRM LA21 m MCM MPPJ MWP N NWRC ppm SE Sg. F n P Friends of Kelana Jaya Lake Park Percentage Analysis of Variance Billion Cubic Meters centimetre Degree of Freedom Malaysian Department of Irrigation and Drainage East Invertebrate orders Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera Economic Planning Unit Global Environment Centre Global Environment Facility Integrated Water Resources Management Local Agenda 21 metre Million Cubic Meters Petaling Jaya Municipal Council Malaysian Water Partnership North National Water Resources Council parts per million Standard Error Sungai (river) Alpha F-test value Number of replicates probability

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Chapter 1 - Introduction
Water has played a significant role in Malaysias development process, providing the country with sufficient supply to cover all needs. The situation is however changing, as the country continues to develop and the population continues to increase, the pressure on the water resources increases with great impact on the quality and quantity of the water. Rapid industrial and infrastructural development has contributed to increased organic and inorganic pollution of Malaysias freshwater resources. The surface water from streams and rivers contribute approximately 98% of raw water for public water supply, therefore the availability and quality of the water is of major importance, both for ecosystems and human consumption. In a response to deteriorating water quality and supply problems, the Malaysia Water Vision 2025 was launched in 2001 by the Malaysian Water Partnership (a nongovernmental organisation that advises government and stakeholders on the management of water resources). It is a progressive policy designed to take Malaysia from where it is today, to where the country needs to be in the future in order to meet future water demands and ensure sustainable water use. It outlines many ambitious goals and sets a vision for future water management. The vision also recognises the importance of rivers and sets an ambitious target of lowering water pollution and restoring rivers back to a healthy, natural condition. Implementation of the vision thus far has been underwhelming. The vision lacks concrete proposals for action with targets or milestones.

Community monitoring programs such as Waterwatch in Australia and Adopt-aStream in the US have been implemented successfully in developed countries and hold great potential for use in management of Malaysias rivers. Community monitoring is distinct from formal professional monitoring as it is carried out at a local scale, by community members with no or limited science training. It has the ability to build community awareness and understanding of local water issues, and provide crucial information on river health. Community monitoring may provide an essential management tool towards restoring Malaysias degraded rivers and achieving Malaysias Water Vision.

Objectives The project aims to examine the potential of community monitoring to become an effective management tool of rivers and water resources in Malaysia. The benefits for both participants and management outcomes will be identified, as well as the challenges which confront the widespread adoption of the practice. The study will particularly investigate the ability of community monitoring to achieve certain key objectives, including;

Providing data which is accurate and reliable; Providing appropriate data which can inform management and decision-making; and Increasing community awareness and understanding of local water issues.

The potential of community monitoring will be examined using two lines of investigation. In order to assess the accuracy and reliability of community monitoring results, a river monitoring program will be implemented in a high school and the results compared with professional assessments. Participants will also be surveyed on their knowledge and awareness of river and water issues, before and after the program, to investigate the educational value of water monitoring. In addition, program co-ordinators of an established community monitoring program will be interviewed and consulted on their views and experiences on the ability of community monitoring to achieve the objectives mentioned above.

Thesis outline Following this introductory chapter, chapter 2 summarises the present water situation in Malaysia. Special emphasis is given to the water quality of rivers and current management and monitoring practices are described. The Malaysian Water Vision is presented as a central policy toward the sustainable management of water resources and its goals and objectives are outlined. Chapter 3 introduces the concept of community

monitoring as a tool for increasing community involvement in natural resource management. Examples from the literature are used to describe the benefits and

limitations of community monitoring. Finally, community monitoring is placed in the context of the Malaysian Water Vision and presented as a possible management tool. Chapters 2 and 3 form the theoretical basis of the study. Chapters 4 and 5 present the results of fieldwork completed in Malaysia. Chapter 4 details the implementation of a school river invertebrate monitoring program. The chapter is structured as a standard biological paper, with an introduction, methods, results and discussion. The concept of biological monitoring is introduced and the possible sources of error and inaccuracy are described. The methods section documents the

approach used to compare school and professional assessments. Results of comparisons are presented and discussed, and appropriate modifications to the school protocol are suggested. Chapter 5 documents the community restoration and monitoring program at

Kelana Jaya Lakes. The achievements of the program are described, as well as the challenges which confront the widespread adoption of the practice. Chapter 6 draws together the outcomes of the study and discusses the implications of its findings. The objectives from the Malaysian Water Vision are used as a framework to present findings.

Research Design Genesis of the study This research project grew out of my interest in South East Asian environments and management of natural resources in developing regions. I was introduced to the topic of community monitoring by my supervisor Dr Catherine Yule who is a lecturer in Tropical Ecology at Monash University, Malaysia campus. I found the prospect of

researching an emerging method in environmental management to be exciting and began to investigate the literature surrounding community monitoring. I also began working with Waterwatch Victoria, a local community monitoring group, who gave me great insights into how to organise and run monitoring programs involving volunteers. In total, I spent 5 months in Malaysia conducting fieldwork from July December 2009. Overview of fieldwork: Implementation of school monitoring program The professional study of the river, which was to be compared to the school monitoring results, began in August. River water and invertebrate samples were collected from different sites along the river and analysed in the laboratory over the next 3 months. The school monitoring program was initiated by my supervisor Dr Catherine Yule, who had contacts within the school. Initial meetings with the teachers took place in July to design and plan the program. The program involved 6 classes from the middle school and became part of their science curriculum. Monitoring was spread over 6 days in

September and October. It involved a half-day field trip to the river site, which was just a 5 minute drive from the school. The collected samples and data were then analysed during a series of classroom sessions in early November. In late November we held a minisymposium, where the kids presented their monitoring results and I presented the results of my monitoring. Analysis of established community monitoring program I first came across Global Environment Centre (GEC) when I was researching rivers in Malaysia. GEC is a Malaysian based environmental NGO focused on

community management of natural resources. I emailed the manager of the rivers and water division, who sent me a number of resources on GEC programs and initiatives.

Upon arrival in Malaysia, I was invited to a GEC workshop for government workers where they were taught the importance of rivers and river monitoring. I then had regular casual meetings with GEC staff and undertook a formal interview with the program manager of the Kelana Jaya Lakes restoration program in December. The interview was an hour long and recorded on a digital voice recorder. The interview was semi-structured allowing for flexibility and a more relaxed atmosphere where the participant could feel comfortable to share ideas and experiences.

Chapter 2 - Rivers and Water Resources in Malaysia


Introduction In this chapter the present status of river pollution in Malaysia will be described as well as current strategies for monitoring and management. The Malaysian Water Vision 2020 is presented as a central policy towards sustainable water management and the restoration of river health. Water Resources in Malaysia In Malaysia, the availability of water resources has become an important issue in recent years. Being a tropical region, there is an abundance of rain, more than is needed for consumption purposes. With fluctuations around the country the average annual

rainfall is 3,000mm which makes up a total volume of 990 billion cubic meters (BCM) of total annual water resources (Khalit 2007). This translates into an annual average water availability of 28,400 m3 per capita. The countries water resources are summarised in Table 2.1. Table 2.1 Water Resources in Malaysia (adapted from Khalit 2007) Hydrological Parameter Annual Rainfall (3,000mm) Evapo-transpiration Effective Rainfall Surface Runoff Groundwater Recharge Surface Artificial Storage (Dams) Total Water Demand Total Volume per Annum (Billion m3) 990 360 630 566 64 25 15.5

Streams and rivers with and without impounding reservoirs contribute 98% of total water used in Malaysia, the remainder is contributed by groundwater. River flow regimes are irregular and to secure safe yield from water sources, storage facilities have been

constructed. Currently there are 47 single purpose and 16 multipurpose dams with a total storage capacity of 25 billion m3 (Madsen,et al. 2003). In recent times the water supply situation for Malaysia has changed from one of relative abundance to one of scarcity. Water shortages, water supply disruptions, and even water rationing have become commonplace. Population growth, urbanization,

industrialization and the expansion of irrigated agriculture are imposing rapidly increasing demands and pressure on water resources, besides contributing to the rising water pollution. Since the 1960s the water demand in Malaysia has increased by an annual average of 9-10% (Aini et al. 2001). In the fastest developing parts of the nation water demand is rising even faster, and presently there is nothing indicating that demand for water will decline in the future. It is estimated that total demand for industry sectors, agriculture, irrigation and domestic use will rise to 14,504 Million Cubic Meters (MCM), compared to 1,622 MCM of current demand (Muyibi et al. 2008). In line with Vision 2020, Malaysia is expected to undergo intensive economic development in the years to come, increasing demand and pressure on an already stretched water supply. Water shortages and supply problems could impede social and economic activities as set under the national development plans. Water management is becoming increasingly comprehensive and complicated due to large concentrations of population, commercial activities and industries around cities and towns, increasing water consumption, increasing water pollution, increasing land use conflicts and climate change. Lee and Facon (2001) identified the five main issues and challenges facing the Malaysian water sector which affect the sustainability of development which are summarised below:

a) Institutional and Legal Issues

There is no single agency in the country entrusted with the overall responsibility of holistic planning and management of water. Water management is shared between the Department of Irrigation and Drainage, Department of Environment, Department of Town and Country Planning, Fisheries Department and the National Water Resources Council.

Malaysia suffers from a plethora of sector-based water laws, at the federal, state and local levels (Lee and Facon 2001). At present, water legislation is contained within the laws that are enforced by the various water-related government agencies, and many of these laws are outdated, redundant or ambiguous (Lee and Facon 2001).

b) Increased Competition for Water

The problem of population growth has been particularly felt in the urban areas, due to rural-urban migration and urbanisation. Often the supporting infrastructure for the collection, treatment and disposal of sewage and solid wastes is inadequate to cope with the amounts generated.

The increased demand for the limited and diminishing supply of clean water has led to competition among the various water users, a competition that continued economic growth exacerbates increasingly. The practicable limit of surface water resources

development has been reached in some regions of high demand, and it has become necessary to develop inter-basin and interstate surface water transfer schemes.

c) Increased flooding problems

Ironically, at times of water shortages, parts of Malaysia face significant flood problems. Although floods are natural phenomena arising from excessive rainfall

overwhelming waterways, uncontrolled development activities in watershed areas and along river corridors can increase the severity of floods. It has been estimated that altogether about 29,000 km2 or 9% of the total land area of Malaysia are flood-prone, affecting some 12% of the population (Lee and Facon. 2001). The average annual flood damage was estimated at RM100 million in 1990, but this has increased due to urban expansion and the escalation of land and property prices (Lee and Facon 2001).

d) River degradation

The development of public utilities such as water supply, sewage, and urban drainage and flood mitigation programmes helps to promote economic growth. However, this economic development and the resulting rapid urbanization and industrialization have given rise to problems of increased water pollution. River water quality and pollution control needs to be addressed urgently since 98% of the total water used originates from rivers.

e) Low efficiency of water use

Efficiency of water use in Malaysia is generally low. Irrigation efficiency is in the range of 40 to 50%, because almost all of the irrigation systems are open systems designed to take advantage of flooding (Lee and Facon 2001). There is also a high proportion of unaccounted-for water in urban water supply systems, as one quarter to one third of the domestic and industrial water is lost before it reaches the consumers. These losses are the result of leaks in the distribution systems and of illegal connections. As the physical limits of water supply are being reached, more emphasis needs to be placed on increased efficiency in water use.

Rivers in Malaysia Being a peninsula (West Malaysia) and part of Borneo Island (Sabah and Sarawak), rivers are numerous and relatively short. Originating from the central

highlands, more than 189 river systems containing 1800 rivers and tributaries traverse the country, a total length of 38,000km (Zakaria et al. 2003). Rivers and their surrounding areas are renowned as the centre for population growth and development since the beginning of human civilisation in Malaysia, as in most areas of the world. Throughout history rivers have provided many essential services such as transportation and navigation, water supply, irrigation, drainage, waste disposal systems, food supply, and in recent years, power generation. Therefore, it is no surprise that until today, rivers remain the

centre of human activity that influences the lives and culture of Malaysian society (Department of Environment 2008). River Pollution Throughout history, river water quality deterioration in Malaysia has been synonymous with development. Water resources development has been a catalyst for the socio-economic development of the country during the past decades. Dams and

kilometres of pipelines and canals divert water from rivers to sustain domestic, industrial and agricultural needs. At the same time, the main economic activities of each era are reflected in the patterns of river pollution. From the 1960s-1980s, agro-based industries were the main pollution sources, in the 1990s the manufacturing industries were the dominant polluters. Today with the housing boom in Malaysia and increasing

urbanisation, domestic sewage and erosion from construction and land clearance is the main pollution source. The main sources of pollution are briefly discussed below: Agro-based industries Malaysia is the worlds second largest producer of palm oil (the first up until 2007 when Indonesia took over) and the third largest of rubber (Wu et al. 2009). Export earnings from these products contribute significantly to the nations economy but the plantations are also the largest producer of agricultural wastes. Palm oil mill effluent and effluent from the processing of natural rubber were identified as the major contributors to the rapid deterioration of the aquatic environment in the 1970s and 1980s (Abdullah 1995). According to the Department of Environment, the contribution of the agro-based industries to the organic pollution load has decreased substantially from 67% in 1980, 15% in 1986, and to 3% as of 2004 (Muyibi et al. 2008). The government attributes the reduction in pollution to the effectiveness of legislation governing discharge of specific effluents, coupled with necessary enforcement mechanisms which required the oil palm and rubber industries to design and adopt appropriate treatment technologies (Wu et al. 2009). However, the decrease is just as much a reflection of the changing pollution loads than actual decrease in the amount of pollution produced by the industry. To date the industry still produces 1,222 tonnes of organic pollution every day (Wu et al. 2009).

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Industrial Pollution

Concomitant with the rapid pace of industrialisation, increasing amounts of toxic and hazardous wastes are being generated by a wide range of industrial activities. A survey back in 1995 involving the manufacturing industries, estimated total industrial effluents to be 380,000m3 per year (Muyibi et al. 2008). Food and beverage industries followed by the chemical production industry were identified as the major pollution sources. Rivers that support industrial activities have been frequently observed to contain significant levels of heavy metals such as lead, mercury and cadmium, exceeding minimum recommended levels (Abdul Rahman 2004).

Sewage

Sewage works often lag behind development projects, with sewage disposal usually considered as an afterthought. In the year 1981, the Department of Environment recognised the need to increase sewage system projects in Malaysia. At this time, sewage systems were only available in a few places such as Georgetown, Shah Alam and Kuala Lumpur (Abdullah 1995). Today, Malaysia has over 8000 sewage plants and

approximately 7,500 km of sewers, mostly situated in urban areas, serving more than 12 million people (Abdullah 1995). However, most people rely on septic tanks or dispose of sewage directly into rivers and waterways. Rivers used for water supply often have alarming levels of bacteriological contamination due to the discharge of

untreated/inadequately treated domestic sewage particularly coastal waterways, as evidenced by the extensive faecal contamination of coastal waters off the more populated states in Malaysia. Between 2000-2004, domestic sewage was the highest pollution

source in Malaysia, responsible for 53% of all water pollution (Khalit 2007). Animal husbandry Pig farms were the second highest pollution source from 2000-2004, responsible for 38% of all water pollution (Khalit 2007). Pig farming has a high demand for water, resulting in large quantities of wastewater being discharged into rivers, with high organic loads (Abdullah 1995). Wastes from the pig industry include urine, faeces and trace

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metals such as zinc, lead and copper (Muyibi et al. 2008). Technology is available to treat wastewater to the extent that it can be reused and thereby avoiding the pollution of waterways, and decreasing the high water demand of the industry. However, the industry is predominantly made of small producers who cannot afford to install the appropriate treatment technology (Muyabi et al. 2008). Erosion and Siltation Control Heavy sedimentation of Malaysias rivers resulting from deforestation and erosion from earthworks activities is emerging as Malaysias dominant pollution source. It is common practice to remove all vegetation from relatively large surface areas of land in the pursuit of economic activities and preparation for the construction of houses and roads in particular. The Department of Environment monitored suspended solids over a 5 year period and found that 69 out of the 89 rivers monitored were affected by soil erosion and siltation (Khalit, 2007). River Monitoring The responsibility for controlling and monitoring the health of Malaysias rivers is with the Department of Environment, which has been conducting river monitoring since 1978 (Abdul Rahman 2004). The goal of the monitoring is to establish water quality status, detect any changes or degradation and identify pollution sources. A total of 1,064 manual stations are located within 120 river basins throughout Malaysia (Department of Environment 2008). In addition, 15 automatic water quality monitoring stations have been installed to monitor river quality changes on a continuous basis (Department of Environment 2008). This involves routine monitoring at predetermined stations, in-situ and laboratory analysis and data interpretation in terms of physical-chemical characteristics. River water quality appraisal is based on the river Water Quality Index (WQI), consisting of six parameters (Department of Environment 2008), namely:

DO (Dissolved Oxygen)

BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand)

COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) AN (Ammoniacal Nitrogen) SS (Suspended Solids) pH (pH value)

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Water quality data collected from monitored rivers are then compared with the Interim National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) to determine their status as clean, slightly polluted or polluted. The findings are published in the annual State of the Environment report in accordance with the Environmental Quality Act 1974. For 2007, out of 143 river basins monitored, 91 (63%) were found to be clean, 45 (32%) slightly polluted and 7 (5%) polluted (Figure 2.1). This is a slight improvement from 1997 where out of the 114 basins monitored, 24 (21%) were clean, 68 (58%) slightly polluted and 25 (21%) polluted (Figure 2.1). However, such chemical monitoring has shortcomings, for example pristine waterbodies in peat swamps would be considered polluted on the basis of their naturally high acidity, and low dissolved oxygen.

100 90

80 70
Number of River Basins 60 Clean Slightly Polluted 50 40 30 20 10 0 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Year 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Polluted

Figure 2.1 River basins water quality trend 1997 2007 (Department of Environment 2008).

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Malaysias Water Vision The Malaysian Water Vision was developed on the framework of the World Water Vision, which came as a response by the World Water Council to growing water problems worldwide. The Vision is characterised by a participatory approach with extensive

consultation with groups in and beyond the water sector and prescribes future actions needed for sustainable water use to become a reality (Lee and Facon 2001). The idea is that countries adopt the main concepts in the Vision and adjust it to their own needs where necessary. The Malaysian visioning process was undertaken by the Malaysian Water Partnership (MWP) which operates within the Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID). The framework for the Vision was agreed upon during a series of national The Malaysian Water Vision is formulated as

consultations with the water sector. follows:

In support of Vision 2020 (towards achieving developed nation status), Malaysia will conserve and manage its water resources to ensure adequate and safe water for all (including the environment) The key objectives were identified as follows: Water for people: all have access to safe, adequate, and affordable water supply, hygiene and sanitation. Water for food and rural development: provision of sufficient water that will ensure national food security and promote rural development. Water for economic development: provision of sufficient water to spur and sustain economic growth within the context of a knowledge-based economy and e-commerce. Water for the environment: protection of the water environment to preserve water resources (both surface and groundwater) and flow regimes, biodiversity and cultural heritage, and to mitigate water related hazards. (Lee and Facon 2001; p25)

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Integrated Water Resources Management

The main instrument towards achieving these goals is a change in management practice towards Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM). IWRM is a water governance management paradigm. It starts with the recognition that water is a core development issue and therefore, management of the water resource will affect almost every activity within the wider economy and society, including industrial activity, land use, population and settlement growth (Madsen et al. 2003). The Vision describes IWRM as: A holistic and participatory approach to water management. It requires a move from sectoral to integrated management, from top-down to stakeholder and demand responsive approaches, from supply fix to demand management, from command and control to more co-operative forms of governance and from closed expert-driven management organisations to more open, transparent, communicative bodies (Madsen et al. 2003; p43)

An important feature of IWRM is the management of rivers from an ecosystem health approach. It views the river as a living system consisting of biological, chemical and physical features that are all interrelated and interdependent. This is an approach that views the maintenance of natural cycles and processes as vital for current and future abilities and ecosystems to provide goods and services to meet human needs (Andan and Nordin 2001). Among the common characteristics of an ecosystem-based approach are holistic, interdisciplinary, goal-oriented, participatory and aimed at getting people to realise that humans are part of the ecosystem - not separate from it (Andan and Nordin 2001; p333). Moving closer to the ecosystem approach in environmental planning and management will be a vital step towards making development sustainable in Malaysia.

Implementation It is acknowledged that the country is facing an enormous task in order to implement Integrated Water Resources Management, and that major changes in the

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institutional set-up are necessary. The way forward is prescribed in the vision and indicates the way in which to implement IWRM in a Malaysian context. A framework of action has been formulated with 16 key milestones and targets to achieve specific improvements in the water sector. For the purposes of this study, special emphasis is put on the following: a) Increased awareness of the economic, social and environmental value of water among decision-makers and politicians and the public b) Promotion of river education c) Significant reduction of pollution from point and non-point sources d) Full restoration of rivers and return of aquatic life e) Water ecosystems protection f) Frequent dialogue with all stake holders in the water sector g) Participatory approach in decision-making h) Resource assessment and monitoring (Lee et al. 2001; p25) The responsible agencies for the implementation of the Vision were identified as the Economic Planning Unit (EPU), the Malaysian Water Partnership and the National Water Resource Council (NWRC) (Lee et al. 2001). The ministries of Education and Information will also assist to enhance public awareness. Evaluation The Malaysian Water Vision is an ambitious document including many visionary goals and statements, but the question arises: is the document only providing an ideological vision and not policy-goals and objectives that can actually be achieved? The intent of an effective policy must be the establishment of a strategy and the approach to be taken to achieve these goals. To secure successful implementation it should include concrete proposals for action with explicit targets and goals. Madsen et al. (2001) believes that it is important that goals are clear, limited, explicit, mutually reinforcing and in compliance with instruments that are envisaged to implement and enforce them. The main objectives of the Vision do not possess these important features. The Vision was

developed by representatives from many different positions and interests in Malaysian

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society and therefore various opinions are represented. Some commentators have stated that this has diminished the objectives of the Vision and its power to achieve real change in management of water resources (Madsen et al. 2003; Abidin 2004). Conclusion The availability of water in Malaysia has become an important issue in recent years. Rapid development has put tremendous stress and demands on water resources, and issues with water supply and availability threaten to limit Malaysias plans for future development. Rivers contribute the overwhelming bulk of available water, and

degradation of river environments and water quality is seen as the major impediment to providing a reliable water supply. Malaysias Water Vision has been presented as the central policy towards sustainable water management. However, for the Vision to become a reality and not just another example of symbol-politics, specific action programs need to be put forward, implemented and monitored.

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Chapter 3 - Community Monitoring


Introduction This chapter introduces the concept of community monitoring as a tool for increasing community involvement in environmental management. The benefits for both participants and management outcomes are explored, as are the challenges which confront the widespread adoption of the practice. Finally, community monitoring is presented as a potential management tool towards achieving Malaysias Water Vision. Community Involvement in Environmental Management Community Monitoring makes up one component of the broader contribution of public participation in the management and protection of environmental resources. Public participation has become seen as increasingly vital in achieving sustainable environmental outcomes, given the growing recognition of the need to include local communities in the decisions that affect the environment in which they live (Harding 1998). Rather than outside program makers unilaterally defining environmental programs, stakeholders are empowered, through a process of group learning and consensus-building to create and manage their own programs (Burgess et al. 2009). Local communities are encouraged to develop this participatory process on their own, or if required, with the help of outsiders (government, international agency or NGO staff) who act as catalysts or facilitators of the process (Campbell et al. 2003). Perhaps the biggest breakthrough for community involvement came when the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development agreed under Agenda 21 to emphasise the importance of rethinking the top-down approach to environmental management in favour of one that involves peoples participation and accommodates indigenous knowledge, local values and interests (United Nations, 1992). This bedding down of local participation in environmental decision-making was signed by 178 member nations, supplying the international legislative framework from which state-based management programs could build on (United Nations, 1992). Today, international banks, governments and NGOs are allocating enormous amounts of financial and logistical aid toward community based management programs and policies (Cuthill 2000).

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Community Monitoring Community monitoring provides the public with a means by which to become more involved in decision-making, by collecting data to inform natural resource management (Danielsen et al. 2005). Most of the literature on methods of natural resource monitoring covers an externally driven approach in which professional researchers from outside the study area set up, run, and analyse the results from a monitoring program that has been funded by a remote agency. This approach has been criticised for being too expensive to sustain over time and reliant on outside actors (Sheil 2001). Alternatives are emerging which are carried out at a local level, by community members who may not have received technical training, or formal education in their field of interest (Danielsen et al. 2005). Community monitoring can often reinforce existing community-based resource management systems and lead to changes in the attitude of locals towards environmentally sustainable resource management (Danielsen et al. 2007). Importance of Environmental Monitoring Monitoring has been defined as the systematic measurement of variables and processes over time and assumes that there is a specific reason for that collection of data, such as ensuring that standards are being met (Spellerberg 1991). Monitoring of natural resources has become increasingly important in providing adequate knowledge of trends in species and habitats to make informed policy decisions. According to Danielsen et al. (2005), there are three kinds of actors and actions for which such monitoring is becoming increasingly important: 1. At the international, regional and national scales a raft of policy initiatives have committed Governments to achieving quantitative targets in conserving biodiversity and ensuring its benefits are shared equally (Danielsen et al. 2005).

2. Monitoring is crucial at all scales for conservationists to assess the success of their efforts. Ways of measuring the effectiveness of different projects and programs are increasingly required by institutions and individuals that fund conservation agencies and NGOs.

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3. Thirdly, and most crucial to the context of this study, the past two decades has seen a progressive shift towards involving local communities formally in the management of protected areas, and these newly recognised partnerships require monitoring data to inform their decisions. Shortfalls of Professional Monitoring In the past, most attention has been paid to what has been termed professional monitoring, conducted by trained scientists working primarily for government agencies or NGOs (Danielsen et al. 2005). Criticism of this approach has emerged especially in developing countries, where there is a lack of financial and human resources. Professional monitoring is often costly, at least relative to the budgets of conservation agencies. Employing scientists with appropriate field and analytical skills, buying and maintaining monitoring equipment and running data analysis facilities requires a significant amount of resources (Devlin et al. 2001). Professional monitoring is often seen as paying inadequate attention to the objectives of other key stakeholders besides professional resource managers, especially local communities whose livelihoods are often closely impacted by the resources concerned (Sheil 2001). Professional monitoring can address this through extensive

dialogue with all stakeholders at the onset and throughout the course of monitoring. However, in reality due to shortages of money, time, and trained personnel this rarely occurs. Benefits of Community Monitoring Increased community involvement in monitoring of natural resources has the potential to provide great benefit for both environmental managers and local communities (Whitelaw et al. 2003). Community-based approaches have considerable potential to complement professional monitoring, especially in developing countries by addressing the some of the shortfalls mentioned earlier. While the preference is for community

monitoring to help inform management at the planning and policy stage, community collected data can be used to critique management by providing data on the progress or success of a given management intervention (Whitelaw et al. 2003) .

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Furthermore, community monitoring can provide a link to governance itself, by providing an active first step for citizens to participate in the management of a shared natural resource (Ticheleret al. 1998). The knowledge and experience gained by volunteer participants through monitoring projects can increase their capacity for a more inclusive role in future management of natural resources (Ticheler et al. 1998). Experiences indicate that community monitoring can be considered a social, cultural and political process of bringing people together in new ways, coming to understand different views and enhancing democratic decision-making on what type of measures to take (Van Rijsoort and Jinfeng 2005).

Community Knowledge and Empowerment

Beyond the potential natural resource benefits, community monitoring can lead to enhanced awareness and education, and a change in attitudes towards more environmentally sustainable natural resource management among local participants (Tawake 2001; Danielsen et al. 2005). It has been shown that through learning about their environment, local monitors themselves are likely to share the knowledge they gather with other members of the community (Andrianandrasana et al. 2005).

Building Social Networks The potential partnerships which can be created through monitoring can produce many invaluable outcomes for both the communities and agencies involved (Tawake 2001). The process of undertaking a monitoring program, determining how to utilise data and influence decision-making leads to the development of social capital through the creation of social networks (Whitelaw et al. 2003), and an increase in trust and understanding between those involved in the monitoring process (Van Rijsoort 2005). In this sense, community monitoring could be considered not just scientific process, but a social, cultural and political process of bringing people together in new ways, coming to understand different views, and enhancing democratic decision-making on what types of measures to take (Guijt 1998).

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Community monitoring can also be a valuable tool in improving communication and understanding between local communities and government authorities. Monitoring schemes can provide an opportunity for the public to interact and collaborate with government bodies and administrative officials in charge of natural resource management (Becker et al. 2005). Mutual awareness and a deeper knowledge of the different points of view can reduce misunderstandings and friction. Experiences have shown that community monitoring schemes can lead to increased trust between local stakeholders, and to more transparent, accountable and democratic decision-making, thereby fostering a sense of good governance (Guijt 1998). Cost Community monitoring data is likely to be much more cost effective than the professional equivalent; an important consideration given the financial limitations often confronting natural resource management, especially in developing regions (Burgess et al. 2009). While monitoring programs might require an initial cost outlay for training and recruitment purposes, the post-establishment costs are generally minimal (Becker et al. 2005). Sampling Intensity An added benefit of using volunteers in an assessment program is the ability of a group of volunteers to sample at multiple locations at one time. Professionals must monitor a large number of widely disturbed sites, so they may only be able to visit a site once every few years, which greatly limits their ability to detect short-term changes in ecological conditions (Engel 2002). In addition, volunteers often monitor the areas where they live or go for recreation, so they can watch for changing conditions and report them in a timely fashion (Maas 1991).

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Limitations of Community Monitoring Monitoring Accuracy and Reliability As volunteer collected data is increasingly incorporated into important regulatory decisions that have far-reaching consequences, concerns have been raised over the validity of using data from volunteers. Decision-makers have traditionally been sceptical about the reliability of volunteer collected data, which is commonly viewed as an educational exercise rather than the scientific collection of data (Penrose 1995). Community

monitoring can often lack data validation procedures which are required in traditional scientific studies. If community data is to be used for the purposes of management and decision-making, then it must be reinforced by data validation and quality control procedures Motivation As community monitoring is volunteer-focused, understanding the motivation and objectives of individuals is vital in retaining participants in monitoring programs. If monitoring data is not feeding back into management, participants can lose faith in achieving their specified goals (Sharpe 2006). In Halifax, Canada, water quality

monitoring provided evidence of increased sedimentation of local waterways, yet the lack of action from local authorities resulted in participant disillusionment and a desire to drop out of the program (Sharpe 2006). Monitoring can seem useless if participants are

observing the environmental degradation worsening, without any mitigating action taking place (Sharpe 2006). Funding As mentioned earlier, community monitoring is generally more cost-effective than professional monitoring, however, the costs associated with training and equipment can see monitoring programs incur costs which threaten the sustainability of the project (Topp-Jorgensen et al. 2004). In addition, if monitoring projects are established by an external donor, such as an NGO, local participants may not have the resources or expertise to continue with the project when external funding and support ceases (Andrianandrasana et al. 2005). .

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Community Monitoring and the Malaysian Water Vision As discussed in the previous chapter, the Malaysian Water Vision sets many ambitious goals and objectives, targeted at the sustainable management of water resources in Malaysia. The vision, however, lacks specific action plans and to-date the progress towards achieving the vision can be described as underwhelming. Community monitoring stands out as a practical management tool which has the potential to make significant contribution towards the vision. Community monitoring has the capacity to address a number of the key objectives in the vision including: i) Increased awareness of the economic, social and environmental value of water among decision-makers and politicians and the public j) Promotion of river education k) Significant reduction of pollution from point and non-point sources l) Full restoration of rivers and return of aquatic life m) Water ecosystems protection n) Frequent dialogue with all stake holders in the water sector o) Participatory approach in decision-making p) Resource assessment and monitoring (Lee 2001, pp25) Various examples in the literature, which are discussed earlier in the chapter, demonstrate that community monitoring can lead to increased community knowledge and empowerment, the building of social capacity, and can act as an adjunct to the shortfalls in professional monitoring. If community monitoring is to be adopted for use in Malaysian rivers, weaknesses in the accuracy and reliability volunteer collected data, and the level of community motivation need to be acknowledged and managed accordingly.

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Conclusion Community monitoring offers a potential pathway to involve the public in environmental management. It provides many benefits for both participants and

management outcomes, and is especially effective in developing regions where traditional monitoring can be restrained by a shortage of human and financial resources. Community monitoring may provide a useful tool in achieving the goals stated in Malaysias Water Vision, however, limitations in the accuracy and reliability of volunteer monitoring results need to be addressed.

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Chapter 4 - Implementation of an Invertebrate Monitoring Program in a Malaysian High School


Introduction Malaysia currently lacks any recognised protocols for biological assessments of rivers and streams, or any established community monitoring programs. This chapter describes the design and implementation of an invertebrate monitoring program in a Malaysian high school. School monitoring results are compared to professional

assessments to assess accuracy and any necessary modifications to the school protocol are suggested.

Biological Monitoring

Biological monitoring (also called bio-monitoring or bio-assessment) is defined as an evaluation of the condition of a water body using biological surveys and other direct measurements of the resident biota in surface waters (Engel 2002). Biological monitoring can be done with any living organisms, but benthic macroinvertebrates, fish, and algal assemblages are used most often, in that order. Benthic macroinvertebrates are those organisms that live on the bottom of aquatic environments, or on objects protruding above the bottom, and are large enough to see by eye without any magnification. Although complete studies may include all three assemblages, benthic macroinvertebrates are used most often for several reasons. First, benthic macroinvertebrates do not migrate very far, thereby ensuring exposure to a pollutant or stress reliably conveys local conditions. This reliable representation of ecological conditions allows for comparison of sites that are in close proximity. Second, macroinvertebrate life stages are short enough that sensitive life stages will be affected by stress, but long enough that any impairment is measurable in the assemblage. Benthic macroinvertebrates are found in even the smallest streams and have a wide range of sensitivity to all types of pollution and stress, allowing for monitoring in most conditions. Finally, sampling benthic macroinvertebrates is easy, cost effective, and does not permanently harm the local assemblage. Impairment can easily be detected by

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the trained monitor with even the simplest of identifications (Plafkin et al. 1989; Voshell et al. 1997).

Biological Monitoring is recognised in many parts of the world as fundamental to sustainable management of the globes freshwater resources. In Europe, for example, the European Framework Directive (2000) requires that water resources be subject to ecological assessment, to provide a basis for management and restoration efforts of water catchments. In Australia, water quality has been assessed nationally using biological indicators since the mid-1990s, to guide water management agencies as well as the recent National Water Initiative (2006)(Newall et al. 2006). In America, the use of biological surveys to regulate water quality has become widespread, following the 1987 amendments to the federal Clean Water Act, where section 101(a) states that its primary objectives are to restore, maintain the chemical, physical and biological integrity of the nations waters (Mebane 2001). Biological measurements provide direct information on the condition of groups of biota resident in the water resource, and therefore on the condition of the resource. Thus, they address management issues more directly and can provide a more sensitive timeintegrated assessment of river condition than physical or chemical parameters (Marchant et al. 2006).

Biological Monitoring in Malaysia

As mentioned earlier, Malaysia, as in much of the developing world, lacks any formal biological monitoring programs, relying on traditional physio-chemical and microbial measurements. The only biological data collected are for microbial analyses, such as measurements of total coliform and faecal coliform bacteria (Morse et al. 2007). Morse et al. (2007) lists the main impediments to macroinvertebrate monitoring as:

(1) Lack of knowledge about macroinvertebrate fauna and their tolerance or sensitivity to pollution, especially during aquatic, immature stages.

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(2) The scarcity of trained professionals with the knowledge required to implement biological monitoring, and lack of formal training opportunities offered in universities.

(3) Shortage of high quality microscopes and other necessary resources.

(4) Limited government understanding and support for bio-monitoring, few regulatory staff and the persistence of old monitoring techniques.

Although there are no established biological monitoring programs in Malaysia, some studies have been completed by university research groups, on the impact of a variety of disturbance on macroinvertebrate assemblages (e.g. Chin 2003), but these mostly remain unpublished (Morse et al. 2007). A recent study comparing macroinvertebrate

assemblages between a polluted urban stream (Langat River) and a pristine river, identified several macroinvertebrate species as potential bioindicators for polluted and clean environments (Azrina et al. 2006). A guide to the aquatic macroinvertebrate fauna of the region was published in 2004 (Yule and Yong 2004). However, until there is greater knowledge of local fauna and their response to pollution, as well as trained taxonomists and biologists to implement programs, biological monitoring will remain uncommon.

Monitoring Methods

A variety of protocols have been developed for conducting macroinvertebrate monitoring worldwide. Appropriate methods for collecting, sorting, and identifying

macroinvertebrate samples are dependent on the objectives of the monitoring program. Monitoring protocols can range from comprehensive quantitative sampling, conducted by professional biologists, to rapid qualitative sampling, conducted in schools. Rapid

methods have substantial advantages for routine monitoring over traditional quantitative methods: costs are much lower and results can be obtained in a shorter time. In recent times, with management emphasis on timely, cost effective monitoring, rapid methods are increasingly being favoured to avoid the time-consuming quantitative elements of

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traditional biological assessment (Chessman 1995).

However, rapid methods do not

provide accurate information on abundance of species, and it has therefore been assumed that such methods can detect only gross impacts and are inevitably less sensitive than quantitative methods. This assumption has not been adequately tested.

Collection of Macroinvertebrate Samples

A common method used by professional biologists for the collection of river macroinvertebrate samples is the Surber sampler. The technique allows for the easy quantification of samples and is used for intensive studies on macroinvertebrate community structure. However, quantitative studies are inherently expensive and time consuming, as such, there is a need to consider alternative, cost effective methods for the routine monitoring of benthic fauna. The pond net or kick net sample has gained acceptance as the preferred method for rapid monitoring assessment as a convenient, qualitative method which does not rely on cumbersome or expensive equipment (Storey et al. 1991). Several studies have compared samples taken from Surber samplers with kick net samples (Hornig 1978; Mackey et al. 1984; Storey et al. 1991; Torralba Burrial 2007). Storey (1990) compared the effectiveness of the two techniques and found that kick samples tended to have a greater abundance macroinvertebrates, whereas, Surber samples contained a higher species richness and low-occurrence (rare) taxa. Hornig

(1987) proposed that the kick technique will sample the more easily dislodged and highly mobile taxa, whereas the Surber method, being more intensive will take cryptic and closely adherent taxa (Hornig 1978). The inability of kick net samples to detect lowoccurrence taxa is a concern for environmental assessment. Part of such assessment is the detection of rare and potentially endangered species.

Sorting Macroinvertebrate Samples

The two most common techniques for sorting macroinvertebrates are lab-sorting and live-sorting (Nichols 2006). Traditionally, macroinvertebrate samples will be

preserved for transportation to the laboratory, and then macroinvertebrates will be sorted from the debris using a stereo microscope, the objective being to sort and identify every

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organism in the sample. Complete sorting and counting of all the invertebrates in large samples can be time-consuming and costly, so sub-sampling (such as fixing the numbers of animals counted) is often employed. Live sorting of samples on site is a popular technique in Australian water monitoring programs. Live specimens are picked from the sample, by eye, either for a set period of time or until a certain number of specimens is selected (Nichols 2006). According to Chessman (1995), live-sorting has several benefits over lab-sorting, including;

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

speeds up the overall assessment, avoids the retention of unwanted specimens and debris, facilitated by animal movements, more convenient than laboratory picking for habitats such as large rocks or logs; and

(v)

cost effective.

Several studies have compared the effectiveness of the different sorting techniques (Kerans et al. 1992; Chessman 1995; Metzeling et al. 2002; Nichols 2006; Nerbonne et al. 2008; Gillies et al. 2009). Most studies have found that live picking will result in higher relative abundance of large, mobile invertebrates compared to lab-sorting, because smaller organisms are harder to recognise with the naked eye.

Identification and Taxonomic Level

Arguably the most debated issue related to bio-assessment methods is the establishment of appropriate taxonomic resolution levels. Of all aspects of bio-

monitoring, the identification of organisms requires the most resources, specialised knowledge and is the most time-consuming. Many authors call for species-level

identifications to ensure accurate assessments of ecosystem health (Resh 1975; Simpson et al. 1985; Houston et al. 2001). Resh et al. (1975) stated that lower taxonomic resolution is generally useless, because particular species may vary widely in ecological tolerance. Species have particular traits, preferences and tolerances which are important determinates of landscape patterns in their occurrence and abundance. Thus assemblages respond to

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environmental gradients via the traits, preferences and tolerances of the component species (Poff 1997). Consequently, in studies using macroinvertebrates as indicators for

monitoring rivers and streams, species level identifications in comparison with lower resolution identifications can have greater information content and result in more reliable site classifications (Barbour et al. 1996); can give greater resolution to detecting differences between reference and test sites; are required for detecting the presence of rare or threatened species (Bouchard et al. 2005) and thus may be required for the identification of sites for protection in conservation studies. However, many monitoring programs identify specimens to the resolution of family rather than species, and some biotic indices (e.g. EPT) utilise macroinvertebrate data at the order level (Marshall et al. 2006). There are often time and financial restrictions limiting how much effort can be

directed towards the identification of each specimen and the cost, in terms of time and expertise, of identifying macroinvertebrates to species-level are high. In addition, finer taxonomic resolutions can decrease the accuracy of identifications in the absence of trained taxonomists (Bouchard et al. 2005). To help solve the problem of taxonomic resolution, Ellis (1985) suggests taxonomic sufficiency as a concept that in any project organisms must be identified to a level (species, genera, family etc.) which balances the need to indicate the biology of organisms with the accuracy in making identifications. Omitting pragmatic constraints (e.g. resources or knowledge limitations), four aspects of a study can influence the taxonomic sufficiency: (1) the purpose of the study; (2) sensitivity required; (3) type of analysis; and (4) the group of organisms of interest (Ellis 1985).

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Volunteer Monitoring

Freshwater macroinvertebrate monitoring has been widely promoted as a means to educate the general public and involve them in the care of local waterways. Volunteer monitoring allows communities to understand local ecosystems firsthand, build relationships with scientists and government mangers, and interact around science-based conservation (Fore et al. 2001). In addition, volunteers are encouraged to contribute their data to local and state databases to track long-term trends in water quality. Government agencies and regulators worldwide suffer from a lack of resources and professional biologists, especially in the developing world, leaving large information and knowledge gaps on water resources. In many parts of the world volunteers have recently organised and stepped forward to help fill the sampling gap. There are many volunteer programs in place around the world that are thought to be successful at collecting data at lower costs than professional surveys. Much has been written on the merits of volunteer biological monitoring (Reynoldson et al. 1986; Firehock 1995; Penrose 1995; Fore et al. 2001; Engel 2002; Nerbonne et al. 2008). Firehock (1995) identified the main purposes of volunteer monitoring, including:

(1) Educating the local community about water quality and river health, (2) Tracking stream water quality at locations of interest to citizen groups and/or locations where state and local governments lack data, (3) Establishing long-term trends for the stream and providing baseline information, (4) Identifying streams in need of restoration or cleanup, or streams that may threatened, (5) Locating pollution problems such as dumping, spills, or unregulated discharges, (6) Determining the success of management practices and restoration efforts; and (7) Providing tools for country and city planners to make decisions on land-use and growth.

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It has been assumed that with proper training and adequate quality control/assurance plans, volunteers can collect data suitable for making regulatory decisions. The United States EPA has decided that data from volunteers can and should be used in reports that are required from states on current environmental condition of waterbodies. Volunteer collected data in Australia is used in annual government reports on the state of the environment, and the Victorian EPA has used volunteer data for the detection and prosecution of illegal discharges (Thompson 2004).

As volunteer data is increasingly incorporated into important regulatory decisions that have far-reaching consequences, concerns have been raised over the validity of using data from volunteers. Some of the primary reasons for concern are the level to which volunteers identify macroinvertebrates, the limitations of their collecting techniques, and the level of training the volunteers receive (Penrose 1995). The monitoring activities and methods of community groups often differ from that of professional scientists, due to more complex and multiple aims of monitoring programs. While the principle aim of scientific monitoring is data accuracy, many community groups seek primarily to educate and inform the volunteers involved (Nicholson et al. 2002). The accuracy of equipment used by community groups is constrained by cost of purchase and use (such as microscopes or chemical products). A further constraint is the educative value of the equipment: understanding the mechanisms involved in measuring a parameter can result in a greater comprehension of the issues involved (Fore et al. 2001). For example, a turbidity tube allows the user to see directly how turbid the water is, and thus better understand the meaning of higher levels of turbidity than by simply recording the electronic reading from a meter.

While volunteer monitoring provides opportunities for both enhancing citizen engagement and collecting valuable data, organizers experience a classic tension when deciding whether to devote resources to collecting quality data or to encouraging broad citizen participation. This tension is exacerbated because scientists have traditionally been sceptical about the accuracy of citizen-collected data (Penrose 1995).

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To date, there have only been a few cursory studies comparing the results of volunteer biological monitoring to professional monitoring (Mellanby 1974; Reynoldson et al. 1986; Dilley 1991; Penrose 1995; Fore et al. 2001; Engel 2002; Nerbonne et al. 2008). In the UK, Reynoldson et al. (1986) found reasonable agreement between data collected by school students and historical data from government biologists. In a similar study, State of Washington researchers showed that trained volunteers who were identifying organisms to family were able to assess water quality as effectively as professional resource managers (Fore et al. 2001). Volunteer biological monitoring has not fared as well in other comparative studies. In North Carolina, untrained volunteers were able to identify higher quality streams, but were unable to differentiate the lower quality streams (Penrose 1995). Sampling in Ohio indicated that volunteers were able to determine if streams were attaining their designated use category, but had a tendency to overrate the condition of water quality when compared to professionals sampling with the same methods (Dilley 1991). Engel et al. (2002) conducted a two year study in which they assessed the Virginia Save Our Streams Protocol. Initial testing revealed that

volunteer results consistently overrated ecological conditions, were not significantly correlated with professional results, and did not accurately reflect the condition of a stream. Engel et al. (2002) then modified the volunteer metric that relied only on taxa presence, and developed a new multimetric, order-level index that was significantly correlated with professional results.

Because of the disparity in the conclusions mentioned above and the importance of this issue in the environmental regulation of freshwater natural resources, this study sets out to conduct a thorough investigation of the effectiveness of volunteer biological monitoring with benthic macroinvertebrates in streams. The objectives of the study were as follows;

Implement a biological monitoring program in a Malaysian school.

Assess the benefits of monitoring for the participants involved.

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Assess the accuracy and credibility of volunteer bio-assessments by comparing them with assessments made by professional biologists.

Recommend modifications to improve the volunteer method should it not compare favourably with professional results.

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Materials and Methods


The purpose of the study was to compare the precision of assessments made by volunteers with those made by professionals, and determine whether volunteer collected data is appropriate for management and decision-making purposes in Malaysia. To test this, a pilot study was implemented at a local school in Kuala Lumpur using amateur water monitoring methods, modelled on the established volunteer water monitoring program in Australia (Waterwatch). Alongside the amateur study, a professional

assessment of stream health was conducted in accordance with the Victorian EPA Guidelines for Environmental Management: Rapid Bioassessment Methodology for Rivers and Streams (2003) and the results compared. The concurrent sampling took place in September-November 2009, with the volunteers and professionals collecting samples within one month of each other. The participants in the study were grade 7 students from a local high school, aged between 11 and 13 years old. They had no previous experience in water monitoring, and only minimal training was provided prior to sampling. Training was limited to only one classroom session where river ecology theory was taught, in addition to a brief introduction on site. As mentioned earlier, organisers of volunteer monitoring programs commonly experience a classic tension of whether to devote resources to collecting quality data or encourage broad participation and maximise the education value for participants. Considering that this program was run in a school and the age of participants, the monitoring protocol was designed to maximise the learning outcomes for students. There was still an emphasis on collecting quality data, however, the primary goal was increasing the students awareness and knowledge of the impacts of river pollution. Study Site The study was conducted in a second order stream in Taman T.A.R in Ampang, Selangor, Malaysia. The climate in the region is characterized as humid tropical, with the highest rainfall experienced in October and November. The monthly average precipitation was 222.35mm and the average air temperature ranged from 23.2 to 32C for the months of the study (World Meteorological Organisation 2010). The stream originates from Hutun Rizab Ampang (Ampang Forest Reserve), one of the last remaining patches of

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pristine forest surrounding Kuala Lumpur, and discharges into Sg. Klang. Three sample sites were chosen to represent a gradient of human influence and disturbance. The

experimental stretch of stream starts in pristine tropical forest, then flows into a residential area where it receives heavy inputs of storm water from the surrounding houses and adjoining Kelab Darul Ehsan Golf Course Club. Each sample reach was 20m in length

and the entire experimental stretch was approximately 1km. The sites were chosen based on ease of accessibility for the school students, and to examine the ability of the amateur study to assess stream health over a range of conditions.

Figure 4.1 Map of Malaysia

Site 1 (Pristine)

Site 3 (Polluted)

Site 2 (Disturbed)

Figure 4.2 Map of Taman TAR

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Table 4.1 Description of Sampling Sites Site Photos Site Description Study Site 1 (Pristine) The first sample site (N031002.6 E1014636.3) was located in secondary forest, shaded by a dense canopy with a substrate consisting of a mixture of cobble, gravel and sand. Although the site is frequently visited by

humans for recreational purposes, it remains largely undisturbed.

Study Site 2 (Disturbed) The third sample site (N030959.0 E1114827.1) is located approximately 100m downstream and runs along Jalan 1, Taman T.A.R. The site is concreted, heavily

channelized and there is a storm water drain flowing into the stream and run-off from the adjoining road. There is little riparian vegetation and minimal canopy cover.

Study Site 3 (Polluted) The Polluted site (N030955.3 E1014558.3) is located at the end of Jalan 1 (see map). The site is

channelized, and concreted, with multiple inputs from surrounding houses and adjoining the Kelab Darul Ehsan Golf Course Club. There is no riparian vegetation or

canopy cover, with the water surface exposed to sunlight throughout the day. There was extensive grey algae

growth and a strong chemical smell on the days of sampling. The algae were later identified in the laboratory as Compsopogon, common nuisance algae found in nutrient-rich, warmer waters.

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Professional Sampling Protocol Water Sampling In situ readings for specific conductivity, air and water temperature, dissolved oxygen and pH, were taken at each site as well as light intensity using a lux meter (Table 4.2). Readings were taken in different areas and at different depths, and the mean for each site calculated. Water samples were collected from each site for measurement of

dissolved phosphorus, nitrate, sulphate and ammonia (measured as ammonical nitrogen) later in laboratory. Collection, sampling and transport of water samples were conducted in accordance with the latest Victorian EPA guidelines Sampling and Analysis of Waters, Wastewaters, Soils and Wastes (2000). Laboratory analysis was conducted in accordance with the American Public Health Association: Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and wastewater, 19th Edition (1995).

Table 4.2 Environmental parameters measured at each study site Factors Temperature Conductivity Flow-rate Oxygen Light pH Units
o

Measuring Instruments pH-Cond-Salinity (model: WP-81, TPS) pH-Cond-Salinity (model: WP-81, TPS) Flowatch Air or Liquid Flow Measurement Instrument Mettler-Toledo light meter (model: LX-103, Lutron) pH-Cond-Salinity (model: WP-81, TPS)

mS cm-1 ms-1 ppm Lux pH

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Macroinvertebrate Sampling and Laboratory Analysis Professional sampling was conducted in accordance with Victorian EPA standard guidelines for Environmental Management: Rapid Bioassessment Methodology for Rivers and Streams (2003). Sampling at each site consisted of 5 composite Surber net samples (400cm2 in area, 250m). Sample points were selected to represent the diversity of habitats within the stream i.e. at each site a sample was taken from leaf litter, riffles, and pools. For each individual subsample, the Surber net was held in one location and the area immediately upstream was disturbed for 15 20s in a square area equal to the size of the net frame (0.2 m2). Rocks were moved and rubbed on all sides by hand to remove any attached organisms. Sampling equipment was cleaned in between samples to avoid crosscontamination. Samples were preserved in 70% ethanol for later analysis in the

laboratory. All macroinvertebrates collected in the field were sorted from the debris using a stereo microscope and identified to species (or lowest taxonomic level possible) using keys from Freshwater Invertebrates of the Malaysian Region (Yule and Yong 2004). School Sampling Protocol The school methods were modelled after the Waterwatch program. The

guidelines are outlined in the Waterwatch Australia National Technical Manual (2003). The similarity between this and other community monitoring protocols worldwide allows the studys outcomes to have broad relevance. On each day of sampling 18-22 students participated in the study. Students were split into groups of 6-8 and assigned one of the sites to sample. Each group was supervised and guided by at least one facilitator. The role of the facilitator was to guide the students in the sampling method and encourage all the students to be involved in monitoring. Water Sampling and Analysis The students collected water data using a LaMotte Low Cost Monitoring Kit to measure pH, dissolved oxygen, dissolved nitrate, dissolved phosphate (as orthophosphate) and coliform bacteria. The monitoring kit was designed to be simple and easy-to-use, specifically for the purposes of environmental education. A water sample of a given amount is taken and a tablet is added, the colour then changes to indicate a range or value.

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After using the water monitoring kits for the first day of monitoring, it was clear that they were giving unreliable results. It is possible that the kits used were faulty, and for this reason the schools water chemistry results were left out of the final analysis. Macroinvertebrate Sampling and Classroom Analysis Macroinvertebrates were sampled using a triangular dip net (250m mesh size). Students were given a demonstration on the best sampling methods and encouraged to find as many invertebrates as possible in 20-30mins. Each group of 6-8 students were assigned 3 nets. Riffle habitats were sampled by holding the net downstream as the operator disturbed the substratum by kick directly in front of the net opening. Rocks were moved and rubbed on all sides by hand to remove all attached organisms. Stream edge habitats were sampled by vigorously sweeping along the stream margins disturbing bottom and bank substratum in areas of little flow. A different section of stream was selected for each sample to avoid depletion effects caused by reworking the same area. The contents of each sample were then transferred to a large sorting tray and students live-sorted the invertebrates from the debris which were then preserved in 70% ethanol. In a series of classroom sessions, students identified macroinvertebrates to order under a stereomicroscope, with the aid of simple pictorial reference keys. Students were given assistance in stream invertebrate identification by facilitators, and their samples were checked for correctness before being recorded. Participant Questionnaire To investigate the effectiveness of river monitoring as a tool towards increasing community knowledge and awareness on river pollution issues, participants filled out a questionnaire on their experiences. Participants were asked to rate their knowledge and understanding before and after the school monitoring program and to suggest any possible improvements in the study which would make it more engaging (Appendix I).

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Data Analysis The purpose of the study was to assess the accuracy and precision of volunteer collected samples, by comparing them with professional samples, assuming the professional samples yielded the correct results. To assess the correctness of the

professionally collected samples they were compared for differences between sites using analysis of variance (ANOVA). Any significant observations at alpha = 0.05 were tested post-hoc using Tukeys pairwise comparisons. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS (version 16) statistical analysis software. As the school sampling was qualitative and lacked replication, the schools data could not be compared to professional data using quantitative statistical methods. Therefore, to compare professional and school assessments, a number of common biological metrics were used to calculate stream health for both sets of data (Table 4.3). The data were then graphed and the school results compared to professional to see if they observed the same trends.

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Table 4.3 Biological metrics used to compare professional and school samples. Metric Expected response to disturbance Taxa Richness Decrease Biodiversity of stream declines as flow regimes are altered, habitat is lost, chemicals are introduced, energy cycles are disrupted, and alien taxa invade. Description

EPT Abundance

Decrease

EPT (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera) represent the three most sensitive orders to pollution and are commonly used as bioindicators. EPT count refers to the number of individuals

Becks Biotic Index (BBI)

Decrease

Invertebrates are classified into categories depending on their response to organic pollution and a score is given

Degree of Dominance

Increase

The proportion of the total individuals which fall in the three most abundant taxa. As diversity declines, a few taxa come to dominate the community assemblage. A few opportunistic species that can tolerate modified conditions replace more specialized types

% Tolerant Taxa

Increase

Species which are least sensitive to degradation tend to thrive competitively as disturbance pressure builds

Pollution Class Distribution

Change to community dominated by tolerant species

Taxa are ranked by their sensitivity to pollution and the distribution across samples is assessed

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The Becks biotic index is a commonly used biotic index in river monitoring and was first developed for the management of rivers in Florida, the United States. The index is based on genus-level identification and was modified to include order-level identification for the school study. Invertebrates are classified into three different

categories depending on their response to pollution (Table 4.4). Scores are then calculated by the following equation: Becks Biotic Index Score = 2(n Class I) + (n Class II) Where n = number of taxa in a certain pollution class The Becks biotic index was used because it is appropriate for school-aged children and non-professionals, it is easy to use and understand, and easily modified based on the level of taxonomic resolution used.

Table 4.4 Classification of invertebrates based on pollution sensitivity. Class I Pollution Sensitive Ephemeroptera Plecoptera Trichoptera Coleoptera Decapoda, Brachyura Class II Moderately Tolerant Odonata Hemiptera Megaloptera Lepidoptera Coleoptera Adult Oligochaete Nematode Hirudinea Gastropod Diptera Class III - Tolerant

Decapoda, Caridea

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Results
Environmental Parameters Water chemistry readings differed slightly between pristine and disturbed sites however, were significantly different at the Polluted site. considerably low dissolved oxygen and high conductivity. The polluted sight had The level of dissolved

nutrients also increased at the polluted site, especially sulphate (Table 4.5). Physical characteristics differed markedly between sites. Riparian tree species richness, leaf litter abundance and % canopy cover all decreased from pristine to polluted sites (Table 4.5). Table 4.5 Chemical and physical characteristics of selected sites along Sungai Ampang.
Pristine Altitude (m) Air temperature (C) Water surface temp (C) Light (lux) pH Conductivity (S) Dissolved Oxygen (ppm) Sulphate (mg/L) Nitrate as N (mg/L) Phosphate (mg/L) Ammonical Nitrogen (mg/L) Riparian tree species richness Leaf litter abundance % Canopy cover 104m 25.8 a 26.1 a 350 - 642 7.51
a

Disturbed 89m 27.3 b 27.2 a 84600 - 12230 5.92


b

Polluted 79m 30.4 c 29.9 b 70000 - 84000 6.68 c 359.00 b 2.10 b 3.70 0.69 0.37 0.41 5.80 7 0

25.19 a 9.75 a 0.80 0.77 0.09 <0.01 35.4 45.8 60

35.80 b 9.20 a 0.60 <0.01 0.12 <0.01 12.3 17.6 15

*% Canopy cover = % of riparian canopy directly over stream. Leaf litter abundance = average number of leaves found in each leaf pack sample. Air and water temperature, pH, Conductivity and dissolved oxygen were compared using ANOVA. Any two values sharing a common lower-case letter are not significantly different (ANOVA & Tukeys pairwise comparisons at = 0.05).

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Invertebrate Monitoring In total 3358 invertebrates covering 77 species and 14 orders, were collected from all three sites in Sg. Ampang during the professional study (Table 4.6). In comparison, the school study collected 383 invertebrates belonging to 10 orders. Diptera was the most abundant invertebrate group in professional samples, whereas, school samples were dominated by Gastropoda and Decapoda. Table 4.6 Summary of invertebrate monitoring results Professional Monitoring Diptera Ephemeroptera Trichoptera Gastropod Hirudinea Oligochaeta Coleoptera Odonata Plecoptera Decapoda Hemiptera Arachnida Lepidoptera Nematoda Total 1363 488 264 371 270 235 118 90 11 5 5 3 2 2 3358 School Monitoring 15 31 15 183 0 0 7 25 4 91 9 0 3 0 383

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Biological Metrics Professional monitoring data was analysed using Tuckeys pairwise comparison to analyse different biological metrics, and their ability to distinguish between the three sites. Species richness, EPT abundance and Becks biotic index found a significant difference between sites (Table 3). Table 4.7 Variation of invertebrate communities between sites in professional monitoring were tested using analysis of variance (ANOVA). Significant differences (p<0.05) are shown in bold. df Dependant variable A. Variation between sites Species richness EPT abundance Degree of dominance % Tolerant taxa Becks biotic index 2, 12 2, 12 2, 12 2, 12 2, 12 6.899 17.569 5.946 3.090 14.336 0.010 0.000 0.160 0.083 0.001 F p

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Species Richness Professional monitoring showed that species richness did not significantly differ between pristine and disturbed sites, but there was significantly less species present at the polluted site (Figure 4.3A). School monitoring results observe the same pattern as

professional monitoring (species richness decreasing from pristine to polluted sites).

Figure 4.3 A Mean species richness per 20cm2 of professional monitoring ( 1 SE, n = 10). Any two values sharing a common lower-case letter are not significantly different (ANOVA & Tukeys pairwise comparisons at = 0.05). B Total taxa richness of school monitoring per site.

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EPT Abundance Professional monitoring showed a significant difference between EPT abundances at all three sites. The pristine sight had a high abundance, a small presence was found at the disturbed site, and none were found at the disturbed site (Figure 4.4A). School monitoring only found EPT taxa present at the pristine site (Figure 4.4B).

Figure 4.4 A Mean EPT (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera) abundance per 20cm2 area of professional monitoring ( 1 SE, n = 10). Any two values sharing a common lower-case letter are not significantly different (ANOVA & Tukeys pairwise comparisons at = 0.05). B Total EPT abundance per site of school monitoring.

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Degree of Dominance The disturbed and polluted sites had the highest degree of dominance, meaning that the macroinvertebrate community present is dominated by three particular species which are more tolerant (Figure 4.5). School monitoring compares favourably with

professional results, showing the same trend: degree of dominance increasing from the pristine to polluted sites.

Figure 4.5 A Mean degree of dominance (proportion of three most abundant taxa species/ 20cm2) of professional monitoring. Any two values sharing a common lowercase letter are not significantly different (ANOVA & Tukeys pairwise comparisons at = 0.05). B Degree of dominance of school monitoring.

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Proportion of Tolerant Taxa Professional results showed the disturbed and polluted sites recording a significantly higher proportion of tolerant taxa than the pristine sight (Figure 4.6A). The school monitoring showed the same trend as professional; but the school monitoring found a significantly smaller proportion of tolerant taxa at the disturbed site (Figure 4.6B).

Figure 4.6 A Mean proportion of tolerant tax per 20cm2 area of professional monitoring. Any two values sharing a common lower-case letter are not significantly different (ANOVA & Tukeys pairwise comparisons at = 0.05). B Proportion of tolerant taxa per site of school monitoring.

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Becks Biotic Index The Becks biotic index decreased significantly from the pristine site to the polluted (Figure 4.7). School monitoring results correlate very strongly with professional

monitoring (Figure 4.7B).

Figure 4.7 A Mean Becks biotic index score per 20cm2 of professional monitoring. Any two values sharing a common lower-case letter are not significantly different (ANOVA & Tukeys pairwise comparisons at = 0.05). B Becks biotic index score per site of school monitoring.

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Pollution Class Distribution Professional results show that the pristine sight is dominated by class I invertebrates, the disturbed site dominated by class III invertebrates with a small number of class I &II present, and the polluted site consisting of only class III invertebrates (Figure 4.8). School results show the same trend as professional monitoring, however, failed to collect any class III invertebrates at the pristine site.

Figure 4.8 Distribution of invertebrate pollution classes of A professional monitoring and B school monitoring. Invertebrates were categorized into pollution categories based on Becks Biotic Index (Table 4.4).

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Student Awareness and Understanding of River Issues Student responses to the questionnaire, which was filled out after completing the monitoring program, indicate that student awareness and understanding of river health and pollution impacts has improved significantly. Over 90% of participants considered their knowledge and awareness of river issues and river health to be either good or very good after their involvement in the program (Figures 4.9 & 4.10).

Figure 4.9 A School students awareness of river issues before the monitoring program (average response: Somewhat) B - awareness after completing the monitoring program (average response: Very Good)

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Figure 4.10 A School students knowledge of rivers and river health before the monitoring program (average response: A Little) B - awareness after completing the monitoring program (average response: Good)

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Discussion
Professional Monitoring Professional results indicate that the health of Sg. Ampang deteriorates across a gradient of human influence, and increasing urbanisation. The pristine site is very

healthy; dissolved oxygen was high, riparian vegetation is healthy and diverse (Table 4.2), and biological sampling showed a diverse invertebrate community with high abundance of EPT (Figure 4.4A) and high Becks biotic index score (Figure 4.7A). The disturbed site is highly modified with the stream becoming channelized for drainage purposes and the substrate concreted. Water quality was still high, with water chemistry readings similar to the pristine site (Table 4.1), high species richness (Figure 4.3A) and EPT presence (Figure 4.4A). However, the invertebrate community changes dramatically from pristine to disturbed, with a sharp increase in tolerant invertebrates, namely chironomids (Figure 4.6A), and decrease in sensitive EPT organisms (Figure 4.4A). This is due to the lack of habitat available for invertebrates such as cobbles, boulders and leaf packs. Furthermore, the channelization and concreting of the stream bed can increase the flashiness of flow as there are no bends and natural substrate to slow the movement of water. These sorts of environments are commonly dominated by

Chironomidae as they have short life-cycles and can regenerate quickly after a large flushing event (Koperski 2009). This demonstrates how monitoring water chemistry alone is not sufficient to assess the ecological health of a stream. The polluted site was extremely degraded with very low dissolved oxygen, high conductivity and increased dissolved nutrients, especially sulphate (Table 4.5). The

invertebrate community was completely different from the disturbed site with only one species in common; Simulium sp. The community was made up completely of tolerant species (Figure 4.6A), dominated by Hirudinea (leeches) and Gastropoda (snails). Both Hirudinea and Gastropoda have been used as bioindicators of heavy pollution in the United States (McDonald et al. 1990), and some species could possibly be used as bioindicators in Malaysian streams.

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Comparing School and Professional Assessments The major difference between the professional and school studies was the lack of replication in the schools samples. Unfortunately this means that the school and professionals data cannot be compared using quantitative statistical methods. Therefore, assessments were compared using a number of biological metrics which are commonly used in invertebrate monitoring. The school study collected considerably fewer invertebrates than the professional study. However, this does not invalidate the students data. When the school data is analysed using biological metrics, their data clearly shows the same trends observed in the professional assessments. In particular, species richness (Figure 4.3) and Becks biotic index (Figure 4.7) successfully illustrated the effect of human disturbance. Comparative results were similar to Reynoldson et al (1986), who compared high school collected data with historical government data and found that although the school collected significantly less invertebrates, the trends were similar in both studies. It also demonstrates the need to use a range of metrics when determining stream health. School results were effective in classifying the health of the pristine site and detecting the gross pollution at the polluted site, but had trouble classifying the milder disturbance at the disturbed site. School results show a sharp decrease in taxa richness (Figure 4.3), a complete absence of EPT taxa (Figure 4.4B), and a very low Becks biotic index score. This would indicate low water quality and the presence of pollution. This conclusion is different from professional monitoring, which found that water quality was high, and that changes to the invertebrate community were a result of a highly modified habitat. The small sample size and low level taxonomic resolution of invertebrate

identification meant that school samples lacked the detail required to make informed conclusions. The inability of school monitoring to classify subtle changes in stream health is not restricted to this particular program. Brinkhurst (1993) stated that simplified indices often based on an assumption that groups (such as insect families) behave in a uniform way, can only be applied to simple, obvious examples of gross disturbance. In this case, it was not the use of biological indices which affected the accuracy of school assessments,

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as professional results used the same indices to assess stream health. Rather it was the lack of representativeness of the school samples which affected the accuracy of their assessments. Table 4.6 shows the significant difference between professional and

monitoring results. School sampling failed to collect a number of key taxa, and the relative abundance of some taxa is considerably different. School monitoring had a tendency to collect larger organisms such Decapoda (prawns and crabs) and Gastropoda (snails), but failed to collect smaller organisms such as Diptera, which was the most abundant invertebrate order in professional samples. Sources of Inaccuracy If volunteer monitoring is to become a reliable source of information on water quality trends for decision-makers it is important to understand the sources of inaccuracy and bias in each aspect of monitoring. As mentioned earlier, school samples yielded significantly less macroinvertebrates than professional samples. This is primarily due to the different methods used for collecting, sorting and identifying samples, as well as the use of untrained monitors. The Surber sampling method for collecting invertebrates has previously been reported as yielding a higher abundance of individuals, and rarer taxa than kick-net samples (Storey et al. 1991). Also, samples were collected by experienced biologists, who can recognise areas in a stream where there is a large abundance of invertebrates. For the majority of participants in the school program, this was their first experience monitoring invertebrates. This can be overcome with increased training of participants before

sampling and greater supervision of inexperienced monitors when they are collecting samples. The differing method for sorting invertebrate specimens from debris was a major source of differences in the two sets of results. Professional samples were preserved and sorted in the laboratory with the aid of a microscope, whereas, school samples were sorted using the live-sort method; live specimens are picked from the sample by eye, on site. Obviously, sorting samples in the laboratory with the aid of a microscope will result in a greater number of individuals, however it would be hoped that live-sort method would still yield a representative sample. As has been reported in previous studies (Nichols 2006;

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Nerbonne et al. 2008), the live-sort method can result in a bias towards larger organisms and fast moving organisms, but those not fast enough to evade capture. This meant that school samples failed to collect smaller organisms such as chironomids, which were abundant in professional samples at the disturbed site, and ultimately influenced the final assessment of the site. A common issue in invertebrate monitoring is the establishment of appropriate taxonomic levels. In this study, order-level identification was sufficient in detecting gross pollution at the polluted site. Previous studies have shown that order-level identification can be applied as an early warning system to identify gross changes in stream quality (Bouchard et al. 2005). It has been hypothesized that there is a hierarchical response in macroinvertebrate communities to increasing pollution. Species and genus will enable detection of subtle impacts because species exhibit a wide range of ecological characteristics and tolerances to a variety of disturbances. When family-level is applied, these more subtle and specific impacts may be missed because the loss of species can be masked by the replacement of more tolerant congeners (Jones 2008). The replacement of taxonomic groups occurs in steps as stress increases. First the individual is affected, and then the species, genus, family, etc. are removed from a community as levels of stress increase (Jones 2008). As resolution becomes coarser, the ability to detect impact

decreases to the point where only gross pollution can be identified (Metzeling et al. 2002). Therefore, species or genus-level identification should be the goal of any professional biological monitoring program. Species-level identification can be very time consuming and requires special knowledge and would not be a realistic goal for volunteer programs, unless participants were very experienced and highly trained. Marshall et al (2006) conducted a cost/benefit analysis on different levels of taxonomic identifications. Cost was measured as the amount of skill, effort and time required to process samples, and plotted against benefit which was measured in terms of the percentage of the pattern between samples that was retained in each data set. The study recommended family level as the best resolution for analysing patterns in macroinvertebrate assemblages, as subtle changes can still detected for significantly less cost than species or genus (Marshall et al. 2006).

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Shortfalls of Chemical Monitoring It was mentioned earlier that school monitoring undertook water chemistry tests using a LaMotte Low Cost Water Monitoring Kit. However, the results were unreliable, possibly due to faulty kits, and excluded from the final analysis. In the absence of professional chemical analyses, the erroneous results may not have been detected. This highlights the shortfalls of chemical analyses in community monitoring; obtaining reliable data requires expensive equipment which is beyond the means of most community monitoring projects. Although chemical analyses can identify contaminants that may be present (as long as they are analysed for), biological monitoring can integrate responses to combinations of all contaminants and to other sources of environmental stress, thereby indicating overall effects in a water body (Bartram et al. 1996). Biological monitoring is also important in situations where there are a range of contaminants whose biological effects may be synergistic or antagonistic and would not be detected through chemical measurements (Bartram et al. 1996). A disadvantage of biological methods is that it can be difficult to relate observed effects to specific aspects of environmental disturbance, such as contamination or natural changes. For example, methods do not always provide precise information on the identity of a contaminant unless supplementary information from chemical analyses is available. For this reason, community biological monitoring can act as an early warning system to identify the presence of pollution and the need for further intensive chemical analyses.

Participant Awareness and Knowledge Surveying of participants found that knowledge and awareness of river health and issues increased significantly. Average awareness of river issues and the impacts of pollution increased from somewhat to very good (Figure 4.9), and knowledge of river eco-systems increased from a little to good (Figure 4.10). This demonstrates the educational value of environmental monitoring. Monitoring allows participants to

understand local ecosystems firsthand and build a sense of appreciation and ownership over the sites they monitor.

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Modifications to Improve Monitoring Program Analyses of school monitoring results show the program was able to detect degradation as a result of gross pollution but struggled to classify milder disturbance. This program was run and organised to maximise the learning outcomes for students, and this is used as a starting point for comparisons with professional results. Upon analysis of results, modifications to the protocols can be made to improve accuracy and detail of results, without compromising the education value. One of the major shortcomings of the school monitoring program was the lack of replication of samples. This meant that data could not be analysed statistically, leaving only qualitative descriptions. Having a minimum of three replicate samples per site will allow for more detailed analysis, statistical comparisons with reference sites, and ensure sampling is representative. Validating volunteer collected data through standard statistical methods will ensure the reliability of monitoring results as a source for decision-makers. The live-sort method resulted in significantly less individuals than professionals, and also a bias towards larger organisms. This can be overcome by stressing to volunteers the importance of picking all specimens from the sample, and by making sure there are enough resources such as tweezers and sorting trays for all participants. Having the volunteers work in teams so that they can check the quality of each others samples can provide an important safeguard against such biases. Order-level identification of invertebrates was successful in detecting gross pollution, although it lacked the level of detail required to detect more subtle forms of disturbance. Where possible, invertebrates should be identified to family so that subtle changes to macroinvertebrate assemblages can be detected, as well as rare and threatened taxa. This will still be a challenge in Malaysia as there is little known on the To achieve this there needs to be continued

macroinvertebrate fauna of the region.

improvements in taxonomic keys and tools including more research into the pollution ecology of all macroinvertebrate taxa. These improvements can only come through

continuing investigations into the life history of individual species and integrating this knowledge with applied aspects of biological monitoring. Moreover, there is a need for the identification of reliable bioindicators, which can not only detect the presence or

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absence of pollution, but can be diagnostic (indicate type of pollution). If monitoring can have a diagnostic capability, it can be of great use for management and decision-making. Conclusion Macroinvertebrate monitoring provides a great learning opportunity for schools in Malaysia, and has the ability to increase community knowledge and awareness of river pollution impacts. Although professional monitoring is able to capture much more detail, the purpose of biological monitoring is not to describe the macroinvertebrate community, but to identify potential impacts or differences from the reference condition. School monitoring was able to detect gross examples of disturbance, but struggled to classify milder forms of disturbance. In order to improve the accuracy and precision of school assessments, modifications to the protocol need to be made to allow standard data validation methods. In addition, increased training and supervision of inexperienced

monitors will decrease the amount of volunteer bias.

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Chapter 5 Community Management and Monitoring of Kelana Jaya Lakes


Introduction This chapter describes the community approach to the restoration of Kelana Jaya Lakes. The program was initiated by Global Environment Centre (GEC) in 2002 as a response to rising levels of pollution in the lake system. GEC is a Malaysian-based environmental NGO which promotes community participation in natural resource management. Information was compiled from semi-structured interviews with program co-ordinators, various newspaper articles and GEC publications. Kelana Jaya Lake Malaysia has very few natural lakes but past tin-mining activities and construction of water reservoirs have created many man-made lakes and ponds. Jurisdiction for lakes and pond management is not clear, and in most cases, these lakes are under the responsibility of local authorities and private land-owners. As such, priority towards maintaining good water quality in lakes and ponds was not realised until the water crisis which hit Kuala Lumpur in 1997 (Chin 2001). Although water from lakes and ponds could provide ample supply of non-potable water, it is generally heavily polluted. Exmining ponds and lakes mainly serve as flood retention areas, developed for recreational uses or reclaimed for other developments (Chin 2001). The Kelana Jaya Lake is one of many urban lakes in Selangor, Malaysia. Kelana Jaya Lakes are ex-mining ponds in the Sungai Damansara River Basin managed by the Local Government, the Petaling Jaya City Council (MPPJ). They were initially managed solely as flood retention areas until they were developed as a public park in 1996. The lakes (4 in total) are still functioning as a flood retention basin, but form an important feature of the Kelana Jaya Municipal Park and are a favourite spot for locals for recreation, fishing and bird watching.

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Pollution Problems Shortly after the lake was opened up to the public in 1996, a gradual decline in the water quality was observed. The main cause was increased wastewater, rubbish and sewage overflows draining into the lakes from the storm water drainage system, as a result of the rapid development in the surrounding catchment areas. The Petaling Jaya district went from being a satellite township of Kuala Lumpur in the 1990s, to being granted city status in 2006. The area is expanding as a centre for industrial and housing development, with over 500,000 residents in a 51km2 area (Osman et al. 2008). To deal with the rapid population growth a sewage treatment facility was built directly adjacent the lakes. Unfortunately, poor planning and design resulted in the continuous overflow of untreated sewage from the oxidation ponds into the lakes. The ponds could not cope with the load from 6,000 households, as it was built with a capacity for 4,000 families (Chew 2003). The loss of natural wetland plants in and surrounding the lakes has also completely changed the ecosystem. They were replaced with rock, concrete and landscaping plants during the parks development in 1996. The park was once a haven for water birds such as the Waterhen (Ruak-Ruak) and native fish species which drew local anglers. However, habitat loss and high pollution loads quickly degraded the biodiversity of the area. Water birds became scarce and fish populations were dominated by more tolerant, nonindigenous species such as Tilapia and Flower Horns (Mohkeri 2004). Water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes), an invasive aquatic weed, dominated the surface of the lakes and high nutrient inputs resulted in increased algae growth and the lake becoming eutrophic (Mohkeri 2002). A university study found that the lake was polluted with heavy metals, including high levels of cadmium, originating from nearby electroplating and car industries (Yap et al. 2003). According to Department of Environment standards, the water is classified as class V, meaning that it is very polluted, unhealthy and not even suitable for human contact (Yap et al. 2003). A separate study found high concentrations of cadmium in fish species which were regularly caught and eaten by locals (Ismail et al. 2004).

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Management The pollution problems were partly caused by fragmented management of the lakes and the surrounding catchment areas among different agencies, as well as a lack of awareness and participation of the local community and other stakeholders. The Petaling Jaya Municipal Council (MPPJ) lacked the human resources or technical expertise on lake management and restoration. The sewage oxidation pond located next to the park is managed by Indah Water Konsortium, the company entrusted with dealing with the nations sewage, since the privatization of sewage services in 1994. The adjacent sewage pond was not properly maintained due to management constraints and could not cope with the sewage load from surrounding houses. Aware of the problem, Indah Water had difficulties with local authorities acquiring land and permits to build another storage pond (Chew 2003). The flood drainage system, which is managed by Alam Flora Sdn Bhd, a private company contracted by the local authorities to maintain the drainage systems, was carrying untreated sewage and wastewater from surrounding housing and commercial areas. With such an array of stakeholders involved in the parks management, assigning responsibility and co-ordinating management interventions was very difficult. Project With pollution rising in the lake to levels which threatened public health and local authorities proclaiming a shortage of resources to restore the lake, frustration grew within the local community over the lack of action. In 2002, Global Environment Centre (GEC) spearheaded a rehabilitation program aimed at improving water quality through promotion of Integrated Water Resource Management, with a special emphasis on community involvement. The project was run in collaboration with the MPPJ along with input from Danish NGO-DANIDA, and funded by a grant from the Global Environment Facility (GEF) (Mohkeri 2004). Planning and Design Consultation with various key stakeholders from both federal and state government agencies was undertaken for 18 months prior to project development. Getting support from the local authority was essential to the implementation of the project and United Nations Local Agenda 21 (LA21) provided the platform for the involvement of the MPPJ.

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LA21 is based on the global action plan towards development in the 21st century resulting from the Earth Summit in Rio De Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1992. LA21 was first introduced in Malaysia in 2000 as a pilot program involving four local councils around the country, including Petaling Jaya (Osman et al. 2008). The adopted program aims to: (i) balance economic, community and environmental interests and considerations into projects, processes and strategies; (ii) fully engage a wide variety of stakeholders groups to get a range of views and interests, particularly those who will benefit from or be affected by the outcome of the planning process; and (iii) create mechanisms and strategies that can be maintained over the long term to address various issues in an in-depth and sustained matter (Osman et al. 2008). To implement the program a Local Agenda 21 Petaling Jaya Committee was set up with the Mayor of MPPJ as the chairperson. The Committee consists of 37 members, comprising of representatives from NGOs, community-building organisations, religious institutions, the private sector, government agencies, and the MPPJ. Having the project run as a LA21 initiative was of great benefit as the LA21 Committee is chaired by the mayor and allowed for linkages with other key stakeholders: residents associations, education department etc. During the project planning phase, the local community was informed of the project, and provided opportunity to give their input and feedback through the use of a feedback form, workshops and dialogues. Approximately 500 brochures and questionnaires were disseminated amongst community centres, schools and housing areas over the period of one month. The community were asked on their needs and concerns with regard to the water quality of the Kelana Jaya Lake ecosystem, as well as their interest in participating in environmental monitoring and rehabilitation activates. As a result the Friends of Kelana Jaya Park (FoKJ) was established with over 400 members. A project steering committee of 15 was set up to represent the local community and special interest groups such as anglers and birdwatchers.

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Through consultation with the various stakeholders and local community, the project objectives were set as follows: The project aims at promoting sustainable

management of Kelana Jaya Lakes through the participation of stakeholders, especially the local community. It focuses on: 1. Enhancing awareness and understanding of IWRM among key stakeholders. 2. Strengthening community groups including NGOs, the private sector and special interest groups, and promoting more active participation in lake management. 3. Establishing partnerships between community groups and government agencies for information sharing and joint activities. 4. Help improve water quality and the status of biodiversity at Kelana Jaya Lakes (Kailasam 2009). The rehabilitation program of Kelana Jaya Lakes was formally launched during a local community carnival on October 2002. The launching event and promotion through the media assisted the project team in developing awareness on the project among the local communities. Community Monitoring and Evaluation An important aspect of the program is the local communitys ability to conduct their own health assessments of the lakes. From 2005, GEC offered volunteers from the FoKJ, one day courses on water quality monitoring to become park rangers. The course consists of classroom theory sessions on freshwater ecosystems, and introduces them to the concept of IWRM. Volunteers are then taken to different river sites and the lake to conduct physical, chemical and biological monitoring. Physical monitoring involves Visual volunteers using their senses to assess the overall health of the lake.

observations are taken of the clarity and colour of the water, the amount of rubbish within and surrounding the lakes, and the quality of vegetation along the shoreline. Biological monitoring involves recording any sightings of vertebrate animal life such as birds, reptiles or fish. Invertebrate samples are taken using a small fish net. Invertebrate abundance and taxa richness are recorded as an indicator of ecosystem health, though invertebrates are not identified. Chemical testing is carried out using a Lamotte low cost

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water monitoring kit. The monitoring kit was designed to be simple and easy-to-use, specifically for the purposes of environmental education. A water sample of a given amount is taken and a tablet is added, the colour then changes to indicate a range or value. The parameters measured are: Temperature pH, Dissolved oxygen, Nitrogen Phosphate Turbidity E.coli All results are recorded into a rubric entitled the Lake Report Card, and a score for each monitoring type (physical, biological and chemical) is calculated, then those scores are added up to give the overall score for lake health (Appendix II). After

completing the course, the rangers are presented with their own test kit as well as a certificate of completion of the course. The volunteers agree upon a schedule so that the lake is monitored at least once a month. After they collect the data they send a short summary to GEC which is then uploaded on the website. Monitoring results are also displayed in the information kiosk located in the middle of the park. . GEC concede that the volunteer monitoring is not scientifically accurate and lacks the precision and depth of professional monitoring. However, the result does give a qualitative description of the health of the lakes and has the ability to track changes over time. The primary focus of the monitoring program is to provide the community with a means to be involved in the evaluation and decision-making process. The data collected by monitors can help inform management at the planning and policy stage, and can also be used to critique management by providing data on the progress or success of a given management intervention. The course is also designed to enhance the awareness and knowledge of participants, to encourage a move towards more sustainable behaviours and attitudes. For example, the importance of not pouring oils and chemicals down the drains is emphasised. It is hoped that by learning about their environment, local monitors share the knowledge they gather with other members of the community, as one of the participants stated upon the completion of the course:

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The environment is ours to protect. We can use what we learned today to protect our waterways and also bring our families for picnics at the lake so they too will learn about nature and its importance. (Jayaraj 2005) Having local residents trained to recognize indications of pollution and degradation allows them to act as the eyes and ears of the lake, providing an early warning system to pollution events. Achievements The project was successful in engaging local residents with the issue and was able to establish the FoKJ with over 400 members and a steering committee of 15 people. By establishing a local community group who are genuinely concerned about the management of the part and lake, it was easier to mobilise the community to participate in the management of the park. It also means that the local authority has a more regular source of information for whatever issues are happening on the ground, and can make use of the community local action. MPPJ also provides facilities for FoKJ to hold regular monthly meetings at one of the city buildings adjacent to the park. There are also other opportunities for the wider public to get involved in the project. A hotline for the public to raise their concerns has been established to allow twoway communication with the local authority. A website has been set up

(www.kelanajayapark.com) to provide an avenue for disseminating information on the project activities, events, and results from park ranger monitoring are also uploaded. There is also a community booth and notice boards in the park where information and monitoring results are displayed. The rehabilitation program and associated events have garnered a lot of publicity in local media. There have been a number of community planting days where volunteers replanted natural vegetation around the lake to bring back wildlife. The Malaysian

Anglers Association helped organise an alien fishing competition in a bid to remove nonindigenous fish species. GEC held an event called My Drains Day, where volunteers and members from the residents association cleaned rubbish and silt from drains and marked drains with a fish symbol to remind residents that the drains lead to the lake. The

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gotong-royong (village clean-up) of the drains was targeted in three particular housing areas which were identified as contributing the highest amount of pollution through their wastewater, and events were held in each area in three consecutive weeks. All these events were widely reported by the local newspapers and television networks, and gave good publicity to the importance of the lakes and the rehabilitation efforts. Perhaps the biggest achievement of the program was the upgrade of the adjacent sewage treatment plant so that untreated sewage no longer overflowed into the lake and effluent bypassed the lake and was discharged further downstream. Without the pollution load coming from the sewage plant, and reduced wastewater and solid waste, total incoming pollution reduced by over 60% (Mohkeri 2002). This demonstrates the

effectiveness of community participation in influencing the decision-making process. Finally, the program demonstrated the successful implementation of IWRM. Community participation was established as an essential component to management of the lakes and strong relationships and communication lines were built between all relevant stakeholders. There was a new emphasis on controlling pollution at the source by

encouraging sustainable behaviours in surrounding households, rather than finding treatment solutions for the lake. Management had shifted from a top-down, closedsectoral driven, to more transparent, co-operative management bodies. Challenges and Lessons Learned A key component of the Kelana Jaya Park program and many of GECs projects is the concept of civic science, which is a way of approaching community participation in environmental management. The concept is new in Malaysia and can be summarised by the graphic below;

Figure 5.1 Civic science approach to community engagement (Kailasam 2009; p 6) The concept builds on a four step process designed to engage the local community and gain their support for action;

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1. Create awareness on the issues surrounding that particular community/location. 2. Provide knowledge to the community on the facts, statistics and the role they play as the cause and receiver of pollution and impacts. 3. Provide skill on how to monitor and manage resources effectively. 4. Assist the community in taking action to improve their local environment. Overall it is a systematic approach for integrating the local community within natural resource management and can be applied to a wide variety of environmental issues. Gaining Community Support Experience in this project and others have shown that it is crucial to develop trust and a feeling of ownership toward development and planning of project activities and solutions. The initial task of community mobilization can be very challenging.

Environmental awareness and understanding is very low in Malaysia, as it is in many developing countries, where economic considerations are given priority, and environmental degradation is considered to be an inevitable consequence of economic prosperity. Therefore, GEC utilise a soft approach to engage the community, based on finding common ground, making a connection between the community and project benefits (quality parks, better health etc) and slowly building trust within the community. It is a long process and patience is needed to assure them of the importance and viability of the project, and to build their capacity to achieve results. It is also important to include the community at the very beginning of the planning process, before the development of an action plan. Including the communitys considerations and ideas in the design can build a sense of ownership over the project. Gaining the communitys trust and active involvement is also essential in stimulating government commitment. Sustaining and Nurturing Community Support In most cases, community projects require a large amount of time to establish, and sustaining community support can be a difficult challenge. Projects commonly fail when the results fail to meet the expectations and the community becomes disengaged. To avoid this, it is important not to set high goals that are difficult to achieve initially. By

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completing small tasks properly and doing them well, it is possible to demonstrate the success of the project to the community. It is important to recognise the efforts of the community and publicise their achievements. For instance, FoKJ have been highlighted in the local media several times over the past few years and this has motivated them to continue their efforts. Project managers need to understand and accept that there are limitations and constraints to the amount of effort the community can devote to a project. Some members may be retired, or working full-time, or have families to attend to. They are not able to devote time regularly to the project or may have difficulty fitting in to the work plan. They may not have the experience, therefore require constant guidance. It is important that the needs of the community are not sidelined and their involvement isnt beyond their capacity. Projects should be run in a transparent manner, especially in regards to fund allocation. It is important that the community is aware of where funds are being allocated; otherwise mistrust can quickly build within the community. Building Relationships between Stakeholders GEC has managed to forge strong partnerships with government agencies by having regular meetings and discussing proposed project actions together, understanding each others needs and limitations. The best way to ensure participation from government agencies is to invite them to become project steering committee members. In this manner they play an important role in contributing ideas and resources to the project. During the Kelana Jaya Lakes program government agency representatives from the Department of Environment, DID and local authorities regularly attended meetings and training workshops on river management. Many of the government officers have good technical and infrastructure knowledge, but at times can lack the skills and understanding in managing environmental resources in a more natural and inclusive way, as described in IWRM. By including government officials in the training workshops and regular meetings, a two-way dialogue was created where the community can have direct access to government agencies, and officials can gain an insight into what is required to manage a resource more effectively which meet the needs of the community.

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It is important that each stakeholders responsibilities are clearly defined in order to avoid overlapping of resources and ensuring accountability among all parties. Moreover, it ensures that everyone feels involved and is contributing their part to the success of the project. Conclusion Shortly after Kelana Jaya Lake Park was opened in 1996, there was a gradual decline in water quality due to sewage overflow from the neighbouring treatment plant and wastewater from surrounding housing areas. LA21 provided an essential platform for the implementation of a community management program in 2002. An important feature of the program was the opportunity for participants to conduct their own ecosystem health assessments. This built a sense of ownership and responsibility among locals to reduce their impacts and pressure authorities to restore the health of the lake. The project was successful in establishing a local community group who were committed to restoring the health of the lake, influencing local decision-making by having the neighbouring sewage plant upgraded, and building strong relationships with all stakeholders involved in the management of the lake and surrounding catchments.

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Chapter 6 Conclusions
This study used two lines of investigation to examine the potential of community monitoring in Malaysia. A pilot community monitoring program was implemented in a high school and the results compared to professional monitoring, to assess their accuracy and precision. In addition, an established community monitoring program was analysed and program managers interviewed on their views and experiences which affect the widespread adoption of the practice. Comparing the assessments of school monitoring to those made by professionals, it was found that although students were able to detect gross examples of degradation, they struggled to classify milder forms of disturbance. Increased training of volunteers and modifications to the monitoring protocol to allow for data validation will increase the accuracy and precision of their assessments. The participatory approach utilised in the Kelana Jaya Lakes program, allowed for the inclusion of the communitys needs and concerns in the decision-making process. The monitoring of the lakes health by the local community gave them a sense of ownership over the project and empowered them to become involved in the management of the lakes. The results show that community monitoring has the ability to address a number of the key objectives outlined in the Malaysian Water Vision (Lee and Facon 2001; p25). The objectives are briefly discussed below: a) Increased awareness on the economic, social and environmental value of water among decision-makers and politicians and the public The community monitoring of Kelana Jaya Lakes demonstrated to participants the impacts of the surrounding housing areas on the health of the lake, and motivated them to adopt more sustainable behaviour. In addition, students awareness of river issues increased significantly after their involvement in the monitoring program. Monitoring exposes participants to local ecosystems, building both an understanding and appreciation for natural areas.

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b) Promotion of river education The hands-on activities of environmental monitoring provide great learning opportunities for both schools and the wider community and have the potential to be adopted in schools across Malaysia. c) Significant reduction of pollution from point and non-point sources; j) Resource assessment and monitoring The wide spread adoption of community monitoring will allow for more sites to be monitored on a continuous basis. Monitoring data can be used to track long-term changes in river health and can also be used as an early warning system of high pollution events. d) Full restoration of rivers and return of aquatic life Monitoring is crucial for assessing the effectiveness of restoration efforts, and identifying why different restoration programs succeed or fail. The Kelana Jaya Lakes program demonstrated the effectiveness of integrating community monitoring into restoration programs, giving locals a sense of ownership over the project. e) Water ecosystems protection The use biological parameters by community monitors provides direct information on the condition of groups of biota resident in the ecosystem, and therefore on the condition of the ecosystem. Thus, they address management issues more directly and can provide a more sensitive time-integrated assessment of river condition than physical or chemical parameters.

f) Frequent dialogue with all stake holders in the water sector; g) Participatory approach in decision-making The Kelana Jaya Lakes program showed that by including the community in the restoration and monitoring process, strong relationships can be built with the community and local authorities. Monitoring data can be used to help inform decision making and also stimulate government action. The increased interaction with the community can give

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officials an insight into what is required to manage a resource more effectively which meet the needs of the community. Recommendations Community monitoring should be adopted as a key management tool towards achieving Malaysias Water Vision. Schools are an ideal vehicle for community

monitoring, as it can be easily integrated into school curricula and offers a great educational experience for children. LA21 provides a platform to involve the wider community in environmental management, and community monitoring programs can be used to enhance restoration efforts as have been prescribed in the Water Vision. Monitoring data has the potential to inform management and planning, however, decision-makers need to be aware of the limitations in the accuracy and precision of volunteer assessments. To improve the accuracy of results, monitoring protocols should include standard data validation techniques, and increased training and supervision of inexperienced volunteers. Biological monitoring in Malaysia is still in its infancy and greater research work is required to understand the impact of pollution on the life-histories of benthic macroinvertebrates, and identifying reliable bioindicator species. Study Limitations There are many forces in Malaysia which have not been included in the considerations including political will, economics and constraints. To analyse the political regime and how policies are agreed upon in Malaysia would be a whole research project on its own. The recommendations put forward are based solely on the Malaysian Water Vision goals and objectives and what needs to be done for them be achieved.

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Appendix I Student Questionnaire Adopt-a-Stream Questionnaire How would you rate your knowledge of rivers and river health before the adopt-a-stream program? 1 2 3 4 5 None Very Little Somewhat Good Very Good How would you rate your knowledge of rivers and river health after the adopt-a-stream program? 1 2 3 4 5 None Very Little Somewhat Good Very Good How would you rate your awareness of river issues before the adopt-a-stream program? 1 2 3 4 5 None Very Little Somewhat Good Very Good How would you rate your awareness of river issues after the adopt-a-stream program? 1 None 2 Very Little 3 Somewhat 4 Good 5 Very Good

How could the program be improved? -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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Appendix II Kelana Jaya Lake Report Card

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Appendix III - Explanatory Statement

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Appendix IV Consent Form

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