Eugen Goldstein in 1896 modified the cathode tube and found that while electrons of the

cathode ray moved towards the anode, they collide with atoms of the residual gas and knock off electrons leaving positive particles that moved to the opposite direction throug the holes of the cathode. With hydrogen gas, the particles had the lightest mass, with other gases; the masses of the particles were multiples of the mass of hydrogen. Hydrogen atom minus the electron, H+ is fundamental in all matter and this particle was named proton (proteois-first of importance)

Rutherford related the number of positive changes to the number of protons. However, if

the nuclear mass is based on the number of protons, there is a difference. Such differences were solved when James Chadick in 1932 discovered the neutrons which were neutral in charge and had a mass almost equal to that of the proton.

The characteristics of the three particles are listed in the table below:

Particle electron proton neutron

Symbol ep
+

Mass(g) 9.109x10-28 1.67252x10

-24

Mass(u) 0.00055 1.0073 1.0087

Charge -1 +1 0

no

1.67482x10-24

By international agreement, the current atomic mass standard is the pure isotope carbon-12, which is assigned a mass of exactly 12 atomic mass units ( 12 u ). Based on this standard, we can define an atomic mass unit (abbreviated amu and having the unit, u) as exactly one twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom. In more familiar units of mass, 1 u = 1.66054x 10-24 g. 2.4 Atomic Number and Mass number Each atom is characterized by its atomic number, Z, and its mass number, A. It is represented by the chemical symbol for the element with the atomic no. of the element placed at the lower left and the mass number placed at the upper left,
A Z

symbol.

EXAMPLE: Symbol Mass number, A Atomic number, Z Representation Cu 64 29

64Cu 29

Fe 56 26
56FE 26

Ca 40 20
40Ca 20

The atomic number gives the number of protons. Atoms with the same number of protons are atoms of the same element and are represented by the symbol of the element. Electrons and protons which have the same magnitude, although opposite in charge, make an atom electrically neutral. Therefore, atomic number refers also to the number of electrons. In the given examples, a Cu atom has 29 protons and 29 electrons; an Fe atom has 26 protons and neutrons (collectively called nucleons) in the nucleus. Therefore, mass number-atomic number = number of neutrons Looking at the given example again, there are 64 - 29 = 35 neutrons in a Cu atom, 56 - 26 = 30 neutrons in an Fe atom, and 40 - 20 = neutrons in a Ca atom. 2.5 Isotopes and the atomic mass The relative atomic mass (or atomic weight) of an element is not close to a whole number because it represents the average atomic mass of all the atoms. Atoms of the same element can have the same atomic number but may differ in their atomic masses and such atoms called isotopes. The average atomic mass is found by multiplying the exact atomic mass of each isotope by its percent abundance, then taking the sum of the products.

EXAMPLES: mass no. 1.Chlorine 35 37 2.Oxygen 16 17 18 Solutions: 1.Chlorine Ave. at. mass = 34.969 x 0.7553 + 36.966 x 0.2447 Ave. at. mass = 35.458 u 2.oxygen Ave. at. mass = 15.9949 x 0.9979 + 16.9991 x 0.0004 + 17.9992 x 0.0020 Ave. at. mass = 15.9993 u Isotopic mass 43.969 u 36.966 u 15.9949 u 16.9991 u 17.9992 u % abundance 75.53 24.47 99.76 0.04 0.20 15.9993 u 35.458 u Ave. at mass

The mass spectrometer is used to determine the types of isotopes present, the exact masses of these isotopes, and the relative amount of each isotope present in an element.

PRACTICE EXERCISE 2.1: Complete the following table: Element A B C D E 82 27 At. no. 17 Mass no. 35 108 47 92 146 125 14 No. of p+ No. of eNo. of no

PRACTICE EXERCISE 2.2: Calculate the average mass of sulfur from the following data mass no. 32 33 34 36 isotopic mass 31.972 32.971 33.968 35.967 % abundance 95.06 0.74 4.18 0.02

PRACTICE EXERCISE 2.3: The average atomic mass of nitrogen is 14.007 u. The two isotopes have masses of 14.0031 and 15.001 u respectively. Find the % abundance of each isotope

2.6 Electronic Configuration and the Four Quantum Numbers The space around the nucleus is divided into shells or main energy levels and subshells or sublevels.

Main energy level The energy levels or shells increase in energy as the distance from the nucleus increases. The energy levels are designated either by letters starting with K ( or with numbers). The closest to the nucleus is K (or 1) followed by L (or 2), then M (or 3), etc. The maximum number of electrons in each energy level is equal to 2n2 where n is the number of the energy level. Thus, in the first energy level (n=1) the maximum number of electrons is 2 (1)2 = 2, in the second, 2(2)2 = 8, in the third, 2(3)2 = 18, and so forth

Sublevels The energy levels are further divided into sublevels designated by the letters s, p, d, f, g, ... (in alphabetical order), the number of which corresponds to the number of that energy level. For example, in energy level 1 (or K) there is only one sublevel, the 1s; in the second energy level (or L) there are two sublevels, the 2s and the 2p; in the third, there are three, the 3s, 3p, and 3d, and so forth. The sublevel can hold a maximum of 2e, the p, 6e; the d, 10e, and the f, 14e. How many are there in the g? in the h sublevel? The energy levels, sublevels and orbitals for the first three energy levels are compaired in the table that follows. Energy level Sublevel No. of orbitals in sublevel 1 S 1 2 2 Max. No. of Max. No. of

e- in sublevel e- in sublevel

S P

1 3 1 3 5

2 6 2 6 10

S P d

18

PRACTICE EXERCISE2.4: Continue the comparison with the fourth energy level.

Shapes of orbitals The orbital region in space that represents the electron cloud for particular pair of electrons has a particular shape, a spherical shape for s, dumbbell shape for p, four-lobed electron for d and complex shapes for 1 and other orbitals beyond this. These shapes are illustrated in figure 2.5

PRACTICE EXERCISE 2.6: Use the rectangular-arrow method in each of the following last sublevel configurations (LSC) 1.3d3 2.5f9 3. 6s2 4.2p3

Quantum numbers The electrons and the different sublevels can be best described by sets of four quantum numbers. 1.The principal quantum number (n) gives the number of the main energy level where the electron revolves. It can have values from on. 2.The secondary quantum number or azimuthal quantum number () measures the angular momentum of the electron. The number also indicates the number of sublevels in each energy level. The values can range from 0 to n-1. . For n = 1, = 0; for n = 2, = 0, 1; for n = 3, = 0,1,2 ... etc. Thus for the first energy level, there is only one sublevel, for the second, two, for the third, three ... etc. The value of also indicates describes sublevel, = 0 for s, = 1 for p, =2 for d, = 3 for f, = 4 for g .. etc. 3.The magnetic quantum number (m ) refers to the behavior of an electron in a magnetic field with assigned values form + to - , including 0. For the s sublevel where = 0, m = 0 and for p sublevel where = 1, then m = +1,0,-1.

4.The spin quantum number (ms) describes the spin of an electron about its own axis. The values are - for an electron spinning clockwise ( ) and +1/2 for an electron spinning counter clockwise ( ).

NOTE: Paulis exclusion prinple states that no two electrons of an atom will have the same set of quantum numbers

EXAMPLE:

1. Tell how many electrons in a given atom can have the following set of quantum numbers. a. n = 3 since it is the third line energy level there can be a maximum of 18e-, 3s2 3p6 3d10 =1 =1 there can be a maximum of 6e- since the sublevel is 3p m = -1 there can only be 2e1st e2nd ed. n = 3 =1 m = -1 n=3 =1 m = -1 ms = + ms = - n=3 =1 m=-1

b. n = 3

c. n = 3

ms= +

only one e- can have given set of four quantum number

2. Tell which sublevel is described by the given quantum numbers. a. n = 4 b. n = 4 =2 =0 ans. 4d ans. 4s

PRACTICE EXERCISE 2.7

1. Write all possible sets of quantum numbers for electrons in the second main energy level.

2. Tell how many electrons in a given atom can have the following sets of quantum numbers. Explain your answer. a. n = 4 b. n = 3 c. n = 7 d. n = 5 =3 m = -2 ms = - =2 =0 m=0

Name:________________________ Course/Year/Sec:_______________

Date Submitted: ________________

Exercise No. 2.1 Atomic Symbols and Isotopes I. Complete the table below. Symbol Atomic no. Mass no. no. of p+ no. eno. of no Representation
2

o 1

17 1 78 30 117 35

II.

Solve A. Compute the average atomic mass of an element which consists of 90.51% of an isotope with an atomic mass of 19.992 u, 0.27% of an isotope with an atomic mass of 20.994 u, and 9.22% of an isotope with an atomic mass of 21.99 u. B. Lithium has 2 isotopes 3 Li which has an atomic mass of 6.015 u and of each of the two isotopes?
6 7 3

Li which has an

atomic mass of 7.016 u. the average atomic mass of Li is 6.941 u. what is the % abundance

Name:________________________ Course/Year/Sec:_______________

Date Submitted: ________________

Exercise No. 2.2 Atoms and Atomic Structure

1. State the major contribution made by each of the following scientists on the structure of the atom .

a) Dalton

b) Bohr c) Rutherford d) Heisenberg

e) Schrodinger 2. Using the periodic table, complete the information for each of the following neutral atoms. Atomic Notation Protons Neutrons Electrons Atomic Number Mass Number 127
40 18 Ar

58 45 64 48 52

3. The element magnesium is made up of three isotopes with the following relative abundances: 78.7%
24

Mg, 101.1% 25Mg, and 11.2% 26Mg, and the isotopic masses are 24 u, 25 u, and 26 u respectively.

Find the average atomic mass of magnesium.

Name:________________________ Course/Year/Sec:_______________ Exercise No. 2.3 Electronic Configuration I.

Date Submitted: ________________

Write the electronic configuration and the distribution of electrons in the main energy level (m.e.l.) of each of the following.
38Sr

1.

a. Electronic configuration: b. Distribution of electrons in m.e.l.: 2.

84PO

a. Electronic configuration: b. Distribution of electrons in m.e.l.: 3.

27Co

a. Electronic configuration: b. Distribution of electrons in m.e.l.: II. Use rectangular- arrow method in each of the following last sublevel configuration (LSC). 1. 5p 4 2. 4d 7 3. 4f 8

III.

Complete the table. n 5 4 3 2 3s 8p sublevel

IV.

In the ground state of 56Ba how many electrons have _______1. = 0 as one of their quantum numbers? _______2. m = +2 as one of their quantum numbers? _______3. = 2 as one of their quantum numbers?

V.

Tell how many electrons in a given atom can have the following set of quantum numbers. _______1. N = 2 _______2. N = 5 _______3. N = 2 _______4. N = 3 =1 =2 m = 0 ms = +1/2 =1 . m = -1

Name:________________________ Course/Year/Sec:_______________

Date Submitted: ________________

Exercise No. 2.4 Electronic Configuration and Four Quantum Numbers

I.

For each of the following neutral atoms a. Write the electronic configuration b. The distribution of electrons in the main energy level (mel) c. The rectangular-arrow representation of the last sublevel configuration (LSC)

1. 33AS a. Electronic configuration b. Distribution of electrons in the m.e.l c. Rectangular-arrow representation of LSC 2.
74W

a. Electronic configuration b. Distribution of electrons in the m.e.l c. Rectangular-arrow representation of LSC 3.

109Mt

a. Electronic configuration b. Distribution of electrons in the m.e.l c. Rectangular-arrow representation of LSC