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What is Orienteering?
Orienteering is a competitive form of land navigation. It is for all ages and degrees
of fitness and skill. It provides the suspense and excitement of a treasure hunt. The object
of orienteering is to locate control points by using a map and compass to navigate through
the woods. The courses may be as long as 10 km.
This site aims to inform you about the sport of Orienteering you can find that
information at the left under !The "port.! #e also have information on learning how to
read maps and perform land navigation using such tools as a compass. This information is
based off $.". %rmy training and is what you need to know to be an orienteer.
.!he "port
#.Orienteering $istory
Orienteering began in "candinavia in the nineteenth century. It was primarily a
military event and was part of military training. It was not until 1&1& that the modern
version of orienteering was born in "weden as a competitive sport. 'rnst (illander its
creator can be rightfully called the father of orienteering. In the early thirties the sport
received a technical boost with the invention of a new compass more precise and faster
to use. The (jellstrom brothers )jorn and %lvan and their friend )runnar Tillander
were responsible for this new compass. They were among the best "wedish orienteers of
the thirties with several individual championships among them. Orienteering was
brought into the $" in 1&*+ by )jorn (jellstrom.
%.Orienteering O&er&iew
'ach orienteer is given a 1,-0000 topographic map with the various control points
circled. 'ach point has a flag marker and a distinctive punch that is used to mark the
scorecard. .ompetitive orienteering involves running from checkpoint to checkpoint. It is
more demanding than road running not only because of the terrain but because the
orienteer must constantly concentrate make decisions and keep track of the distance
covered. Orienteering challenges both the mind and the body/ however the competitor0s
ability to think under pressure and make wise decisions is more important than speed or
endurance.
The orienteering area should be on terrain that is heavily wooded preferably
uninhabited and difficult enough to suit different levels of competition. The area must be
accessible to competitors and its use must be coordinated with appropriate terrain and
range control offices.
a. 'The ideal map for an orienteering course is a multi1colored accurate large1scale
topographic map. % topographic map is a graphic representation of selected man made and
natural features of a part of the earth0s surface plotted to a definite scale. The distinguishing
characteristic of a topographic map is the portrayal of the shape and elevation of the terrain by
contour lines.
%.' 2or orienteering within the $nited "tates large1scale topographic 3topo4 maps are
available from the 5efense 6apping %gency 7ydrographic Topographic .enter. The scale
suitable for orienteering is 1,-0000 356%4.
(.(ourse "etup
The challenge for the course setter is to keep the course interesting but never beyond the
individual0s or group0s ability. 8eneral guidance is to select locations that are easily identifiable on the
map and terrain and accessible from several routes.
a. Those who set up the initial event should study a map for likely locations of control points
and verification of the locations. )etter yet they should coordinate with an experienced competitor in
selecting the course.
b. There are several forms of orienteering events. "ome of the most common are route line
cross1country and score orienteering.
)' Route Orienteering. This form can be used during the training phase and in
advanced orienteering. In this type of event a master or advanced competitor leads the group as they
walk a route. The beginners trace the actual route walked on the ground on their maps. They circle the
location of the different control points found along the walked route. #hen they finish the maps are
analy9ed and compared. 5uring training time is not a factor. %nother variation is when a course is laid
out on the ground with markers for the competitor to follow. There is no master map as the course is
traced for the competitor by flags or markers. The winner of the event is the competitor who has
successfully traced the route and accurately plotted the most control points on his map.
)*' Line Orienteering. %t least five control points are used during this form of
orienteering training. The competitor traces on his map a preselected route from a master map. The
object is to walk the route shown on the map circling the control points on the map as they are located
on the ground 32igure 211 4.
2igure 211. :ine orienteering.
)+' Cross-Country Orienteering.This is the most common type of orienteering
competitions. It is sometimes called free or point orienteering and is considered to be the most
competitive and intriguing of all events 32igure 21; 4. In this event all competitors must visit the
same controls in the same order. #ith the normal one1minute starting interval it becomes a contest of
route choice and physical skill. The winner is the contestant with the fastest time around the course.
2igure 21;. % cross1country orienteering map.
)a' %fter selecting the control points for the course determine the start and finish
locations. The last control should be near the finish. In describing each control0s location an
eight1digit grid coordinate and a combination of two letters identifying the point 3control
code4 should be included in each descriptive clue list that is normally given to each
competitor at least two minutes before his start time.
)b' There are usually + to 1; control markers on the course in varying degrees of
difficulty and distances apart so that there are no easy direct routes. Instead each competitor
is faced with many choices of direct but difficult routes or of indirect but easier routes. 'ach
control0s location is circled and the order in which each is to be visited is clearly marked on
the master map. The course may be a closed transverse with start and finish collocated or
the start and finish may be at different locations. The length of the course and difficulty of
control placement varies with the competitors0 degree of expertise. <egardless of the class of
event all competitors must indicate on their event cards proof of visiting the control
markers. Inked stamps coded letters or punches are usually used to do this procedure.
,
O!-
:
The same orienteering range may serve in both cross1country and
score events. 7owever a separate set of competitor maps master
maps and event cards are necessary.
)4' Score orienteering. In this event the area chosen for the competition is blanketed
with many control points 32igure 21= 4. The controls near the start>finish point 3usually identical in
this event4 have a low point value while those more distant or more difficult to locate have a high
point value. 3"ee 2igure 21+ for a sample card.4 This event re?uires the competitor to locate as
many control markers as he can within the specified time 3usually &0 minutes4. @oints are awarded for
each control visited and deducted for exceeding the specified time. The competitor with the highest
point score is the winner.
2igure 21=. % score orienteering map.
)a' .onducting a score event at the start is basically the same as the cross1country
event. The competitor is given a map and an event card. The event card lists all the controls
with their different point values. #hen released to the master map the competitor finds the
circles and numbers indicating the location of all the controls listed on his event card. 7e
copies all the red circles on his map. Then he chooses any route he wishes to take in
amassing the highest possible point score in the time available. The course is designed to
ensure that there are more control points than can possibly be visited in the allotted time.
%gain each control marker visited must be indicated on the event card.
)b' It is important for the competitor to take time initially to plot the most productive
route. % good competitor may spend up to + minutes in the master map area while plotting
the ideal route.
)c' There is no reward for returning early with time still available to find more points
so the good competitor must be able to coordinate time and distance with his ability in land
navigation in running the course.
D.Officials

The same officials can be used at the start and finish. 6ore officials or assistants can be used/ the
following material lists the minimum that can be used for a competition. They include the following,
#. #t !he "tart.
)' Course Organizer)riefs the orienteers in the assembly area issues event
cards and maps and calls orienteers forward to start individually.
)*' Recorder<ecords orienteer0s name and start time on recorder0s sheet checks
orienteer0s name and start number on his event card and issues any last1minute instructions.
)+' Timer.ontrols the master clock and releases the orienteers across the start line
at their start time 3usually at one1minute intervals4 to the master map area.
%. #t !he .inish.
)' Timer<ecords finish time of each orienteer on the orienteer0s event card and
passes card to recorder.
)*' Recorder<ecords finish time of each orienteer on the orienteer0s event card and
passes card to recorder.
)+' Course OrganizerAerifies correctness of names finish times and final
score/ posts orienteers0 positions on results board/ and accounts for all orienteers at the end of
event.
-."tart/.inish #reas

The layout of the start>finish areas for orienteering events is basically the same for all forms.
a. #ssembly #rea. This is where orienteers register and receive instructions maps
event cards and start numbers. They may also change into their orienteering clothes if facilities are
available study their maps and fill out their event cards here. "anitation facilities should be available
in this area.
b. "tart. %t the start the orienteer reports to the recorder and timer0s table to be logged in
by the recorder and released by the timer.
c. /aster /ap #rea. There are three to five master maps ;0 to -0 meters from the
start. #hen the orienteer arrives at this area he must mark his map with all the course0s control points.
7aving done this he must decide on the route that he is to follow. The good orienteer takes the time to
orient his map and carefully plot his route before rushing off. It is a good idea to locate the master map
area out of sight of the start point to preclude orienteers tracking one another.
d. -0uipment. The following is a list of e?uipment needed by the host of an orienteering
event,
6aster maps three to five mounted.
(ompetitor maps1 one each.
2ecorder3s sheets1 two.
Descripti&e clue cards1 one each.
!ime clocks1 two.
2ope1 44 to 54 feet1 with pegs for finish tunnel.
(ard tables1 one or two.
.olding chairs1 two or three.
2esults board.
(ontrol markers1 one per point.
-6tra compasses.
Whistle1 for starting.
.irst aid kit.
.olored tape or ribbon for marking route to master map and from last control point to finish.
e. (ontrol /arkers. These are orange1and1white markers designating each control
point 32igure 21* 4. Ideally they should have three vertical s?uare faces forming a triangle with the
top and bottom edges. 'ach face should be 1; inches on a side and divided diagonally into red and
white halves or cylinders 3of similar si9e4 with a large white diagonal stripe dividing the red cylinder.
2or economy or expediency 11gallon milk cartons -1gallon ice cream tubs 11gallon plastic bleach
bottles or foot1s?uare pla?ues painted in the diagonal or divided red and white colors of orienteering
may be used.
2igure
21*. .ontrol
markers.
)' 'ach marker should have a marking or identification device for the orienteer to
use to indicate his visit to the control. This marker may be the 'uropean1style punch pliers a
self1inking marker different colored crayons at each point different letter combinations
different number combinations or different stamps or coupons. The marking device must be
uni?ue simple and readily transcribable to the orienteers0 event cards.
)*' The control marker should normally be visible from at least 10 meters. It should
not be hidden.
f. 2ecorder3s "heets. % suggested format for the recorder0s sheet is de>imagested in
2igure 21- .
2igure 21-. <ecorder0s sheet.
g. -&ent (ard. The event card can be made before the event and should be as small as
possible as it is carried by the competitor. It must contain the following items, name start number
start time finish time total time place and enough blocks for marking the control points. %s
indicated earlier it may also contain a listing of descriptive clues 32igure 21+ 4.
2igure 21+. .ross1country orienteering event card.
h. 2esults %oard. This board displays the orienteer0s position in the event at the finish
32igure 21B 4. There are a variety of ways of displaying the results from blackboard to ladder1like
to a clothesline1type device where each orienteer0s name point score and times are listed.
2igure 21B.
<esults board.
i. (lue
Description
(ard. These cards
are prepared with the
master maps after the
course is set. They
contain the descriptive
clues for each control
point control code grid
coordinate references
returning time for
competitors removal
times for each location
and panic a9imuth 32igure 21C 4. The terminology on these must be identical to that listed in the
definition section. These cards and the master maps must be kept confidential until the orienteers start
the event.
2igure 21C. .lue description card.
7. "coring. The cross1country or free event is scored by the orienteer0s time alone. %ll
control points must be visited/ failure to visit one results in dis?ualification. In this event the fastest
time wins.
)' % variation that can be introduced for novices is to have a not1later1than return time at
the finish and add minutes to the orienteer0s final time for minutes late and control points not
located.
)*' The score event re?uires the amassing of as many points as possible within the time
limit. @oints are deducted for extra time spent on the course usually one point for each 10
seconds extra.
k. 8ri9es. % monetary pri9e is not awarded. % suggested pri9e for beginners is an
orienteering compass or some other practical outdoor1sports item.
..(ourse "afety
% first aid kit must be available at the start and finish. One of the officials should be trained in
first aid or have a medic at the event. Other safety measures include,
a. (ontrol 8oints. :ocate the controls where the safety of the competitor is not
jeopardi9ed by ha9ardous terrain or other circumstances.
b. "afety :ane. 7ave a location usually linear on the course where the competitor may
go if injured fatigued or lost. % good course will usually have its boundary as a safety lane. Then a
competitor can set a panic a9imuth on the compass and follow it until he reaches the boundary.
c. .inish !ime. %ll orienteering events must have a final return time. %t this time all
competitors must report to the finish line even if they have not completed the course.
d. "earch;and;2escue 8rocedures. If all competitors have not returned by the end
of the competition the officials should drive along the boundaries of the course to >imagesk up the
missing orienteers.
<.(ontrol 8oint <uidelines

#hen the control point is marked on the map as well as on the ground the description of that
point is prefaced by the definite article the/ for example the pond. #hen the control point is marked
on the ground but is not shown on the map then the description of the point is prefaced by the
indefinite article a/ for example a trail 7unction. In this case care must be taken to ensure that no
similar control exists within at least ;- meters. If it does then either the control must not be used or it
must be specified by a directional note in parentheses/ for example a depression 3northern4. Other
guidelines include,
a. @oints of the compass are denoted by capital letters/ for example " ' "'.
b. .ontrol points within 100 meters of each other or different courses are not to be on the same
features or on features of the same description or similar character.
c. 2or large 3up to B- meters across4 features or features that are not possible to see across the
position of the control marker on the control point should be given in the instructions. 2or example
the east side of the pond/ the north side of the building.
d. If a very large 3100 to ;00 meters4 feature is used the control marker should be visible
from most directions from at least ;- meters.
e. If a control point is near but not on a cons>imagesuous feature this fact and the location of
the marker should be clearly given/ for example 10 meters ' of the junction. %void this kind of
control point.
f. $se trees in control descriptions only if they are prominent and a totally different species
from those surrounding. Dever use bushes and fauna as control points.
g. Dumber control points in red on the master map.
h. 2or cross1country events join all control points by a red line indicating the course0s shape.
$./ap "ymbols
The map symbols in 2igure 21& are ty>imagesal topographic and cultural symbols that can be
selected for orienteering control points. The map cutouts have been selected from 56% maps.
.igure 21&. 6ap symbols.

2igure 21&. 6ap symbols 3continued4.

2igure 21&. 6ap symbols 3continued4.

2igure 21&. 6ap symbols 3continued4.

2igure 21&. 6ap symbols 3continued4.

2igure 21&. 6ap symbols 3continued4.

2igure 21&. 6ap symbols 3continued4.

2igure 21&. 6ap symbols 3continued4.

2igure 21&. 6ap symbols 3continued4.
=.Orienteering !echni0ues
The orienteer should try not to use the compass to orient the map. The terrain association
techni?ue is recommended instead. The orienteer should learn the following techni?ues,
a. 8acing. One of the basic skills that the orienteer should develop early is how to keep
track of distance traveled while walking and running. This is done on a 1001meter pace course.
b. !humbing. This techni?ue is very simple but the map has to be folded small to use it.
The orienteer finds his location on the map and places his thumb directly next to it. 7e moves from
point to point on the ground without moving his thumb from his initial location. To find the new
location the only thing that he has to do is look at the map and use his thumb as a point of reference
for his last location. This techni?ue prevents the orienteer from looking all over the map for his
location.
c. $andrails. This techni?ue enables the orienteer to move rapidly on the ground by using
existing linear features 3such as trails fences roads and streams4 that are plotted along his route. They
can also be used as limits or boundaries between control points 32igure 2110 4.
2igure 2110. 7andrails.
d. #ttack 8oints. These are permanent known landmarks that are easily identified on the
ground. They can be used as points of reference to find control points located in the woods. "ome
examples of attack points are stream junctions bridges and road intersections.
>.(i&ilian Orienteering

.ivilian orienteering is conducted under the guidelines of the $nited "tates Orienteering
2ederation with at least B0 clubs currently affiliated. %lthough civilian orienteering is a form of land
navigation the terms symbols and techni?ues are different from the military.
a. %n expert military map reader>land navigator is by no means ready to compete in a civilian
orienteering event. 7owever military experience in navigating on the ground and reading maps will
help individuals to become good orienteers. "everal orienteering practices and complete
familiari9ation with the map symbols and terms before participating in a real orienteering event is
recommended.
314 Map. The standard orienteering map is a very detailed 1,1-0001scale colored
topographical map. %ll orienteering maps contain only north1south lines that are magnetically drawn/
this eliminates any declination conversions. )ecause of the absence of hori9ontal lines grid
coordinates cannot be plotted and therefore are not needed.
3;4 Symbols (Legend). 5espite standard orienteering symbols the legend in
orienteering maps has a tendency to change from map to map. % simple way to overcome this problem
is to get familiar with the legend every time that a different map is used.
3=4 Scale. The scale of orienteering maps is 1,1-000. This re?uires an immediate
adjustment for the military land navigator especially while moving from point to point. It takes a
while for a person that commonly uses a 1,-0000 scale to get used to the orienteering map.
3*4 Contours. The normal contour interval in an orienteering map is - meters. This
interval combined with the scale makes the orienteering maps so meticulously detailed that a 11meter
boulder a =1meter shallow ditch or a 11meter depression will show on the map. This may initially
shock a new orienteer.
3-4 Terms and Description o Clues. The names of landforms are different
from those commonly known to the military. 2or example a valley or a draw is known as a reentrant/
an intermittent stream is known as a dry ditch. These terms with a description of clues indicating the
position and location of the control points are used instead of grid coordinates.
b. The characteristics of the map the absence of grid coordinates the description of clues and
the methods used in finding the control points are what make civilian orienteering different from
military land navigation.
*.!he "kills
./aps
Cartography is the art and science of expressing the known physical features of the earth
graphically by maps and charts. No one knows who drew, molded, laced together, or scratched out in
the dirt the first map. But a study of history reveals that the most pressing demands for accuracy and
detail in mapping have come as the result of military needs. Today, the complexities of tactical
operations and deployment of troops are such that it is essential for all soldiers to be able to read and
interpret their maps in order to move uickly and effectively on the battlefield. This chapter includes
the definition and purpose of a map and describes map security, types, categories, and scales.
5efinition
Definition
% map is a graphic representation of a portion of the earth0s surface drawn to scale as seen from
above. It uses colors symbols and labels to represent features found on the ground. The ideal
representation would be reali9ed if every feature of the area being mapped could be shown in true
shape. Obviously this is impossible and an attempt to plot each feature true to scale would result in a
product impossible to read even with the aid of a magnifying glass.
a. Therefore to be understandable features must be represented by conventional signs and
symbols. To be legible many of these must be exaggerated in si9e often far beyond the actual ground
limits of the feature represented. On a 1,;-0000 scale map the prescribed symbol for a building
covers an area about -00 feet s?uare on the ground/ a road symbol is e?uivalent to a road about -;0
feet wide on the ground/ the symbol for a single1track railroad 3the length of a cross1tie4 is e?uivalent
to a railroad cross1tie about 1000 feet on the ground.
b. The portrayal of many features re?uires similar exaggeration. Therefore the selection of
features to be shown as well as their portrayal is in accord with the guidance established by the
5efense 6apping %gency.
@urpose
8urpose
% map provides information on the existence the location of and the distance between ground
features such as populated places and routes of travel and communication. It also indicates variations
in terrain heights of natural features and the extent of vegetation cover. #ith our military forces
dispersed throughout the world it is necessary to rely on maps to provide information to our combat
elements and to resolve logistical operations far from our shores. "oldiers and materials must be
transported stored and placed into operation at the proper time and place. 6uch of this planning must
be done by using maps. Therefore any operation re?uires a supply of maps/ however the finest maps
available are worthless unless the map user knows how to read them.
.are of 6aps
(are of /aps
6aps are documents printed on paper and re?uire protection from water mud and tearing.
#henever possible a map should be carried in a waterproof case in a pocket or in some other place
where it is handy for use but still protected.
a. .are must also be taken when using a map since it may have to last a long time. If it
becomes necessary to mark a map the use of a pencil is recommended. $se light lines so they may be
erased easily without smearing and smudging or leaving marks that may cause confusion later. If the
map margins must be trimmed for any reason it is essential to note any marginal information that may
be needed later such as grid data and magnetic declination.
b. "pecial care should be taken of a map that is being used in a tactical mission especially in
small units/ the mission may depend on that map. %ll members of such units should be familiar with
the map0s location at all times.
c. %ppendix ) shows two ways of folding a map.
%ppendix )
/ap .olding !echni0ues
!ne of the first considerations in the care of maps is its proper folding.
%;. .O:D=,< /-!$OD"
2igures )11 and )1; show ways of folding maps to make them small enough to be carried
easily and still be available for use without having to unfold them entirely.
2igure
)11. Two
methods of
folding a
map.
%;*.
82O!-(!=O, /-!$OD
%fter a map has been folded it should be pasted in a folder for protection. %pply adhesive to the
back of the segments corresponding to % 2 : and E 32igure )1; 4.
2igure
)1;. 7ow to
slit and fold
a map for
special use.
%;+.
82#(!=(- (?!
It is suggested that before attempting to cut and fold a map in the manner illustrated in 2igure
)1; make a practice cut and fold with a piece of paper.
6ap .ategories
/ap (ategories
The 56%0s mission is to provide mapping charting and all geodesy support to the armed forces
and all other national security operations. 56% produces four categories of products and services,
hydrographic topographic aeronautical and missile and targeting. 6ilitary maps are categori9ed by
scale and type.
a. "cale. )ecause a map is a graphic representation of a portion of the earth0s surface drawn
to scale as seen from above it is important to know what mathematical scale has been used. Fou must
know this to determine ground distances between objects or locations on the map the si9e of the area
covered and how the scale may affect the amount of detail being shown. The mathematical scale of a
map is the ratio or fraction between the distance on a map and the corresponding distance on the
surface of the earth. "cale is reported as a representative fraction with the map distance as the
numerator and the ground distance as the denominator.
Representati!e raction (scale" #
map distance
GGGGGGGG
GG
ground distance
%s the denominator of the representative fraction gets larger and the ratio gets smaller the scale
of the map decreases. 5efense 6apping %gency maps are classified by scale into three categories.
They are small1 medium1 and large1scale maps 32igure ;11 4. The terms @small scale1@ @medium
scale1@and @large scale@may be confusing when read in conjunction with the number. 7owever if the
number is viewed as a fraction it ?uickly becomes apparent that 1,+00000 of something is smaller
than 1,B-000 of the same thing. Therefore the larger the number after 1, the smaller the scale of the
map.
2igure ;1
1. "cale
classifications.
)'
Small. Those
maps with scales
of 1,1000000
and smaller are
used for general
planning and for
strategic studies
3bottom map in
2igure ;11 4. The standard small1scale map is 1,1000000. This map covers a very large land area at
the expense of detail.
3;4 Medium. Those maps with scales larger than 1,1000000 but smaller than
1,B-000 are used for operational planning 3center map in 2igure ;11 4. They contain a moderate
amount of detail but terrain analysis is best done with the large1scale maps described below. The
standard medium1scale map is 1,;-0000. 6edium scale maps of 1,100000 are also fre?uently
encountered.
3=4 Large. Those maps with scales of 1,B-000 and larger are used for tactical
administrative and logistical planning 3top map in 2igure ;11 4. These are the maps that you as a
soldier or junior leader are most likely to encounter. The standard large1scale map is 1,-0000/
however many areas have been mapped at a scale of 1,;-000.
b. !ypes. The map of choice for land navigators is the 1,-00001scale military topographic
map. It is important however that you know how to use the many other products available from the
56% as well. #hen operating in foreign places you may discover that 56% map products have not
yet been produced to cover your particular area of operations or they may not be available to your
unit when you re?uire them. Therefore you must be prepared to use maps produced by foreign
governments that may or may not meet the standards for accuracy set by 56%. These maps often use
symbols that resemble those found on 56% maps but which have completely different meanings.
There may be other times when you must operate with the only map you can obtain. This might be a
commercially produced map run off on a copy machine at higher head?uarters. In 8renada many of
our troops used a )ritish tourist map.
)' $lanimetric Map. This is a map that presents only the hori9ontal positions for
the features represented. It is distinguished from a topographic map by the omission of relief normally
represented by contour lines. "ometimes it is called a line map.
)*' Topograp%ic Map. This is a map that portrays terrain features in a measurable
way 3usually through use of contour lines4 as well as the hori9ontal positions of the features
represented. The vertical positions or relief are normally represented by contour lines on military
topographic maps. On maps showing relief the elevations and contours are measured from a specific
vertical datum plane usually mean sea level. 2igure =11 shows a typical topographic map.
)+' $%otomap. This is a reproduction of an aerial photograph upon which grid lines
marginal data place names route numbers important elevations boundaries and approximate
scale and direction have been added.
)4' &oint Operations 'rap%ics. These maps are based on the format of
standard 1,;-0000 medium1scale military topographic maps but they contain additional information
needed in joint air1ground operations 32igure ;1; 4. %long the north and east edges of the graphic
detail is extended beyond the standard map sheet to provide overlap with adjacent sheets. These maps
are produced both in ground and air formats. 'ach version is identified in the lower margin as either
Hoint Operations 8raphic 3%ir4 or Hoint Operations 8raphic 38round4. The topographic information is
identical on both but the ground version shows elevations and contour in meters and the air version
shows them in feet. :ayer 3elevation4 tinting and relief shading are added as an aid to interpolating
relief. )oth versions emphasi9e airlanding facilities 3shown in purple4 but the air version has
additional symbols to identify aids and obstructions to air navigation.
2igure ;1;. Hoint operations graphic 3air4.
)5' $%otomosaic. This is an assembly of aerial photographs that is commonly called a
mosaic in topographic usage. 6osaics are useful when time does not permit the compilation of a more
accurate map. The accuracy of a mosaic depends on the method employed in its preparation and may
vary from simply a good pictorial effect of the ground to that of a planimetric map.
)A' Terrain Model. This is a scale model of the terrain showing features and in large1
scale models showing industrial and cultural shapes. It provides a means for visuali9ing the terrain for
planning or indoctrination purposes and for briefing on assault landings.
)B' Military City Map. This is a topographic map 3usually at 1,1;--0 scale sometimes
.=<?2- *;*
up to 1,-0004 showing the details of a city. It delineates streets and shows street names important
buildings and other elements of the urban landscape important to navigation and military operations
in urban terrain. The scale of a military city map depends on the importance and si9e of the city
density of detail and available intelligence information.
)C' Special Maps. These are maps for special purposes such as trafficability
communications and assault maps. They are usually in the form of an overprint in the scales smaller
than 1,100000 but larger than 1,1000000. % special purpose map is one that has been designed or
modified to give information not covered on a standard map. The wide range of subjects that could be
covered under the heading of special purpose maps prohibits within the scope of this manual more
than a brief mention of a few important ones. "ome of the subjects covered are,
!errain features.
Drainage characteristics.
Degetation.
(limate.
(oasts and landing beaches.
2oads and bridges.
2ailroads.
#irfields.
?rban areas.
-lectric power.
.uels.
"urface water resources.
<round water resources.
,atural construction materials.
(ross;country mo&ements.
"uitability for airfield construction.
#irborne operations.
*./arginal =nformation and "ymbols
" map could be compared to any piece of euipment, in that before it is placed into operation
the user must read the instructions. #t is important that you, as a soldier, know how to read these
instructions. The most logical place to begin is the marginal information and symbols, where useful
information telling about the map is located and explained. "ll maps are not the same, so it becomes
necessary every time a different map is used to examine the marginal information carefully.
6arginal Information on a 6ilitary 6ap
/arginal =nformation on a /ilitary /ap
2igure =11 shows a reduced version of a large1scale topographic map. The circled numbers
indicate the items of marginal information that the map user needs to know. These circled numbers
correspond to the following listed items.
a. "heet ,ame )'. The sheet name is found in bold print at the center of the top and in
the lower left area of the map margin. % map is generally named for the settlement contained within
the area covered by the sheet or for the largest natural feature located within the area at the time the
map was drawn.
b. "heet ,umber )*'. The sheet number is found in bold print in both the upper right
and lower left areas of the margin and in the center box of the adjoining sheets diagram which is
found in the lower right margin. It is used as a reference number to link specific maps to overlays
operations orders and plans. 2or maps at 1,100000 scale and larger sheet numbers are based on an
arbitrary system that makes possible the ready orientation of maps at scales of 1,100000 1,-0000
and 1,;-000.
c. "eries ,ame )+'. The map series name is found in the same bold print as the sheet
number in the upper left corner of the margin. The name given to the series is generally that of a major
political subdivision such as a state within the $nited "tates or a 'uropean nation. % map series
usually includes a group of similar maps at the same scale and on the same sheet lines or format
designed to cover a particular geographic area. It may also be a group of maps that serve a common
purpose such as the military city maps.
d. "cale 3*4. The scale is found both in the upper left margin after the series name and in
the center of the lower margin. The scale note is a representative fraction that gives the ratio of a map
distance to the corresponding distance on the earth0s surface. 2or example the scale note 1,-0000
indicates that one unit of measure on the map e?uals -0000 units of the same measure on the ground.
e. "eries ,umber )5'. The series number is found in both the upper right margin and
the lower left margin. It is a se?uence reference expressed either as a four1digit numeral 311;-4 or as a
letter followed by a three1 or four1digit numeral 36++1/ TB1104.
f. -dition ,umber )A'. The edition number is found in bold print in the upper right
area of the top margin and the lower left area of the bottom margin. 'ditions are numbered
consecutively/ therefore if you have more than one edition the highest numbered sheet is the most
recent. 6ost military maps are now published by the 56% but older editions of maps may have been
produced by the $" %rmy 6ap "ervice. "till others may have been drawn at least in part by the $"
%rmy .orps of 'ngineers the $" 8eological "urvey or other agencies affiliated or not with the
$nited "tates or allied governments. The credit line telling who produced the map is just above the
legend. The map information date is found immediately below the word !:'8'D5! in the lower left
margin of the map. This date is important when determining how accurately the map data might be
expected to match what you will encounter on the ground.
g. =nde6 to %oundaries )B'. The index to boundaries diagram appears in the lower or
right margin of all sheets. This diagram which is a miniature of the map shows the boundaries that
occur within the map area such as county lines and state boundaries.
h. #d7oining "heets Diagram )C'. 6aps at all standard scales contain a diagram
that illustrates the adjoining sheets. On maps at 1,100000 and larger scales and at 1,1000000 scale
the diagram is called the index to adjoining sheets. It consists of as many rectangles representing
adjoining sheets as are necessary to surround the rectangle that represents the sheet under
consideration. The diagram usually contains nine rectangles but the number may vary depending on
the locations of the adjoining sheets. %ll represented sheets are identified by their sheet numbers.
"heets of an adjoining series whether published or planned that are at the same scale are represented
by dashed lines. The series number of the adjoining series is indicated along the appropriate side of the
division line between the series.
i. -le&ation <uide )E'. This is normally found in the lower right margin. It is a
miniature characteri9ation of the terrain shown. The terrain is represented by bands of elevation spot
elevations and major drainage features. The elevation guide provides the map reader with a means of
rapid recognition of major landforms.
7. Declination Diagram )4'. This is located in the lower margin of large1scale maps
and indicates the angular relationships of true north grid north and magnetic north. On maps at
1,;-0000 scale this information is expressed as a note in the lower margin. In recent edition maps
there is a note indicating the conversion of a9imuths from grid to magnetic and from magnetic to grid
next to the declination diagram.
k. %ar "cales )'. These are located in the center of the lower margin. They are rulers used to
convert map distance to ground distance. 6aps have three or more bar scales each in a different unit
of measure. .are should be exercised when using the scales especially in the selection of the unit of
measure that is needed.
l. (ontour =nter&al ,ote )*'. This note is found in the center of the lower margin
normally below the bar scales. It states the vertical distance between adjacent contour lines of the map.
#hen supplementary contours are used the interval is indicated. In recent edition maps the contour
interval is given in meters instead of feet.
m. "pheroid ,ote )+'. This note is located in the center of the lower margin.
"pheriods 3ellipsoids4 have specific parameters that define the I F J axis of the earth. The spheriod is
an integral part of the datum.
n. <rid ,ote )4'. This note is located in the center of the lower margin. It gives
information pertaining to the grid system used and the interval between grid lines and it identifies the
$T6 grid 9one number.
o. 8ro7ection ,ote )5'. The projection system is the framework of the map. 2or
military maps this framework is of the conformal type/ that is small areas of the surface of the earth
retain their true shapes on the projection/ measured angles closely approximate true values/ and the
scale factor is the same in all directions from a point. The projection note is located in the center of the
lower margin. <efer to 56% for the development characteristics of the conformal1type projection
systems.
)' )etween C0K south and C*K north maps at scales larger than 1,-00000 are based on
the transverse 6ercator projection. The note reads T<%D"A'<"' 6'<.%TO< @<OH'.TIOD.
)*' )etween C0K south and C*K north maps at 1,1000000 scale and smaller are based on
standard parallels of the lambert conformal conic projection. The note reads for example
:%6)'<T .OD2O<6%: .ODI. @<OH'.TIOD" =+K *00 D %D5 =&K ;00 D.
)+' 6aps of the polar regions 3south of C0K south and north of C*K north4 at 1,1000000
and larger scales are based on the polar stereographic projection. The note reads @O:%<
"T'<'O8<%@7I. @<OH'.TIOD.
p. Dertical Datum ,ote )A'. This note is located in the center of the lower margin.
The vertical datum or vertical1control datum is defined as any level surface 3for example mean sea
level4 taken as a surface of reference from which to determine elevations. In the $nited "tates
.anada and 'urope the vertical datum refers to the mean sea level surface. 7owever in parts of %sia
and %frica the vertical1control datum may vary locally and is based on an assumed elevation that has
no connection to any sea level surface. 6ap readers should habitually check the vertical datum note on
maps particularly if the map is used for low1level aircraft navigation naval gunfire support or missile
target ac?uisition.
0. $ori9ontal Datum ,ote )B'. This note is located in the center of the lower
margin. The hori9ontal datum or hori9ontal1control datum is defined as a geodetic reference point 3of
which five ?uantities are known, latitude longitude a9imuth of a line from this point and two
constants which are the parameters of reference ellipsoid4. These are the basis for hori9ontal1control
surveys. The hori9ontal1control datum may extend over a continent or be limited to a small local area.
6aps and charts produced by 56% are produced on =; different hori9ontal1control data. 6ap readers
should habitually check the hori9ontal datum note on every map or chart especially adjacent map
sheets. This is to ensure the products are based on the same hori9ontal datum. If products are based on
different hori9ontal1control data coordinate transformations to a common datum must be performed.
$T6 coordinates from the same point computed on different data may differ as much as &00 meters.
r. (ontrol ,ote )C'. This note is located in the center of the lower margin. It indicates
the special agencies involved in the control of the technical aspects of all the information that is
disseminated on the map.
s. 8reparation ,ote )E'. This note is located in the center of the lower margin. It
indicates the agency responsible for preparing the map.
t. 8rinting ,ote )*4'. This note is also located in the center of the lower margin. It
indicates the agency responsible for printing the map and the date the map was printed. The printing
data should not be used to determine when the map information was obtained.
u. <rid 2eference %o6 )*'. This box is normally located in the center of the lower
margin. It contains instructions for composing a grid reference.
&. ?nit imprint and "ymbol )**'. The unit imprint and symbol is on the left side
of the lower margin. It identifies the agency that prepared and printed the map with its respective
symbol. This information is important to the map user in evaluating the reliability of the map.
w. :egend )*+'. The legend is located in the lower left margin. It illustrates and identifies
the topographic symbols used to depict some of the more prominent features on the map. The symbols
are not always the same on every map. %lways refer to the legend to avoid errors when reading a map.
2igure =11. Topographical map.
Topographic 6ap "ymbols
!opographic /ap "ymbols
The purpose of a map is to permit one to visuali9e an area of the earth0s surface with pertinent
features properly positioned. The map0s legend contains the symbols most commonly used in a
particular series or on that specific topographic map sheet. Therefore the legend should be referred to
each time a new map is used. 'very effort is made to design standard symbols that resemble the
features they represent. If this is not possible symbols are selected that logically imply the features
they portray. 2or example an open1pit mining operation is represented by a small black drawing of a
crossed hammer and pickax.
a. Ideally all the features within an area would appear on a map in their true proportion
position and shape. This however is not practical because many of the features would be
unimportant and others would be unrecogni9able because of their reduction in si9e.
b. The mapmaker has been forced to use symbols to represent the natural and man1made
features of the earth0s surface. These symbols resemble as closely as possible the actual features
themselves as viewed from above. They are positioned in such a manner that the center of the symbol
remains in its true location. %n exception to this would be the position of a feature adjacent to a major
road. If the width of the road has been exaggerated then the feature is moved from its true position to
preserve its relation to the road. 2ield 6anual ;11=1 gives a description of topographic features and
abbreviations authori9ed for use on our military maps.
.olors used on a 6ap
(olors used on a /ap
)y the fifteenth century most 'uropean maps were carefully colored. @rofile drawings of
mountains and hills were shown in brown rivers and lakes in blue vegetation in green roads in
yellow and special information in red. % look at the legend of a modern map confirms that the use of
colors has not changed much over the past several hundred years. To facilitate the identification of
features on a map the topographical and cultural information is usually printed in different colors.
These colors may vary from map to map. On a standard large1scale topographic map the colors used
and the features each represent are,
a. %lack. Indicates cultural 3man1made4 features such as buildings and roads surveyed spot
elevations and all labels.
b. 2ed;%rown. The colors red and brown are combined to identify cultural features all
relief features non1surveyed spot elevations and elevation such as contour lines on red1light readable
maps.
c. %lue. Identifies hydrography or water features such as lakes swamps rivers and
drainage.
d. <reen. Identifies vegetation with military significance such as woods orchards and
vineyards.
e. %rown. Identifies all relief features and elevation such as contours on older edition
maps and cultivated land on red1light readable maps.
f. 2ed. .lassifies cultural features such as populated areas main roads and boundaries on
older maps.
g. Other. Occasionally other colors may be used to show special information. These are
indicated in the marginal information as a rule.
+.<rids
This chapter covers how to determine and report positions on the ground in terms of their
locations on a map. $nowing where you are %position fixing) and being able to communicate that
knowledge is crucial to successful land navigation as well as to the effective employment of direct and
indirect fire, tactical air support, and medical evacuation. #t is essential for valid target acuisition&
accurate reporting of NBC contamination and various danger areas& and obtaining emergency
resupply. 'ew factors contribute as much to the survivability of troops and euipment and to the
successful accomplishment of a mission as always knowing where you are. The chapter includes
explanations of geographical coordinates, (niversal Transverse )ercator grids, the military grid
reference system, and the use of grid coordinates.
In a city it is ?uite simple to find a location/ the streets are named and the buildings have
numbers. The only thing needed is the address. 7owever finding locations in undeveloped areas or in
unfamiliar parts of the world can be a problem. To cope with this problem a uniform and precise
system of referencing has been developed.
8eographic .oordinates
<eographic (oordinates
One of the oldest systematic methods of location is based upon the geographic coordinate
system. )y drawing a set of east1west rings around the globe 3parallel to the e?uator4 and a set of
north1south rings crossing the e?uator at right angles and converging at the poles a network of
reference lines is formed from which any point on the earth0s surface can be located.
a. The distance of a point north or south of the e?uator is known as its latitude. The rings
around the earth parallel to the e?uator are called parallels of latitude or simply parallels. :ines of
latitude run east1west but north1south distances are measured between them.
b. % second set of rings around the globe at right angles to lines of latitude and passing through
the poles is known as meridians of longitude or simply meridians. One meridian is designated as the
prime meridian. The prime meridian of the system we use runs through 8reenwich 'ngland and is
known as the 8reenwich meridian. The distance east or west of a prime meridian to a point is known
as its longitude. :ines of longitude 3meridians4 run north1south but east1west distances are measured
between them 32igures *11 and *1; 4.
2igure *11.
@rime meridian and
e?uator.

2igure *1;.
<eference lines.
c. 8eographic
coordinates are
expressed in angular
measurement. 'ach
circle is divided into
=+0 degrees each degree into +0 minutes and each minute into +0 seconds. The degree is symboli9ed
by K the minute by L and the second by M. "tarting with 0K at the e?uator the parallels of latitude are
numbered to &0K both north and south. The extremities are the north pole at &0K north latitude and the
south pole at &0K south latitude. :atitude can have the same numerical value north or south of the
e?uator so the direction D or " must always be given. "tarting with 0K at the prime meridian
longitude is measured both east and west around the world. :ines east of the prime meridian are
numbered to 1C0K and identified as east longitude/ lines west of the prime meridian are numbered to
1C0K and identified as west longitude. The direction ' or # must always be given. The line directly
opposite the prime meridian 1C0K may be referred to as either east or west longitude. The values of
geographic coordinates being in units of angular measure will mean more if they are compared with
units of measure with which we are more familiar. %t any point on the earth the ground distance
covered by one degree of latitude is about 111 kilometers 3+& miles4/ one second is e?ual to about =0
meters 3100 feet4. The ground distance covered by one degree of longitude at the e?uator is also about
111 kilometers but decreases as one moves north or south until it becomes 9ero at the poles. 2or
example one second of longitude represents about =0 meters 3100 feet4 at the e?uator/ but at the
latitude of #ashington 5. one second of longitude is about ;* meters 3BC feet4. :atitude and
longitude are illustrated in 2igure *1= .
2igure *1=.
:atitude and
longitude.
d. 8eographic
coordinates appear on
all standard military
maps/ on some they
may be the only method
of locating and referencing a specific point. The four lines that enclose the body of the map 3neatlines4
are latitude and longitude lines. Their values are given in degrees and minutes at each of the four
corners. On a portion of the .olumbus map 32igure *1*4 the figures =;K 1-0 and C*K *-0 appear at the
lower right corner. The bottom line of this map is latitude =;K 1-000MD and the line running up the
right side is longitude C*K *-000!#. In addition to the latitude and longitude given for the four corners
there are at regularly spaced intervals along the sides of the map small tick marks extending into the
body of the map. 'ach of these tick marks is identified by its latitude or longitude value. Dear the top
of the right side of the map is a tick mark and the number ;00. The full value for this tick marks is =;K
;0000! of latitude. %t one1third and two1thirds of the distance across the map from the ;00 tick mark
will be found a cross tick mark 3grid s?uares 0=B& and &+B&4 and at the far side another ;00 tick mark.
)y connecting the tick marks and crosses with straight lines a =;K ;0000! line of latitude can be added
to the map. This procedure is also used to locate the =;K ;-000! line of latitude. 2or lines of longitude
the same procedure is followed using the tick marks along the top and bottom edges of the map.
e. %fter the parallels and meridians have been drawn the geographic interval 3angular distance
between two adjacent lines4 must be determined. 'xamination of the values given at the tick marks
gives the interval. 2or most maps of scale 1,;-000 the interval is ;0=0!. 2or the .olumbus map and
most maps of scale 1,-0000 it is -000!. The geographic coordinates of a point are found by dividing
the sides of the geographic s?uare in which the point is located into the re?uired number of e?ual
parts. If the geographic interval is -000! and the location of a point is re?uired to the nearest second
each side of the geographic s?uare must be divided into =00 e?ual parts 3-000! N =00!4 each of which
would have a value of one second. %ny scale or ruler that has =00 e?ual divisions and is as long as or
longer than the spacing between the lines may be used.
f. The following steps will determine the geographic coordinates of #ilkinson .emetery
3northwest of the town of .usseta4 on the .olumbus map.
)' 5raw the parallels and meridians on the map that encloses the area around the
cemetery.
)*' 5etermine the values of the parallels and meridians where the point falls.
:atitude =;K 1-000! and =;K ;0000!.
:ongitude C*K *-000! and C*K -0000!.
)+' 5etermine the geographic interval 3-000! N =00!4.
)4' "elect a scale that has =00 small divisions or multiples thereof 3=00 divisions one
second each/ 1-0 divisions two seconds each/ B- divisions four seconds each and so forth4.
)5' To determine the latitudeG
)a' @lace the scale with the 0 of the scale on the latitude of the lowest number value
3=;K 1-000!4 and the =00 of the scale on the highest numbered line 3=;K ;0000!4 31 2igure
*1* 4.
)b' #hile keeping the 0 and =00 on the two lines slide the scale 3; 2igure *1* 4
along the parallels until the #ilkinson .emetery symbol is along the edge of the numbered
scale.
)c' <ead the number of seconds from the scale 3= 2igure *1* 4 about ;*+.
)d' .onvert the number of seconds to minutes and seconds 3;*+! N *00+!4 and add to
the value of the lower numbered line 3=;K 1-000! O *00+! N =;K 1&00+!4 3* 2igure *1* 4.
<'"$:T",
The latitude is =;K 1&00+! but this is not enough.
The latitude =;K 1&00+! could be either north or south of the e?uator so the letter D or "
must be added to the latitude. To determine whether it is D or " look at the latitude values at the
edge of the map and find the direction in which they become larger. If they are larger going north
use D/ if they are larger going south use ".
The latitude for the cemetery is =;K 1&00+!D.
2igure *1*. 5etermining latitude.
)A' 5etermine the longitude repeat the same steps but measure between lines of longitude
and use ' and #. The geographic coordinates of #ilkinson .emetery should be about =;K
1&00+!D and C*K *B0=;!# 32igure *1- 4.
2igure *1-. 5etermining longitude.
g. To locate a point on the .olumbus map 32igure *1+ 4 when knowing the geographic
coordinates many of the same steps are followed. To locate =;K ;-0;C!D and C*K -00-+!# first find
the geographic lines within which the point falls, latitude =;K ;-000! and =;K =000!/ and longitude C*K
-0000! and C*K --000!. "ubtract the lower latitude>longitude from the higher latitude>longitude.
2igure *1+. 5etermining geographic coordinates.
)' @lace the 0 of the scale on the =;K ;-000! line and the =00 on the =;K =0000!. 6ake a
mark at the number ;C on the scale 3the difference between the lower and higher latitude4.
)*' @lace the 0 of the scale on the C*K -0L00M line and the =00 on the C*K -0L--M. 6ake a
mark at the number -+ on the scale 3the difference between the lower and higher longitude.
)+' 5raw a vertical line from the mark at -+ and a hori9ontal line from the mark at ;C/
they intersect at =; ;-P;C!D and C* -0P-+!#.
h. If you do not have a scale or ruler with =00 e?ual divisions or a map whose interval is other
than -000! use the proportional parts method. 2ollowing the steps determines the geographic
coordinates of hori9ontal control station 1*1.
)' :ocate hori9ontal control station 1*1 in grid s?uare 38:0BC*4 32igure *1B 4.
2igure *1B. $sing the proportional parts method.
)*' 2ind a cross in grid s?uare 8:0=CC and a tick mark in grid s?uare 8:11CC with ;-0.
)+' 2ind another cross in grid s?uare 8:0=B& and a tick mark in grid s?uare 8:11B& with
;00.
)4' 'nclose the control station by connecting the crosses and tick marks. The control
station is between ;00 and ;-0 32igure *1B 4.
)5' #ith a boxwood scale measure the distance from the bottom line to the top line that
encloses the area around the control station on the map 3total distance4 32igure *1B 4.
)A' 6easure the partial distance from the bottom line to the center of the control station
32igure *1B 4. These straight1line distances are in direct proportion to the minutes and seconds
of latitude and are used to set up a ratio.
<'"$:T",
The total distance is &;00 meters and the partial distance is -1;- meters 32igure *1B
4.
#ith the two distances and the five1minute interval converted to seconds 3=00!4
determine the minutes and seconds of latitude using the following formula,
-1;- x =00 N 1-=B-00
1-=B-00 Q &;00 N 1+B
1+B Q +0 N ;0*B!
%dd ;0*B! to =;K ;0000! N =;K ;00*B!
)B' 2ollow the same procedures to determine minutes and seconds of longitude 32igure *1
B 4.
<'"$:T",
The total distance is BC=0 meters and the partial distance is *000 meters 32igure *1B
4.

*000 x =00 N 1;00000

1;00000 Q BC=0 N 1-=
1-= Q +0 N ;0==!
%dd ;0==! to C*K *-0 N C*K *B0==!D
)C' The geographic coordinates of hori9ontal control station 1*1 in grid s?uare 8:0BC*
are =;K ;;0*B!D latitude and C*K *B0==!# longitude.
,
O!-
:
#hen computing formulas round off totals to the nearest whole
number in step ;. In step = convert the fraction to seconds by
multiplying the fraction by +0 and rounding off if the total is not a
whole number.
i. The maps made by some nations do not have their longitude values based on the prime
meridian that passes through 8reenwich 'ngland. Table *11 shows the prime meridians that may
be used by other nations. #hen these maps are issued to our soldiers a note usually appears in the
marginal information giving the difference between our prime meridian and the one used on the map.
%msterdam Detherlands *K -=P01!'
%thens 8reece
;=K
*;P-&!'
)atavia 35jakarta4 Indonesia
10+K
*CP;C!'
)ern "wit9erland BK ;+P;;!'
)russels )elgium *K ;;P0+!'
.openhagen 5enmark
1;K
=*P*0!'
2erro 37ierro4 .anary Islands
1BK
=&P*+!#
7elsinki 2inland
;*K
-=P1B!'
Istanbul Turkey
;CK
-CP-0!'
:isbon @ortugal
&K
0BP--!#
6adrid "pain
=K
*1P1-!#
Oslo Dorway
10K
*=P;=!'
@aris 2rance ;K ;0P1*!'
@ulkovo <ussia
=0K
1&P=&!'
<ome Italy 1;K
;BP0C!'
"tockholm "weden
1CK
0=P=0!'
Tirane %lbania
1&K
*+P*-!'
Table *11. Table of prime meridians.
6ilitary 8rids
/ilitary <rids
%n examination of the transverse 6ercator projection which is used for large1scale military
maps shows that most lines of latitude and longitude are curved lines. The ?uadrangles formed by the
intersection of these curved parallels and meridians are of different si9es and shapes complicating the
location of points and the measurement of directions. To aid these essential operations a rectangular
grid is superimposed upon the projection. This grid 3a series of straight lines intersecting at right
angles4 furnishes the map reader with a system of s?uares similar to the block system of most city
streets. The dimensions and orientation of different types of grids vary but three properties are
common to all military grid systems, one they are true rectangular grids/ two they are superimposed
on the geographic projection/ and three they permit linear and angular measurements.
a. ?ni&ersal !rans&erse /ercator <rid. The $T6 grid has been designed to
cover that part of the world between latitude C*K D and latitude C0K " and as its name implies is
imposed on the transverse 6ercator projection.
)' 'ach of the +0 9ones 3+ degrees wide4 into which the globe is divided for the grid has
its own origin at the intersection of its central meridian and the e?uator 32igure *1C 4. The grid
is identical in all +0 9ones. )ase values 3in meters4 are assigned to the central meridian and the
e?uator and the grid lines are drawn at regular intervals parallel to these two base lines. #ith
each grid line assigned a value denoting its distance from the origin the problem of locating any
point becomes progressively easier. Dormally it would seem logical to assign a value of 9ero to
the two base lines and measure outward from them. This however would re?uire either that
directionsG D " ' or #G be always given with distances or that all points south of the
e?uator or west of the central meridian have negative values.
2igure *1C. $T6 grid 9one location
)*' This inconvenience is eliminated by assigning !false values! to the base lines resulting
in positive values for all points within each 9one. 5istances are always measured <I87T and $@
3east and north as the reader faces the map4 and the assigned values are called !false easting! and
!false northing. ! 32igure *1& 4. The false eating value for each central meridian is -00000
meters and the false northing value for the e?uator is 0 meters when measuring in the northern
hemisphere and 10000000 meters when measuring in the southern hemisphere. The use of the
$T6 grid for point designation will be discussed in detail in paragraph *1* .
2igure
*1&. 2alse
eastings and
northings for
the $@"
grid.
b.
?ni&ersal
8olar
"tereographic <rid. The $@" grid is used to represent the polar regions. 32igure *110 4
2igure *110. 8rid 9one designation for $@" grid
)' (ort% $olar )rea. The origin of the $@" grid applied to the north polar area is
the north pole. The !north1south! base line is the line formed by the 01degree and 1C01degree
meridians/ the !east1west! base line is formed by the two &01degree meridians.
)*' Sout% $olar )rea. The origin of the $@" grid in the south polar area is the
south pole. The base lines are similar to those of the north polar area.
$nited "tates 6ilitary 8rid <eference "ystem
?nited "tates /ilitary <rid 2eference
"ystem
This grid reference system is designated for use with the $T6 and $@" grids. The coordinate
value of points in these grids could contain as many as 1- digits if numerals alone were used. The $"
military grid reference system reduces the length of written coordinates by substituting single letters
for several numbers. $sing the $T6 and the $@" grids it is possible for the location of a point
3identified by numbers alone4 to be in many different places on the surface of the earth. #ith the use
of the military grid reference system there is no possibility of this happening.
a. <rid Fone Designation. The world is divided into +0 grid 9ones which are large
regularly shaped geographic areas each of which is given a uni?ue identification called the grid 9one
designation.
)' *TM 'rid. The first major breakdown is the division of each 9one into areas +K
wide by CK high and +K wide by 1;K high. <emember for the transverse 6ercator projection the
earth0s surface between C0K " and C*K D is divided into +0 D1" 9ones each +K wide. These 9ones are
numbered from west to east 1 through +0 starting at the 1C0K meridian. This surface is divided into
;0 east1west rows in which 1& are CK high and 1 row at the extreme north is 1;K high. These rows are
then lettered from south to north . through I 3I and O were omitted4. %ny +K by CK 9one or +K by 1;K
9one is identified by giving the number and letter of the grid 9one and row in which it lies. These are
read <I87T and $@ so the number is always written before the letter. This combination of 9one
number and row letter constitutes the grid 9one designation. .olumbus lies in 9one 1+ and row " or in
grid 9one designation 1+" 32igure *1C 4.
)*' *$S 'rid. The remaining letters of the alphabet % ) F and J are used for the
$@" grids. 'ach polar area is divided into two 9ones separated by the 011C0K meridian. In the south
polar area the letter % is the grid 9one designation for the area west of the 011C0K meridian and ) for
the area to the east. In the north polar area F is the grid 9one designation for the western area and J
for the eastern area 32igure *110 4.
b. 441444;/eter "0uare. )etween C*K D and C0K " each +K by CK or +K by 1;K 9one
is covered by 1000001meter s?uares that are identified by the combination of two alphabetical letters.
This identification is uni?ue within the area covered by the grid 9one designation. The first letter is the
column designation/ the second letter is the row designation 32igure *111 4. The north and south
polar areas are also divided into 1000001meter s?uares by columns and rows. % detailed discussion of
the polar system can be found in Technical <eport C=-C. 1. The 1000001meter s?uare identification
letters are located in the grid reference box in the lower margin of the map.
2igure *111. 8rid 9one designation and 1000001meter s?uare identification.
c. <rid (oordinates. #e have now divided the earth0s surface into +K by CK
?uadrangles and covered these with 1000001meter s?uares. The military grid reference of a point
consists of the numbers and letters indicating in which of these areas the point lies plus the
coordinates locating the point to the desired position within the 1000001meter s?uare. The next step is
to tie in the coordinates of the point with the larger areas. To do this you must understand the
following.
314 'rid Lines. The regularly spaced lines that make the $T6 and the $@" grid on
any large1scale maps are divisions of the 1000001meter s?uare/ the lines are spaced at 100001 or
10001meter intervals 32igure *11; 4. 'ach of these lines is labeled at both ends of the map with its
false easting or false northing value showing its relation to the origin of the 9one. Two digits of the
values are printed in large type and these same two digits appear at intervals along the grid lines on
the face of the map. These are called the principal digits and represent the 10000 and 1000 digits of
the grid value. They are of major importance to the map reader because they are the numbers he will
use most often for referencing points. The smaller digits complete the $T6 grid designation.
2igure *11;. 8rid lines.
-G#/8:-: The first grid line north of the south1west corner of the .olumbus map is labeled
=-B0000m D. This means its false northing 3distance north of the e?uator4 is =-B0000 meters. The
principal digits B0 identify the line for referencing points in the northerly direction. The smaller
digits =- are part of the false coordinates and are rarely used. The last three digits 000 of the value
are omitted. Therefore the first grid line east of the south1west corner is labeled +C&000m '. The
principal digits C& identify the line for referencing points in the easterly direction 32igure *11= 4.
2igure *11=. .olumbus map southwest corner.
)*' 'rid S+uares. The north1south and east1west grid lines intersect at &0K
forming grid s?uares. Dormally the si9e of one of these grid s?uares on large1scale maps is 1000
meters 31 kilometer4.
)+' 'rid Coordinate Scales. The primary tool for plotting grid coordinates is
the grid coordinate scale. The grid coordinate scale divides the grid s?uare more accurately than can
be done by estimation and the results are more consistent. #hen used correctly it presents less chance
for making errors. 8T% -1;11; 1&C1 contains four types of coordinate scales 32igure *11* 4.
2igure *11*. .oordinate scales.
)a' The 1,;-000>1,;-0000 3lower right in figure4 can be used in two different scale maps
1,;-000 or 1,;-0000. The 1,;-000 scale subdivides the 10001meter grid block into 10 major
subdivisions each e?ual to 100 meters. 'ach 1001meter block has five graduations each e?ual to ;0
meters. @oints falling between the two graduations can be read accurately by the use of estimation.
These values are the fourth and eighth digits of the coordinates. :ikewise the 1,;-0000 scale is
subdivided in 10 major subdivisions each e?ual to 1000 meters. 'ach 10001meter block has five
graduations each e?ual to ;00 meters. @oints falling between two graduations can be read
approximately by the use of estimation.
)b' The 1,-0000 scale 3upper left in 2igure *11* 4 subdivides the 10001meter block into 10
major subdivisions each e?ual to 100 meters. 'ach 1001meter block is then divided in half. @oints
falling between the graduations must be estimated to the nearest 10 meters for the fourth and eighth
digits of the coordinates.
)c' The 1,100000 scale 3lower left in 2igure *11* 4 subdivides the 10001meter grid block
into five major subdivisions of ;00 meters each. 'ach ;001meter block is then divided in half at 1001
meter intervals.
:ocate a @oint $sing 8rid .oordinates
:ocate a 8oint ?sing <rid (oordinates
)ased on the military principle for reading maps 3<I87T and $@4 locations on the map can be
determined by grid coordinates. The number of digits represents the degree of precision to which a
point has been located and measured on a mapG the more digits the more precise the measurement.
a. Without a (oordinate "cale. 5etermine grids without a coordinate scale by
referring to the north1south grid lines numbered at the bottom margin of any map. Then read <I87T
to the north1south grid line that precedes the desired point 3this first set of two digits is the <I87T
reading4. Then by referring to the east1west grid lines numbered at either side of the map move $@ to
the east1west grid line that precedes the desired point 3these two digits are the $@ reading4. .oordinate
1*C* locate the 10001meter grid s?uare in which point I is located/ the next s?uare to the right would
be 1-C*/ the next s?uare up would be 1*C- and so forth 32igure *11- 4. :ocate the point to the
nearest 100 meters using estimation. 6entally divide the grid s?uare in tenths estimate the distance
from the grid line to the point in the same order 3<I87T and $@4. 8ive complete coordinate <I87T
then complete coordinate $@. @oint I is about two1tenths or ;00 meters to the <I87T into the grid
s?uare and about seven1tenths or B00 meters $@.
<'"$:T", The coordinates to the nearest 100 meters are 1*;C*B.
2igure *11-.
5etermining
grids without
coordinate point.
b. With
a (oordinate
"cale
):*51444'. In
order to use the
coordinate scale for
determining grid coordinates ensure that the appropriate scale is being used on the corresponding
map and that the scale is right side up. To ensure the scale is correctly aligned place it with the 9ero1
9ero point at the lower left corner of the grid s?uare. (eeping the hori9ontal line of the scale directly
on top of the east1west grid line slide it to the right until the vertical line of the scale touches the point
for which the coordinates are desired 32igure *11+ 4. #hen reading coordinates examine the two
sides of the coordinate scale to ensure that the hori9ontal line of the scale is aligned with the east1west
grid line and the vertical line of the scale is parallel with the north1south grid line. $se the scale when
precision of more than 100 meters is re?uired. To locate the point to the nearest 10 meters measure the
hundredths of a grid s?uare <I87T and $@ from the grid lines to the point. @oint I is about 1B
hundredths or 1B0 meters <I87T and C* hundredths or C*0 meters $@. The coordinates to the nearest
10 meters are 1*1BC*C*.
2igure *11+.
@lacing a
coordinate scale
on a grid.
,
O!-
:
.are should be exercised by the map reader using the coordinate
scale when the desired point is located within the 9ero19ero point and
the number 1 on the scale. %lways prefix a 9ero if the hundredths
reading is less than 10. In
2igure *11B
the desired point is reported
as 1*C1C*0B.
2igure *11B.
Jero19ero point.
c.
:541444
(oordinating
"cale. On the
1,-0000
coordinate scale
there are two sides,
vertical and
hori9ontal. These
sides are 1000
meters in length.
The point at which the sides meet is the 9ero19ero point. 'ach side is divided into 10 e?ual 1001meter
segments by a long tick mark and number. 'ach 1001meter segment is subdivided into -01meter
segments by a short tick mark 32igure *11C 4. )y using interpolation mentally divide each -01
meter segment into tenths. 2or example a point that lies after a whole number but before a short tick
mark is identified as 10 ;0 =0 or *0 meters and any point that lies after the short tick mark but before
the whole number is identified as +0 B0 C0 or &0 meters.
2igure *11C. 1,-0000 coordinating scale.
d. -6ample of Obtaining an -ight;Digit (oordinate ?sing :541444
"cale. To ensure the scale is correctly aligned place it with the 9ero19ero point at the lower left
corner of the grid s?uare. (eeping the hori9ontal line of the scale directly on top of the east1west grid
line slide the scale to the right until the vertical line of the scale touches the point for which the
coordinates are desired 32igure *11& 4. <eading right you can see that the point lies 5+4 meters to
the right into the grid s?uare which gives a right reading of BC5+. <eading up you can see that the
point lies +*4 meters up into the grid s?uare giving an up reading of 44+*.
2igure *11&. 'xample of obtaining an eight1digit coordinate using 1,-0000 scale.
e. 2ecording and 2eporting <rid (oordinates. .oordinates are written as
one continuous number without spaces parentheses dashes or decimal points/ they must always
contain an even number of digits. Therefore whoever is to use the written coordinates must know
where to make the split between the <I87T and $@ readings. It is a military re?uirement that the
1000001meter s?uare identification letters be included in any point designation. Dormally grid
coordinates are determined to the nearest 100 meters 3six digits4 for reporting locations. #ith practice
this can be done without using plotting scales. The location of targets and other point locations for fire
support are determined to the nearest 10 meters 3eight digits4.
,
O!-
:
"pecial care should be exercised when recording and reporting
coordinates. Transposing numbers or making errors could be
detrimental to military operations.
:ocate a @oint $sing the 6ilitary 8rid <eference "ystem
:ocate a 8oint ?sing the /ilitary <rid
2eference "ystem
There is only one rule to remember when reading or reporting grid coordinatesG always read to
the <I87T and then $@. The first half of the reported set of coordinate digits represents the left1to1
right 3easting4 grid label and the second half represents the label as read from the bottom to top
3northing4. The grid coordinates may represent the location to the nearest 101 1001 or 10001meter
increment.
a. <rid Fone. The number 1+ locates a point within 9one 1+ which is an area +K wide and
extends between C0K " latitude and C*K D latitude 32igure *1C4.
b. <rid Fone Designation. The number and letter combination 1+" further locates a
point within the grid 9one designation 1+" which is a ?uadrangle +K wide by CK high. There are 1& of
these ?uads in 9one 1+. Euad I which is located between B;K D and C*K D latitude is 1;K high
32igure *1C4.
c. 441444;/eter "0uare =dentification. The addition of two more letters
locates a point within the 1000001meter grid s?uare. Thus 1+"8: 32igure *1114 locates the point
within the 1000001meter s?uare 8: in the grid 9one designation 1+". 2or information on the lettering
system of 1000001meter s?uares see T6 -1;*111.
d. 41444;/eter "0uare. The breakdown of the $" %rmy military grid reference
system continues as each side of the 1000001meter s?uare is divided into 10 e?ual parts. This division
produces lines that are 10000 meters apart. Thus the coordinates 1+"8:0C would locate a point as
shown in 2igure *1;0. The 100001meter grid lines appear as index 3heavier4 grid lines on maps at
1,100000 and larger.
2igure *1
;0. The
100001
meter
grid
s?uare.
e.
1444;
/eter
"0uare
. To obtain
10001
meter
s?uares
each side
of the
100001
meter
s?uare is
divided into 10 e?ual parts. This division appears on large1scale maps as the actual grid lines/ they are
1000 meters apart. On the .olumbus map using coordinates 1+"8:01C; the easting 01 and the
northing C; gives the location of the southwest corner of grid s?uare 01C; or to the nearest 1000
meters of a point on the map 32igure *1;1 4.
2igure *1
;1. The
10001
meter
grid
s?uare.
f. 44;
/eter
=dentification. To locate to the nearest 100 meters the grid coordinate scale can be used to
divide the 10001meter grid s?uares into 10 e?ual parts 32igure *1;; 4.
2igure *1
;;. The
1001
meter
and 101
meter
grid
s?uares.
g. 4;
/eter
=dentification. The grid coordinate scale has divisions every -0 meters on the 1,-0000 scale and
every ;0 meters on the 1,;-000 scale. These can be used to estimate to the nearest 10 meters and give
the location of one point on the earth0s surface to the nearest 10 meters.
-G#/8:-:1+"8:01&*C;-= 3gas tank4 32igure *1;; 4.
h. 8recision. The precision of a point0s location is shown by the number of digits in the
coordinates/ the more digits the more precise the location 32igure *1;; insert4.
8rid <eference )ox
<rid 2eference %o6
% grid reference box 32igure *1;= 4 appears in the marginal information of each map sheet. It
contains step1by1step instructions for using the grid and the $" %rmy military grid reference system.
The grid reference box is divided into two parts.
2igure *1;=. 8rid reference box
a. The left portion identifies the grid 9one designation and the 1000001meter s?uare. If the
sheet falls in more than one 1000001meter s?uare the grid lines that separate the s?uares are shown in
the diagram and the letters identifying the 1000001meter s?uares are given.
-G#/8:-: On the .olumbus map sheet the vertical line labeled 00 is the grid line that
separates the two 1000001meter s?uares 2: and 8:. The left portion also shows a sample for the
10001meter s?uare with its respective labeled grid coordinate numbers and a sample point within the
10001meter s?uare.
b. The right portion of the grid reference box explains how to use the grid and is keyed on the
sample 10001meter s?uare of the left side. The following is an example of the military grid reference,
-G#/8:-: 1+" locates the +K by CK area 3grid 9one designation4.
Other 8rid "ystems
Other <rid "ystems
The military grid reference system is not universally used. "oldiers must be prepared to interpret and
use other grid systems depending on the area of operations or the personnel the soldiers are operating
with.
a. %ritish <rids. In a few areas of the world )ritish grids are still shown on military maps.
7owever the )ritish grid systems are being phased out. 'ventually all military mapping will be
converted to the $T6 grid.
b. World <eographic 2eference "ystem )<-O2-.'. This system is a
worldwide position reference system used primarily by the $" %ir 2orce. It may be used with any map
or chart that has latitude and longitude printed on it. Instructions for using 8'O<'2 data are printed
in blue and are found in the margin of aeronautical charts 32igure *1;* 4. This system is based upon
a division of the earth0s surface into ?uadrangles of latitude and longitude having a systematic
identification code. It is a method of expressing latitude and longitude in a form suitable for rapid
reporting and plotting. 2igure *1;* illustrates a sample grid reference box using 8'O<'2. The
8'O<'2 system uses an identification code that has three main divisions.
2igure *1
;*.
"ample
reference
using
8'O<'2.
)' ,irst Di!ision. There are ;* north1south 3longitudinal4 9ones each 1-1degree wide.
These 9ones starting at 1C0 degrees and progressing eastward are lettered % through J 3omitting I and
O4. The first letter of any 8'O<'2 coordinate identifies the north1south 9one in which the point is
located. There are 1; east1west 3latitudinal4 bands each 1-1degree wide. These bands are lettered %
through 6 3omitting I4 northward from the south pole. The second letter of any 8'O<'2 coordinate
identifies the east1west band in which the point is located. The 9ones and bands divide the earth0s
surface into ;CC ?uadrangles each identified by two letters.
)*' Second Di!ision. 'ach 1-1degree ?uadrangle is further divided into ;;- ?uadrangles
of 1 degree each 31- degrees by 1- degrees4. This division is effected by dividing a basic 1-1degree
?uadrangle into 1- north1south 9ones and 1- east1west bands. The north1south 9ones are lettered %
through E 3omitting I and O4 from west to east. The third letter of any 8'O<'2 coordinate identifies
the 1 degree north1south 9one within a 1-1degree ?uadrangle. The east1west bands are lettered %
through E 3I and O omitted4 from south to north. The fourth letter of a 8'O<'2 coordinate identifies
the 1 degree east1west band within a 1-1degree ?uadrangle. 2our letters identify any 11degree
?uadrangle in the world.
)+' T%ird Di!ision. 'ach of the 11degree ?uadrangles is divided into =+00 one1minute
?uadrangles. These one1minute ?uadrangles are formed by dividing the 11degree ?uadrangles into +0
one1minute north1south 9ones numbered 0 through -& from west to east and +0 east1west bands
numbered 0 to -& from south to north. To designate any one of the =+00 one1minute ?uadrangles
re?uires four letters and four numbers. The rule <'%5 <I87T %D5 $@ is always followed. Dumbers
1 through & are written as 01 0; and so forth. 'ach of the 11minute ?uadrangles may be further
divided into 10 smaller divisions both north1south and east1west permitting the identification of 0. 11
minute ?uadrangles. The 8'O<'2 coordinate for any 0. 11minute ?uadrangle consists of four letters
and six numbers.
4."cale and Distance
" map is a scaled graphic representation of a portion of the earth*s surface. The scale of the
map permits the user to convert distance on the map to distance on the ground or vice versa. The
ability to determine distance on a map, as well as on the earth*s surface, is an important factor in
planning and executing military missions.
<epresentative 2raction
2epresentati&e .raction
The numerical scale of a map indicates the relationship of distance measured on a map and the
corresponding distance on the ground. This scale is usually written as a fraction and is called the
representative fraction. The <2 is always written with the map distance as 1 and is independent of any
unit of measure. 3It could be yards meters inches and so forth. 4 %n <2 of 1>-0000 or 1,-0000
means that one unit of measure on the map is e?ual to -0000 units of the same measure on the
ground.
a. The ground distance between two points is determined by measuring between the same two
points on the map and then multiplying the map measurement by the denominator of the <2 or scale
32igure -11 4.
2igure
-11.
.onverting
map distance
to ground distance.
-G#/8:-:
The map scale is 1,-0000
<2 N 1>-0000
The map distance from point % to point ) is - units
- x -0000 N ;-0000 units of ground distance
b. "ince the distance on most maps is marked in meters and the <2 is expressed in this unit of
measurement in most cases a brief description of the metric system is needed. In the metric system
the standard unit of measurement is the meter.
1 meter contains 100 centimeters 3cm4.
100 meters is a regular football field plus 10 meters.
1000 meters is 1 kilometer 3km4.
10 kilometers is 10000 meters.
%ppendix . contains the conversion tables.
c. The situation may arise when a map or sketch has no <2 or scale. To be able to determine
ground distance on such a map the <2 must be determined. There are two ways to do this,
)' Comparison -it% 'round Distance.
)a' 6easure the distance between two points on the mapGmap distance 3654.
)b' 5etermine the hori9ontal distance between these same two points on the ground
Gground distance 3854.
)c' $se the <2 formula and remember that <2 must be in the general form,
R, #
.
#
MD
GG GG
/ 'D
)d' )oth the 65 and the 85 must be in the same unit of measure and the 65 must
be reduced to 1.
-G#/8:-:
MD # 0. 12 centimeters
<D H *. A kilometers
(2.34555 centimeters"
R, #
.
#
0. 12
GG GG
/ 2.34555
or
2.34555
N 654555 GG
0. 12
t%ereore
R, #
.
or .7654555
GG
65455
5
)*' Comparison 8it% )not%er Map o t%e Same )rea t%at 9as an R,.
)a' "elect two points on the map with the unknown <2. 6easure the distance 3654
between them.
3b' :ocate those same two points on the map that have the known <2. 6easure the
distance 3654 between them. $sing the <2 for this map determine 85 which is the same for
both maps.
)c' $sing the 85 and the 65 from the first map determine the <2 using the formula,
R, #
.
#
MD
GG GG
/ 'D
d. Occasionally it may be necessary to determine map distance from a known ground
distance and the <2,
MD #
'D
GGGGG
GGG
Denominat
or or R,
'round Distance # 24255 meters
R, # .7654555
M
D
#
24255 meters
GGGGGG
GG
654555
MD # 5. 500 meters : .55 (centimeters per meter"
MD # 0. 0 centimeters
e. #hen determining ground distance from a map the scale of the map affects the
accuracy. %s the scale becomes smaller the accuracy of measurement decreases because some of
the features on the map must be exaggerated so that they may be readily identified.
8raphic 3)ar4 "cales
<raphic )%ar' "cales
% graphic scale is a ruler printed on the map and is used to convert distances on the map to
actual ground distances. The graphic scale is divided into two parts. To the right of the 9ero the scale
is marked in full units of measure and is called the primary scale. To the left of the 9ero the scale is
divided into tenths and is called the extension scale. 6ost maps have three or more graphic scales
each using a different unit of measure 32igure -1; 4. #hen using the graphic scale be sure to use
the correct scale for the unit of measure desired.
2igure -1;. $sing a graphic 3bar4 scale.
a. To determine straight1line distance between two points on a map lay a straight1edged piece
of paper on the map so that the edge of the paper touches both points and extends past them. 6ake a
tick mark on the edge of the paper at each point 32igure -1= 4.
2igure -1=. Transferring map distance to paper strip.
b. To convert the map distance to ground distance move the paper down to the graphic bar
scale and align the right tick mark 3b4 with a printed number in the primary scale so that the left tick
mark 3a4 is in the extension scale 32igure -1* 4.
2igure -1*. 6easuring straight1line map distance.
c. The right tick mark 3b4 is aligned with the =0001meter mark in the primary scale thus the
distance is at least =000 meters. To determine the distance between the two points to the nearest 10
meters look at the extension scale. The extension scale is numbered with 9ero at the right and
increases to the left. #hen using the extension scale always read right to left 32igure -1* 4. 2rom
the 9ero left to the beginning of the first shaded area is 100 meters. 2rom the beginning of the shaded
s?uare to the end of the shaded s?uare is 100 to ;00 meters. 2rom the end of the first shaded s?uare to
the beginning of the second shaded s?uare is ;00 to =00 meters. <emember the distance in the
extension scale increases from right to left.
d. To determine the distance from the 9ero to tick mark 3a4 divide the distance inside the
s?uares into tenths 32igure -1* 4. %s you break down the distance between the s?uares in the
extension scale into tenths you will see that tick mark 3a4 is aligned with the &-01meter mark. %dding
the distance of =000 meters determined in the primary scale to the &-0 meters you determined by
using the extension scale we find that the total distance between points 3a4 and 3b4 is =&-0 meters.
e. To measure distance along a road stream or other curved line the straight edge of a piece of
paper is used. In order to avoid confusion concerning the point to begin measuring from and the
ending point an eight1digit coordinate should be given for both the starting and ending points. @lace a
tick mark on the paper and map at the beginning point from which the curved line is to be measured.
%lign the edge of the paper along a straight portion and make a tick mark on both map and paper when
the edge of the paper leaves the straight portion of the line being measured 32igure -1-% 4.
2igure -1-. 6easuring a curved line.
f. (eeping both tick marks together 3on paper and map4 place the point of the pencil close to
the edge of the paper on the tick mark to hold it in place and pivot the paper until another straight
portion of the curved line is aligned with the edge of the paper. .ontinue in this manner until the
measurement is completed 32igure -1-) 4.
g. #hen you have completed measuring the distance move the paper to the graphic scale to
determine the ground distance. The only tick marks you will be measuring the distance between are
tick marks 3a4 and 3b4. The tick marks in between are not used 32igure -1-. 4.
h. There may be times when the distance you measure on the edge of the paper exceeds the
graphic scale. In this case there are different techni?ues you can use to determine the distance.
)' One techni?ue is to align the right tick mark 3b4 with a printed number in the primary
scale in this case the -. Fou can see that from point 3a4 to point 3b4 is more than +000 meters
when you add the 1000 meters in the extension scale. To determine the exact distance to the
nearest 10 meters place a tick mark 3c4 on the edge of the paper at the end of the extension scale
32igure -1+% 4. Fou know that from point 3b4 to point 3c4 is +000 meters. #ith the tick mark
3c4 placed on the edge of the paper at the end of the extension scale slide the paper to the right.
<emember the distance in the extension is always read from right to left. %lign tick mark 3c4 with
9ero and then measure the distance between tick marks 3a4 and 3c4. The distance between tick
marks 3a4 and 3c4 is *;0 meters. The total ground distance between start and finish points is +*;0
meters 32igure -1+) 4.
2igure -1+. 5etermining the exact distance.
)*' %nother techni?ue that may be used to determine exact distance between two points
when the edge of the paper exceeds the bar scale is to slide the edge of the paper to the right until
tick mark 3a4 is aligned with the edge of the extension scale. 6ake a tick mark on the paper in
line with the ;0001meter mark 3c4 32igure -1B% 4. Then slide the edge of the paper to the left
until tick mark 3b4 is aligned with the 9ero. 'stimate the 1001meter increments into 101meter
increments to determine how many meters tick mark 3c4 is from the 9ero line 32igure -1B) 4.
The total distance would be =0=0 meters.
2igure -1B. <eading the extension scale.
)+' %t times you may want to know the distance from a point on the map to a point off the
map. In order to do this measure the distance from the start point to the edge of the map. The
marginal notes give the road distance from the edge of the map to some towns highways or
junctions off the map. To determine the total distance add the distance measured on the map to
the distance given in the marginal notes. )e sure the unit of measure is the same.
)4' #hen measuring distance in statute or nautical miles round it off to the nearest one1
tenth of a mile and make sure the appropriate bar scale is used.
)5' 5istance measured on a map does not take into consideration the rise and fall of the
land. %ll distances measured by using the map and graphic scales are flat distances. Therefore
the distance measured on a map will increase when actually measured on the ground. This must
be taken into consideration when navigating across country.
i. The amount of time re?uired to travel a certain distance on the ground is an important factor
in most military operations. This can be determined if a map of the area is available and a graphic
time1distance scale is constructed for use with the map as follows,
R # Rate o tra!el (speed" T # Time
D # Distance (ground
distance"
T #
D
GG
R
2or example if an infantry unit is marching at an average rate 3<4 of * kilometers per hour it
will take about = hours 3T4 to travel 1; kilometers.
.2 (D"
# 1 (T" GG
0 (R"
7. To construct a time1distance scale 32igure -1C% 4 knowing your length of march rate of
speed and map scale that is 1; kilometers at = kilometers per hour on a 1,-00001scale map use the
following process,
)' 6ark off the total distance on a line by referring to the graphic scale of the map or if
this is impracticable compute the length of the line as follows,
)a' .onvert the ground distance to centimeters, 1; kilometers x 100000 3centimeters
per kilometer4 N 1;00000 centimeters.
)b' 2ind the length of the line to represent the distance at map scaleG
M
D
#
.
#
.425
54555
# 20 centimeters
G
GGG
GG
GG
654
555
6545
55
)c' .onstruct a line ;* centimeters in length 32igure -1C% 4.
2igure -1C. .onstructing a time1distance scale.
)*' 5ivide the line by the rate of march into three parts 32igure -1C) 4 each part
representing the distance traveled in one hour and label.
)+' 5ivide the scale extension 3left portion4 into the desired number of lesser time
divisionsG
;minute di&isions I A4
5;minute di&isions I *
4;minute di&isions I A
)4' 2igure -1C. shows a -1minute interval scale. 6ake these divisions in the same
manner as for a graphic scale. The completed scale makes it possible to determine where the unit
will be at any given time. 7owever it must be remembered that this scale is for one specific rate
of march only * kilometers per hour.
Other 6ethods
Other /ethods
5etermining distance is the most common source of error encountered while moving either
mounted or dismounted. There may be circumstances where you are unable to determine distance
using your map or where you are without a map. It is therefore essential to learn methods by which
you can accurately pace measure use subtense or estimate distances on the ground.
a. 8ace (ount. %nother way to measure ground distance is the pace count. % pace is
e?ual to one natural step about =0 inches long. To accurately use the pace count method you must
know how many paces it takes you to walk 100 meters. To determine this you must walk an
accurately measured course and count the number of paces you take. % pace course can be as short as
100 meters or as long as +00 meters. The pace course regardless of length must be on similar terrain
to that you will be walking over. It does no good to walk a course on flat terrain and then try to use
that pace count on hilly terrain. To determine your pace count on a +001meter course count the paces
it takes you to walk the +00 meters then divide the total paces by +. The answer will give you the
average paces it takes you to walk 100 meters. It is important that each person who navigates while
dismounted knows his pace count.
)' There are many methods to keep track of the distance traveled when using the pace
count. "ome of these methods are, put a pebble in your pocket every time you have walked 100
meters according to your pace count/ tie knots in a string/ or put marks in a notebook. 5o not try
to remember the count/ always use one of these methods or design your own method.
)*' .ertain conditions affect your pace count in the field and you must allow for them by
making adjustments.
)a' +lopes. Four pace lengthens on a downslope and shortens on an upgrade. (eeping
this in mind if it normally takes you 1;0 paces to walk 100 meters your pace count may
increase to 1=0 or more when walking up a slope.
)b' ,inds. % head wind shortens the pace and a tail wind increases it.
)c' +urfaces. "and gravel mud snow and similar surface materials tend to shorten
the pace.
)d' -lements. 2alling snow rain or ice cause the pace to be reduced in length.
)e' Clothing. 'xcess clothing and boots with poor traction affect the pace length.
)f' .isibility.@oor visibility such as in fog rain or darkness will shorten your pace.
b. Odometer. 5istances can be measured by an odometer which is standard e?uipment
on most vehicles. <eadings are recorded at the start and end of a course and the difference is the
length of the course.
)' To convert kilometers to miles multiply the number of kilometers by 0. +;.
-G#/8:-:
A ;ilometers H A 6 4. A* H E. E* miles
)*' To convert miles to kilometers divided the number of miles by 0. +;.
-G#/8:-:
4 miles H 4 di!ided by 4. A* H A. * ;ilometers
c. "ubtense. The subtense method is a fast method of determining distance and yields
accuracy e?uivalent to that obtained by measuring distance with a premeasured piece of wire. %n
advantage is that a hori9ontal distance is obtained indirectly/ that is the distance is computed rather
than measured. This allows subtense to be used over terrain where obstacles such as streams ravines
or steep slopes may prohibit other methods of determining distance.
)' The principle used in determining distance by the subtense method is similar to that
used in estimating distance by the mil relation formula. The field artillery application of the mil
relation formula involves only estimations. It is not accurate enough for survey purposes.
7owever the subtense method uses precise values with a trigonometric solution. "ubtense is
based on a principle of visual perspectiveGthe farther away an object the smaller it appears.
)*' The following two procedures are involved in subtense measurement,
'stablishing a base of known length.
6easuring the angle of that base by use of the aiming circle.
)+' The subtense base may be any desired length. 7owever if a +01meter base a ;1meter
bar or the length of an 61+%1 or 61+%; rifle is used precomputed subtense tables are
available. The 61+ or ;1meter bar must be held hori9ontal and perpendicular to the line of sight
by a soldier facing the aiming circle. The instrument operator sights on one end of the 61+ or ;1
meter bar and measures the hori9ontal clockwise angle to the other end of the rifle or bar. 7e
does this twice and averages the angles. 7e then enters the appropriate subtense table with the
mean angle and extracts the distance. %ccurate distances can be obtained with the 61+ out to
approximately 1-0 meters with the ;1meter bar out to ;-0 meters and with the +01meter base out
to 1000 meters. If a base of another length is desired a distance can be computed by using the
following formula,
Di
stance
#
.<2 (base in meters"
GGGGGGGG
Tan (.<2" (in mils"
d. -stimation. %t times because of the tactical situation it may be necessary to estimate
range. There are two methods that may be used to estimate range or distance.
)' .55-Meter *nit-o-Measure Met%od. To use this method the soldier
must be able to visuali9e a distance of 100 meters on the ground. 2or ranges up to -00 meters he
determines the number of 1001meter increments between the two objects he wishes to measure.
)eyond -00 meters the soldier must select a point halfway to the object3s4 and determine the number
of 1001meter increments to the halfway point then double it to find the range to the object3s4 32igure
-1& 4.
2igure
-1&. $sing a
1001meter
unit1of1
measure
method.
)*'
,las%-To-
=ang
Met%od. To
use this method to determine range to an explosion or enemy fire begin to count when you see the
flash. .ount the seconds until you hear the weapon fire. This time interval may be measured with a
stopwatch or by using a steady count such as one1thousand1one one1thousand1two and so forth for a
three1second estimated count. If you must count higher than 10 seconds start over with one. 6ultiply
the number of seconds by ==0 meters to get the approximate range 32% uses =-0 meters instead4.
)+' $roiciency o Met%ods. The methods discussed above are used only to estimate
range 3Table -11 4. @roficiency in both methods re?uires constant practice. The best training
techni?ue is to re?uire the soldier to pace the range after he has estimated the distance. In this way the
soldier discovers the actual range for himself which makes a greater impression than if he is simply
told the correct range.
.actors
#ffecting 2ange
-stimation
.actors (ausing
?nderestimation of 2ange
.actors (ausing
O&erestimation of 2ange
The
clearness of
outline and
details of the
object.
#hen most of the object is
visible and offers a clear outline.
#hen only a small part of the
object can be seen or the object is
small in relation to its surroundings.
Dature of
terrain or position
of the observer.
#hen looking across a
depression that is mostly hidden from
view.
#hen looking downward from
high ground.
#hen looking down a straight
open road or along a railroad.
#hen looking over uniform
surfaces like water snow desert or
grain fields.
In bright light or when the sun is
shining from behind the observer.
#hen looking across a
depression that is totally visible.
#hen vision is confined as in
streets draws or forest trails.
#hen looking from low ground
toward high ground.
In poor light such as dawn and
dusk/ in rain snow fog/ or when the
sun is in the observerPs eyes.
:ight and
atmosphere
#hen the object is in sharp
contrast with the background or is
silhouetted because of its si9e shape
or color.
#hen seen in the clear air of
high altitudes.
#hen object blends into the
background or terrain.
Table -11. 2actors of range estimation.
5.Direction
Being in the right place at the prescribed time is necessary to successfully accomplish military
missions. /irection plays an important role in a soldier*s everyday life. #t can be expressed as right,
left, straight ahead, and so forth& but then the uestion arises, 0To the right of what10 This chapter
defines the word a2imuth and the three different norths. #t explains in detail how to determine the grid
and the magnetic a2imuths with the use of the protractor and the compass. #t explains the use of some
field3expedient methods to find directions, the declination diagram, and the conversion of a2imuths
from grid to magnetic and vice versa. #t also includes some advanced aspects of map reading, such as
intersection, resection, modified resection, and polar plots.
6ethods of 'xpressing 5irection
/ethods of -6pressing Direction
6ilitary personnel need a way of expressing direction that is accurate is adaptable to any part of
the world and has a common unit of measure. 5irections are expressed as units of angular measure.
a. Degree. The most common unit of measure is the degree 3K4 with its subdivisions of
minutes 304 and seconds 3!4.
degree H A4 minutes.
minute H A4 seconds.
b. /il. %nother unit of measure the mil 3abbreviated 4 is used mainly in artillery tank and
mortar gunnery. The mil expresses the si9e of an angle formed when a circle is divided into +*00
angles with the vertex of the angles at the center of the circle. % relationship can be established
between degrees and mils. % circle e?uals +*00 mils divided by =+0 degrees or 1B.BC mils per degree.
To convert degrees to mils multiply degrees by 1B.BC.
c. <rad. The grad is a metric unit of measure found on some foreign maps. There are *00
grads in a circle 3a &01degree right angle e?uals 100 grads4. The grad is divided into 100 centesimal
minutes 3centigrads4 and the minute into 100 centesimal seconds 3milligrads4.
)ase :ines
%ase :ines
In order to measure something there must always be a starting point or 9ero measurement. To
express direction as a unit of angular measure there must be a starting point or 9ero measure and a
point of reference These two points designate the base or reference line. There are three base linesG
true north magnetic north and grid north. The most commonly used are magnetic and grid.
a. !rue ,orth. % line from any point on the earth0s surface to the north pole. %ll lines of
longitude are true north lines. True north is usually represented by a star 32igure +11 4.
2igure +11. Three norths.
b. /agnetic ,orth. The direction to the north magnetic pole as indicated by the north1
seeking needle of a magnetic instrument. The magnetic north is usually symboli9ed by a line ending
2igure +11
with half of an arrowhead 32igure +11 4. 6agnetic readings are obtained with magnetic instruments
such as lensatic and 6; compasses.
c. <rid ,orth. The north that is established by using the vertical grid lines on the map.
8rid north may be symboli9ed by the letters 8D or the letter !y! 32igure +11 4.
%9imuths
#9imuths
%n a9imuth is defined as a hori9ontal angle measured clockwise from a north base line. This
north base line could be true north magnetic north or grid north. The a9imuth is the most common
military method to express direction. #hen using an a9imuth the point from which the a9imuth
originates is the center of an imaginary circle 32igure +1; 4. This circle is divided into =+0 degrees
or +*00 mils.
2igure +1;. Origin of a9imuth circle.
a. %ack #9imuth. % back a9imuth is the opposite direction of an a9imuth. It is
comparable to doing !about face.! To obtain a back a9imuth from an a9imuth add 1C0 degrees if the
a9imuth is 1C0 degrees or less or subtract 1C0 degrees if the a9imuth is 1C0 degrees or more 32igure
+1= 4. The back a9imuth of 1C0 degrees may be stated as 0 degrees or =+0 degrees. 2or mils if the
a9imuth is less than =;00 mils add =;00 mils if the a9imuth is more than =;00 mils subtract =;00
mils.
2igure +1=. )ack a9imuth.
W#2,=,<
When con&erting a9imuths into back a9imuths1 e6treme care should be e6ercised when
adding or subtracting the C4 degrees. # simple mathematical mistake could cause disastrous
conse0uences.
b. /agnetic #9imuth. The magnetic a9imuth is determined by using magnetic
instruments such as lensatic and 6; compasses. <efer to .hapter & paragraph * for details.
c. .ield;-6pedient /ethods. "everal field1expedient methods to determine
direction are discussed here
2igure +1;
2igure +1=
.=-:D;-G8-D=-,! D=2-(!=O, .=,D=,<

#n a survival situation, you will
be extremely fortunate if you happen
to have a map and compass. #f you
do have these two pieces of
euipment, you will most likely be
able to move toward help. #f you are
not proficient in using a map and compass, you must take the steps to gain this skill.
There are several methods by which you can determine direction by using the sun and the stars.
These methods, however, will give you only a general direction. 4ou can come up with a more nearly
true direction if you know the terrain of the territory or country.
4ou must learn all you can about the terrain of the country or territory to which you or your unit
may be sent, especially any prominent features or landmarks. This knowledge of the terrain together
with using themethods explained below will let you come up with fairly true directions to help you
navigate.
?"=,< !$- "?, #,D "$#DOW"
The earth0s relationship to the sun can help you to determine direction on earth. The sun always
rises in the east and sets in the west but not exactly due east or due west. There is also some seasonal
variation. In the northern hemisphere the sun will be due south when at its highest point in the sky or
when an object casts no appreciable shadow. In the southern hemisphere this same noonday sun will
mark due north. In the northern hemisphere shadows will move clockwise. "hadows will move
counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere. #ith practice you can use shadows to determine both
direction and time of day. The shadow methods used for direction finding are the shadow1tip and
watch methods.
"hadow;!ip /ethods
In the first shadow1tip method find a straight stick 1 meter long and a level spot free of brush
on which the stick will cast a definite shadow. This method is simple and accurate and consists of four
steps,
Step ..@lace the stick or branch into the ground at a level spot where it will cast a
distinctive shadow. 6ark the shadow0s tip with a stone twig or other means. This first shadow
mark is always west11e&erywhere on earth.
Step 2.#ait 10 to 1- minutes until the shadow tip moves a few centimeters. 6ark the
shadow tip0s new position in the same way as the first.
Step 1.5raw a straight line through the two marks to obtain an approximate east1west
line.
Step 0."tand with the first mark 3west4 to your left and the second mark to your right11
you are now facing north. This fact is true e&erywhere on earth.
%n alternate method is more accurate but re?uires more time. "et up your shadow stick and mark
the first shadow in the morning. $se a piece of string to draw a clean arc through this mark and around
the stick. %t midday the shadow will shrink and disappear. In the afternoon it will lengthen again and
at the point where it touches the arc make a second mark. 5raw a line through the two marks to get an
accurate east1west line 3see 2igure 1C11 4.
!he
Watch
/ethod
Fou
can also
determine
direction
using a
common
or analog
watch11one
that has
hands. The
direction
will be
accurate if
you are
using true
local time
without
any
changes for daylight savings time. <emember the further you are from the e?uator the more accurate
this method will be. If you only have a digital watch you can overcome this obstacle. Euickly draw a
watch on a circle of paper with the correct time on it and use it to determine your direction at that
time.
In the northern hemisphere hold the watch hori9ontal and point the hour hand at the sun. )isect
the angle between the hour hand and the 1; o0clock mark to get the north1south line 32igure 1C1; 4.
If there is any doubt as to which end of the line is north remember that the sun rises in the east sets in
the west and is due south at noon. The sun is in the east before noon and in the west after noon.
Note5 #f your watch is set on daylight savings time, use the midway point between the hour hand
and 6 o*clock to determine the north3south line.
In
the
southern
hemisphere point the watch0s 1; o0clock mark toward the sun and a midpoint halfway between 1; and
the hour hand will give you the north1south line 32igure 1C1; 4.
?"=,< !$- /OO,
)ecause the moon has no light of its own we can only see it when it reflects the sun0s light. %s it
orbits the earth on its ;C1day circuit the shape of the reflected light varies according to its position.
#e say there is a new moon or no moon when it is on the opposite side of the earth from the sun.
Then as it moves away from the earth0s shadow it begins to reflect light from its right side and waxes
to become a full moon before waning or losing shape to appear as a sliver on the left side. Fou can
use this information to identify direction.
If the moon rises before the sun has set the illuminated side will be the west. If the moon rises
after midnight the illuminated side will be the east. This obvious discovery provides us with a rough
east1west reference during the night.
?"=,< !$- "!#2"
Four location in the Dorthern or "outhern 7emisphere determines which constellation you use to
determine your north or south direction.
. !he ,orthern "ky
The main constellations to learn are the $rsa 6ajor also known as the )ig 5ipper or the @low
and .assiopeia 32igure 1C1= 4. Deither of these constellations ever sets. They are always visible on
a clear night. $se them to locate @olaris also known as the polestar or the Dorth "tar. The Dorth "tar
forms part of the :ittle 5ipper handle and can be confused with the )ig 5ipper. @revent confusion by
using both the )ig 5ipper and .assiopeia together. The )ig 5ipper and .assiopeia are always directly
opposite each. other and rotate counterclockwise around @olaris with @olaris in the center. The )ig
5ipper is a seven star constellation in the shape of a dipper. The two stars forming the outer lip of this
dipper are the !pointer stars! because they point to the Dorth "tar. 6entally draw a line from the outer
bottom star to the outer top star of the )ig 5ipper0s bucket. 'xtend this line about five times the
distance between the pointer stars. Fou will find the Dorth "tar along this line.
.assiopeia has five stars that form a shape like a !#! on its side. The Dorth "tar is straight out
from .assiopeia0s center star.
%fter locating the Dorth "tar locate the Dorth @ole or true north by drawing an imaginary line
directly to the earth.
*. !he "outhern "ky
)ecause there is no star bright enough to be easily recogni9ed near the south celestial pole a
constellation known as the "outhern .ross is used as a signpost to the "outh 32igure 1C1* 4. The
"outhern .ross or .rux has five stars. Its four brightest stars form a cross that tilts to one side. The
two stars that make up the cross0s long axis are the pointer stars. To determine south imagine a
distance five times the distance between These stars and the point where this imaginary line ends is in
the general direction of south. :ook down to the hori9on from this imaginary point and select a
landmark to steer by. In a static survival situation you can fix this location in daylight if you drive
stakes in the ground at night to point the way.
/#J=,< =/82OD="-D (O/8#""-"
Fou can construct improvised compasses using a piece of ferrous metal that can be needle
shaped or a flat double1edged ra9or blade and a piece of nonmetallic string or long hair from which to
suspend it. Fou can magneti9e or polari9e the metal by slowly stroking it in one direction on a piece of
silk or carefully through your hair using deliberate strokes. Fou can also polari9e metal by stroking it
repeatedly at one end with a magnet. %lways rub in one direction only. If you have a battery and some
electric wire you can polari9e the metal electrically. The wire should be insulated. If not insulated
wrap the metal object in a single thin strip of paper to prevent contact. The battery must be a
minimum of ; volts. 2orm a coil with the electric wire and touch its ends to the battery0s terminals.
<epeatedly insert one end of the metal object in and out of the coil. The needle will become an
electromagnet. #hen suspended from a piece of nonmetallic string or floated on a small piece of
wood in water it wil l align itself with a north1south line.
Fou can construct a more elaborate improvised compass using a sewing needle or thin metallic
object a nonmetallic container 3for example a plastic dip container4 its lid with the center cut out and
waterproofed and the silver tip from a pen. To construct this compass take an ordinary sewing needle
and break in half. One half will form your direction pointer and the other will act as the pivot point.
@ush the portion used as the pivot point through the bottom center of your container/ this portion
should be flush on the bottom and not interfere with the lid. %ttach the center of the other portion 3the
pointer4 of the needle on the pen0s silver tip using glue tree sap or melted plastic. 6agneti9e one end
of the pointer and rest it on the pivot point.
O!$-2 /-#," O. D-!-2/=,=,<
D=2-(!=O,
The old saying about using moss on a tree to indicate north is not accurate because moss grows
completely around some trees. %ctually growth is more lush on the side of the tree facing the south in
the Dorthern 7emisphere and vice versa in the "outhern 7emisphere. If there are several felled trees
around for comparison look at the stumps. 8rowth is more vigorous on the side toward the e?uator
and the tree growth rings will be more widely spaced. On the other hand the tree growth rings will be
closer together on the side toward the poles.
#ind direction may be helpful in some instances where there are prevailing directions and you
know what they are.
<ecogni9ing the differences between vegetation and moisture patterns on north1 and south1
facing slopes can aid in determining direction. In the northern hemisphere north1facing slopes receive
less sun than south1facing slopes and are therefore cooler and damper. In the summer north1facing
slopes retain patches of snow. In the winter the trees and open areas on south1facing slopes are the
first to lose their snow and ground snowpack is shallower.
8rid %9imuths
<rid #9imuths
#hen an a9imuth is plotted on a map between point % 3starting point4 and point ) 3ending
point4 the points are joined together by a straight line. % protractor is used to measure the angle
between grid north and the drawn line and this measured a9imuth is the grid a9imuth 32igure +1* 4.
2igure +1*. 6easuring an a9imuth.
W#2,=,<
When measuring a9imuths on a map1 remember that you are measuring from a starting
point to an ending point. =f a mistake is made and the reading is taken from the ending point1
the grid a9imuth will be opposite1 thus causing the user to go in the wrong direction.

@rotractors
8rotractors
There are several types of protractorsGfull circle half circle s?uare and rectangular 32igure
+1- 4. %ll of them divide the circle into units of angular measure and each has a scale around the
outer edge and an index mark. The index mark is the center of the protractor circle from which all
directions are measured.
2igure +1-. Types of protractors.
a. The military protractor 8T% -1;11; contains two scales, one in degrees 3inner scale4 and
one in mils 3outer scale4. This protractor represents the a9imuth circle. The degree scale is graduated
from 0 to =+0 degrees/ each tick mark on the degree scale represents one degree. % line from 0 to 1C0
degrees is called the base line of the protractor. #here the base line intersects the hori9ontal line
between &0 and ;B0 degrees is the index or center of the protractor 32igure +1+ 4.
.igure A;4
.igure A;5
.igure A;A
.igure A;A. /ilitary protractor.
b. #hen using the protractor the base line is always oriented parallel to a north1south grid
line. The 01 or =+01degree mark is always toward the top or north on the map and the &0K mark is to
the right.
)' To determine the grid a9imuthG
)a' 5raw a line connecting the two points 3% and )4.
)b' @lace the index of the protractor at the point where the drawn line crosses a
vertical 3north1south4 grid line.
)c' (eeping the index at this point align the 01 to 1C01degree line of the protractor on
the vertical grid line.
)d' <ead the value of the angle from the scale/ this is the grid a9imuth from point % to
point ) 32igure +1* 4.
)*' To plot an a9imuth from a known point on a map 32igure +1B 4G
)a' .onvert the a9imuth from magnetic to grid if necessary.
)b' @lace the protractor on the map with the index mark at the center of mass of the
known point and the base line parallel to a north1south grid line.
)c' 6ake a mark on the map at the desired a9imuth.
)d' <emove the protractor and draw a line connecting the known point and the mark
on the map. This is the grid direction line 3a9imuth4.
,
O!-
:
#hen measuring an a9imuth the reading is always to the nearest
degree or 10 mils. 5istance does not change an accurately measured
a9imuth.
2igure +1B. @lotting an a9imuth on the map.
c. To obtain an accurate reading with the protractor 3to the nearest degree or 10 mils4 there are
two techni?ues to check that the base line of the protractor is parallel to a north1south grid line.
314 @lace the protractor index where the a9imuth line cuts a north1south grid line aligning
the base line of the protractor directly over the intersection of the a9imuth line with the north1
south grid line. The user should be able to determine whether the initial a9imuth reading was
correct.
)*' The user should re1read the a9imuth between the a9imuth and north1south grid line to
check the initial a9imuth.
)+' Dote that the protractor is cut at both the top and bottom by the same north1south grid
line. .ount the number of degrees from the 01degree mark at the top of the protractor to this
north1south grid line and then count the number of degrees from the 1C01degree mark at the
bottom of the protractor to this same grid line. If the two counts are e?ual the protractor is
properly aligned.
.igure A;B
5eclination
Declination
5eclination is the angular difference between any two norths. If you have a map and a compass
the one of most interest to you will be between magnetic and grid north. The declination diagram
32igure +1C 4 shows the angular relationship represented by prongs among grid magnetic and true
norths. #hile the relative positions of the prongs are correct they are seldom plotted to scale. 5o not
use the diagram to measure a numerical value. This value will be written in the map margin 3in both
degrees and mils4 beside the diagram.
2igure +1C. 5eclination diagrams.
a. :ocation. % declination diagram is a part of the information in the lower margin on
most larger maps. On medium1scale maps the declination information is shown by a note in the map
margin.
b. <rid;/agnetic #ngle. The 816 angle value is the angular si9e that exists between
grid north and magnetic north. It is an arc indicated by a dashed line that connects the grid1north and
magnetic1north prongs. This value is expressed to the nearest 1>; degree with mil e?uivalents shown
to the nearest 10 mils. The 816 angle is important to the map reader>land navigator because a9imuths
translated between map and ground will be in error by the si9e of the declination angle if not adjusted
for it.
c. <rid (on&ergence. %n arc indicated by a dashed line connects the prongs for true
north and grid north. The value of the angle for the center of the sheet is given to the nearest full
minute with its e?uivalent to the nearest mil. These data are shown in the form of a grid1convergence
note.
d. (on&ersion. There is an angular difference between the grid north and the magnetic
north. "ince the location of magnetic north does not correspond exactly with the grid1north lines on
the maps a conversion from magnetic to grid or vice versa is needed.
)' 8it% (otes. "imply refer to the conversion notes that appear in conjunction with the
diagram explaining the use of the 816 angle 32igure +1C 4. One note provides instructions for
converting magnetic a9imuth to grid a9imuth/ the other for converting grid a9imuth to magnetic
a9imuth. The conversion 3add or subtract4 is governed by the direction of the magnetic1north prong
relative to that of the north1grid prong.
)*' 8it%out (otes. In some cases there are no declination conversion notes on the
margin of the map/ it is necessary to convert from one type of declination to another. % magnetic
compass gives a magnetic a9imuth/ but in order to plot this line on a gridded map the magnetic
a9imuth value must be changed to grid a9imuth. The declination diagram is used for these
conversions. % rule to remember when solving such problems is this, ,o matter where the a9imuth
.igure A;C
line points1 the angle to it is always measured clockwise from the reference direction )base line'.
With this in mind1 the problem is sol&ed by the following steps:
)a' 5raw a vertical or grid1north line 3prong4. %lways align this line with the vertical
lines on a map 32igure +1& 4.
2igure +1&. 5eclination diagram with arbitrary line.
)b' 2rom the base of the grid1north line 3prong4 draw an arbitrary line 3or any
a9imuth line4 at a roughly right angle to north regardless of the actual value of the a9imuth
in degrees 32igure +1& 4.
)c' 'xamine the declination diagram on the map and determine the direction of the
magnetic north 3right1left or east1west4 relative to that of the grid1north prong. 5raw a
magnetic prong from the apex of the grid1north line in the desired direction 32igure +1& 4.
)d' 5etermine the value of the 816 angle. 5raw an arc from the grid prong to the
magnetic prong and place the value of the 816 angle 32igure +1& 4.
)e' .omplete the diagram by drawing an arc from each reference line to the arbitrary
line. % glance at the completed diagram shows whether the given a9imuth or the desired
a9imuth is greater and thus whether the known difference between the two must be added or
subtracted.
)f' The inclusion of the true1north prong in relationship to the conversion is of little
importance.
e. #pplications. <emember there are no negative a9imuths on the a9imuth circle. "ince
0 degree is the same as =+0 degrees then ; degrees is the same as =+; degrees. This is because ;
degrees and =+; degrees are located at the same point on the a9imuth circle. The grid a9imuth can now
be converted into a magnetic a9imuth because the grid a9imuth is now larger than the 816 angle.
)' #hen working with a map having an east 816 angle,
)a' To plot a magnetic a9imuth on a map first change it to a grid a9imuth 32igure +110 4.
2igure +110. .onverting to grid a9imuth.
)b' To use a magnetic a9imuth in the field with a compass first change the grid a9imuth
plotted on a map to a magnetic a9imuth 32igure +111 4.
2igure +111. .onverting to magnetic a9imuth.
)c' .onvert a grid a9imuth to a magnetic a9imuth when the 816 angle is greater than a
.igure A;E
.=gure A;4
.igure A;
grid a9imuth 32igure +11; 4.
2igure +11;. .onverting to a magnetic a9imuth when the 816 angle is greater.
)*' #hen working with a map having a west 816 angle,
)a' To plot a magnetic a9imuth on a map first convert it to a grid a9imuth 32igure +11=
4.
2igure +11=. .onverting to a grid a9imuth on a map.
)b' To use a magnetic a9imuth in the field with a compass change the grid a9imuth plotted
on a map to a magnetic a9imuth 32igure +11* 4.
2igure +11*. .onverting to a magnetic a9imuth on a map.
)c' .onvert a magnetic a9imuth when the 816 angle is greater than the magnetic a9imuth
32igure +11- 4.
2igure +11-. .onverting to a grid a9imuth when the 816 angle is greater.
)+' The 816 angle diagram should be constructed and used each time the conversion of
a9imuth is re?uired. "uch procedure is important when working with a map for the first time. It also
may be convenient to construct a 816 angle conversion table on the margin of the map.
,
O!-
:
#hen converting a9imuths exercise extreme care when adding
and subtracting the 816 angle. % simple mistake of 1K could be
significant in the field.
intersection
=ntersection
.igure A;*
.igure A;+
.idure A;4
.igure A;5
Intersection is the location of an unknown point by successively occupying at least two
3preferably three4 known positions on the ground and then map sighting on the unknown location. It is
used to locate distant or inaccessible points or objects such as enemy targets and danger areas. There
are two methods of intersection, the map and compass method and the straightedge method 32igures
+11+ and +11B 4.
2igure +11+. Intersection using map and compass.

2igure +11B. Intersection using a straightedge.
a. #hen using the map and compass methodG
)' Orient the map using the compass.
)*' :ocate and mark your position on the map
)+' 5etermine the magnetic a9imuth to the unknown position using the compass.
)4' .onvert the magnetic a9imuth to grid a9imuth.
)5' 5raw a line on the map from your position on this grid a9imuth.
)A' 6ove to a second known point and repeat steps 1 ; = * and -.
)B' The location of the unknown position is where the lines cross on the map. 5etermine
the grid coordinates to the desired accuracy.
b. The straight edge method is used when a compass is not available. #hen using itG
)' Orient the map on a flat surface by the terrain association method.
)*' :ocate and mark your position on the map.
)+' :ay a straight edge on the map with one end at the userPs position 3%4 as a pivot point/
then rotate the straightedge until the unkown point is sighted along the edge.
)4' 5raw a line along the straight edge
)5' <epeat the above steps at position 3)4 and check for accuracy.
)A' The intersection of the lines on the map is the location of the unknown point 3.4.
5etermine the grid coordinates to the desired accuracy 32igure +11B 4.
<esection
2esection
<esection is the method of locating one0s position on a map by determining the grid a9imuth to
at least two well1defined locations that can be pinpointed on the map. 2or greater accuracy the desired
method of resection would be to use three or more well1defined locations.
.igure A;A
.igure A;B
a. #hen using the map and compass method 32igure +11C 4G
)' Orient the map using the compass.
)*' Identify two or three known distant locations on the ground and mark them on the
map.
)+' 6easure the magnetic a9imuth to one of the known positions from your location using
a compass.
)4' .onvert the magnetic a9imuth to a grid a9imuth.
)5' .onvert the grid a9imuth to a back a9imuth. $sing a protractor draw a line for the
back a9imuth on the map from the known position back toward your unknown position.
)A' <epeat = * and - for a second position and a third position if desired.
)B' The intersection of the lines is your location. 5etermine the grid coordinates to the
desired accuracy.
2igure +11C. <esection with map and compass.
a. #hen using the straightedge method 32igure +11& 4G
)' Orient the map on a flat surface by the terrain association method.
)*' :ocate at least two known distant locations or prominent features on the ground and
mark them on the map.
)+' :ay a straightedge on the map using a known position as a pivot point. <otate the
straightedge until the known position on the map is aligned with the known position on the
ground.
)4' 5raw a line along the straightedge away from the known position on the ground
toward your position.
)5' <epeat = and * using a second known position.
)A' The intersection of the lines on the map is your location. 5etermine the grid
coordinates to the desired accuracy.
2igure +11&. <esection with straightedge.
A;E. /OD=.=-D 2-"-(!=O,
6odified resection is the method of locating one0s position on the map when the person is
located on a linear feature on the ground such as a road canal or stream 32igure +1;0 4. @roceed as
.igure A;C
.igure A;E
follows,
a. Orient the map using a compass or by terrain association.
b. 2ind a distant point that can be identified on the ground and on the map.
c. 5etermine the magnetic a9imuth from your location to the distant known point.
d. .onvert the magnetic a9imuth to a grid a9imuth.
e. .onvert the grid a9imuth to a back a9imuth. $sing a protractor draw a line for the back
a9imuth on the map from the known position back toward your unknown position.
f. The location of the user is where the line crosses the linear feature. 5etermine the grid
coordinates to the desired accuracy.
2igure +1;0. 6odified resection.
@olar .oordinates
8olar (oordinates
% method of locating or plotting an unknown position from a known point by giving a direction
and a distance along that direction line is called polar coordinates. The following elements must be
present when using polar coordinates 32igure +1;1 4.
@resent known location on the map.
%9imuth 3grid or magnetic4.
5istance 3in meters4.
2igure +1;1. @olar plot.
$sing the laser range finder to determine the range enhances your accuracy in determining the
unknown position0s location.
A.O&erlays
"n overlay is a clear sheet of plastic or semi3transparent paper. #t is used to display
supplemental map and tactical information related to military operations. #t is often used as a
supplement to orders given in the field. #nformation is plotted on the overlay at the same scale as on
.igure A;*4
.igure A;*
the map, aerial photograph, or other graphic being used. ,hen the overlay is placed over the
graphic, the details plotted on the overlay are shown in their true position.
6ap Overlays
/ap O&erlays
Overlays are used to display military operations with enemy and friendly troop dispositions and
as supplements to orders sent to the field. They show detail that will aid in understanding the orders
displays of communication networks and so forth. They are also used as annexes to reports made in
the field because they can clarify matters that are difficult to explain clearly in writing.
There are three steps in the making of a map overlayGorienting the overlay material plotting
and symboli9ing the detail and adding the re?uired marginal information 32igure B11 4.
2igure B11. <egistering the overlay.
a. Orienting. Orient the overlay over the place on the map to be annotated. Then if
possible attach it to the edges of the map with tape. Trace the grid intersections nearest the two
opposite corners of the overlay using a straightedge and label each with the proper grid coordinates.
These register marks show the receiver of your overlay exactly where it fits on his map/ without them
the overlay is difficult to orient. It is imperative that absolute accuracy be maintained in plotting the
register marks as the smallest mistake will throw off the overlay.
b. 8lotting of ,ew Detail. $se pencils or markers in standard colors that make a
lasting mark without cutting the overlay to plot any detail 326 1011-114.
)' $se standard topographic or military symbols where possible. Donstandard symbols
invented by the author must be identified in a legend on the overlay. 5epending on the conditions
under which the overlay is made it may be advisable to plot the positions first on the map then
trace them onto the overlay. "ince the overlay is to be used as a supplement to orders or reports
and the recipient will have an identical map show only that detail with which the report is
directly concerned.
)*' If you have observed any topographic or cultural features that are not shown on the
map such as a new road or a destroyed bridge plot their positions as accurately as possible on
the overlay and mark with the standard topographic symbol.
)+' If difficulty in seeing through the overlay material is encountered while plotting or
tracing detail lift the overlay from time to time to check orientation of information being added
in reference to the base.
c. 2ecording /arginal =nformation. #hen all re?uired detail has been plotted or
traced on the overlay print information as close to the lower right1hand corner as detail permits
32igure B1; 4. This information includes the following data,
)' Title and Ob>ecti!e. This tells the reader why the overlay was made and may also give
.igure B;
the actual location. 2or example !<oad <econnaissance! is not as specific as !<oute 1*+ <oad
<econnaissance.!
)*' Time and Date. %ny overlay should contain the latest possible information. %n overlay
received in time is very valuable to the planning staff and may affect the entire situation/ an
overlay that has been delayed for any reason may be of little use. Therefore the exact time the
information was obtained aids the receivers in determining its reliability and usefulness.
)+' Map Reerence. The sheet name sheet number map series number and scale must be
included. If the reader does not have the map used for the overlay this provides the information
necessary to obtain it.
)4' )ut%or. The name rank and organi9ation of the author supplemented with a date and
time of preparation of the overlay tells the reader if there was a time difference between when the
information was obtained and when it was reported.
)5' Legend. If it is necessary to invent nonstandard symbols to show the re?uired
information the legend must show what these symbols mean.
)A' Security Classiication. This must correspond to the highest classification of either the
map or the information placed on the overlay. If the information and map are unclassified this
will be so stated. The locations of the classification notes are shown in 2igure B1; and the
notes will appear in both locations as shown.
)B' )dditional ?normation. %ny other information that amplifies the overlay will also be
included. 6ake it as brief as possible.
2igure B1;. 6ap overlay with marginal information.
%erial @hotograph Overlays
#erial 8hotograph O&erlays
Overlays of single aerial photographs are constructed and used in the same way as map overlays.
The steps followed are essentially the same with the following exceptions,
a. Orienting of O&erlay. The photograph normally does not have grid lines to be used
as register marks. The borders of the photograph limit the area of the overlay so the reference marks
or linear features are traced in place of grid register marks. 2inally to ensure proper location of the
overlay with respect to the photograph indicate on the overlay the position of the marginal data on the
photograph as seen through the overlay.
b. /arginal =nformation. The marginal information shown on photographs varies
somewhat from that shown on maps. Overlays of photographs 32igure B1= 4 should show the
following information,
.igure B;*
)' (ort% )rro-. This may be obtained in two waysGby comparing with a map of
the area or by orienting the photograph by inspection. In the latter case a compass or expedient
direction finder must be used to place the direction arrow on the overlay. $se the standard symbol to
represent the actual north arrow usedGgrid magnetic or true north.
)*' Title and Ob>ecti!e. This tells the reader why the photo overlay was made and
may also give the actual location.
)+' Time and Date. The exact time the information was obtained is shown on a
photo overlay just as on a map overlay
)4' $%oto Reerence. The photo number mission number date of flight and scale
appear here or the information is traced in its actual location on the photograph.
)5' Scale. The scale must be computed since it is not part of the marginal data.
)A' Map Reerence. <eference is made to the sheet name sheet number series
number and scale of a map of the area if one is available.
3B4 )ut%or. The name rank and organi9ation of the author are shown supplemented
with a date and time of preparation of the overlay.
3C4 Legend. %s with map overlays this is only necessary when nonstandard symbols
are used.
3&4 Security Classiication. This must correspond to the highest classification of
either the photograph or the information placed on the overlay. If the information and photograph are
unclassified this will be so stated. The locations of the classification notes are shown in 2igure B1=
and the notes will appear in both locations.
3104 )dditional ?normation. %ny other information that amplifies the overlay
will also be included. 6ake it as brief as possible.
2igure B1=. @hotographic overlay with marginal information.
B.#erial 8hotographs
"n aerial photograph is any photograph taken from an airborne vehicle %aircraft, drones,
balloons, satellites, and so forth). The aerial photograph has many uses in military operations&
however, for the purpose of this manual, it will be considered primarily as a map supplement or map
substitute.
.omparison with 6aps
(omparison with /aps
% topographic map may be obsolete because it was compiled many years ago. % recent aerial
photograph shows any changes that have taken place since the map was made. 2or this reason maps
.igure B;+
and aerial photographs complement each other. 6ore information can be gained by using the two
together than by using either alone.
a. #d&antages. %n aerial photograph has the following advantages over a map,
)' It provides a current pictorial view of the ground that no map can e?ual.
)*' It is more readily obtained. The photograph may be in the hands of the user within a
few hours after it is taken/ a map may take months to prepare.
)+' It may be made for places that are inaccessible to ground soldiers.
)4' It shows military features that do not appear on maps.
)5' It can provide a day1to1day comparison of selected areas permitting evaluations to be
made of enemy activity.
)A' It provides a permanent and objective record of the day1to1day changes with the area.
b. Disad&antages. The aerial photograph has the following disadvantages as compared
to a map,
)' 8round features are difficult to identify or interpret without symbols and are often
obscured by other ground detail as for example buildings in wooded areas.
)*' @osition location and scale are only approximate.
)+' 5etailed variations in the terrain features are not readily apparent without overlapping
photography and a stereoscopic viewing instrument.
)4' )ecause of a lack of contrasting colors and tone a photograph is difficult to use in
poor light.
)5' It lacks marginal data.
)A' It re?uires more training to interpret than a map.
%erial @hotography Types
Dumbering "cale R Indexing
Orienting R @oint 5esignation 8rid
Identification of 2eatures R "tereo Aision
Types of %erial @hotographs
Types of 2ilm
"cale 5etermination
Indexing
Orienting of @hotographs
@oint 5esignation 8rid
Indentification of @hotograph 2eatures
"tereovision
Types of %erial @hotographs
!ypes of #erial 8hotographs
%erial photography most commonly used by military personnel may be divided into two major
types the vertical and the obli?ue. 'ach type depends upon the attitude of the camera with respect to
the earth0s surface when the photograph is taken.
a. Dertical. % vertical photograph is taken with the camera pointed as straight down as
possible 32igures C11 and C1; 4. %llowable tolerance is usually O =K from the perpendicular
3plumb4 line to the camera axis. The result is coincident with the camera axis. % vertical photograph
has the following characteristics,
)' The lens axis is perpendicular to the surface of the earth.
)*' It covers a relatively small area.
)+' The shape of the ground area covered on a single vertical photo closely approximates a
s?uare or rectangle.
)4' )eing a view from above it gives an unfamiliar view of the ground.
)5' 5istance and directions may approach the accuracy of maps if taken over flat terrain.
)A' <elief is not readily apparent.
2igure C11. <elationship of the vertical aerial photograph with the ground.

2igure C1;. Aertical photograph.
a. :ow Obli0ue. This is a photograph taken with the camera inclined about
=0K from the vertical 32igure C1= and 2igure C1* 4. It is used to study an area before an attack
to substitute for a reconnaissance to substitute for a map or to supplement a map. % low obli?ue has
the following characteristics,
)' It covers a relatively small area.
)*' The ground area covered is a trape9oid although the photo is s?uare or
rectangular.
)+' The objects have a more familiar view comparable to viewing from the top of
a high hill or tall building.
)4' Do scale is applicable to the entire photograph and distance cannot be
measured. @arallel lines on the ground are not parallel on this photograph/ therefore
direction 3a9imuth4 cannot be measured.
)5' <elief is discernible but distorted.
)A' It does not show the hori9on.
.igure C;
.igure C;*
2igure C1=. <elationship of low obli?ue photograph to the ground.

2igure C1*. :ow obli?ue photograph.
c. $igh Obli0ue. The high obli?ue is a photograph taken with the camera inclined about
+0K from the vertical 32igures C1- and C1+ 4. It has a limited military application/ it is used
primarily in the making of aeronautical charts. 7owever it may be the only photography available. %
high obli?ue has the following characteristics,
)' It covers a very large area 3not all usable4.
)*' The ground area covered is a trape9oid but the photograph is s?uare or rectangular.
)+' The view varies from the very familiar to unfamiliar depending on the height at which
the photograph is taken.
)4' 5istances and directions are not measured on this photograph for the same reasons that
they are not measured on the low obli?ue.
)5' <elief may be ?uite discernible but distorted as in any obli?ue view. The relief is not
apparent in a high altitude high obli?ue.
)A' The hori9on is always visible.
2igure C1-. <elationship of high obli?ue photograph to the ground.

2igure C1+. 7igh obli?ue photograph.
d. !rimetrogon. This is an assemblage of three photographs taken at the same time one
vertical and two high obli?ues in a direction at right angle to the line of flight. The obli?ues taken at
an angle of +0K from the vertical sidelap the vertical photography producing composites from hori9on
to hori9on 32igure C1B 4.
.igure C;+
.igure C;4
.igure C;5
.igure C;A
.igure C;B
2igure C1B. <elationship of cameras to ground for trimetrogon photography 3three
cameras4.
e. /ultiple :ens 8hotography. These are composite photographs taken with one
camera having two or more lenses or by two or more cameras. The photographs are combinations of
two four or eight obli?ues around a vertical. The obli?ues are rectified to permit assembly as verticals
on a common plane.
f. (on&ergent 8hotography. These are done with a single twin1lens wide1angle
camera or with two single1lens wide1angle cameras coupled rigidly in the same mount so that each
camera axis converges when intentionally tilted a prescribed amount 3usually 1- or ;0K4 from the
vertical. %gain the cameras are exposed at the same time. 2or precision mapping the optical axes of
the cameras are parallel to the line of flight and for reconnaissance photography the camera axes are
at high angles to the line of flight.
g. 8anoramic. The development and increasing use of panoramic photography in aerial
reconnaissance has resulted from the need to cover in greater detail more and more areas of the world.
)' To cover the large areas involved and to resolve the desired ground detail present1day
reconnaissance systems must operate at extremely high1resolution levels. $nfortunately high1
resolution levels and wide1angular coverage are basically contradicting re?uirements.
)*' % panoramic camera is a scanning type of camera that sweeps the terrain of interest
from side to side across the direction of flight. This permits the panoramic camera to record a
much wider area of ground than either frame or strip cameras. %s in the case of the frame
cameras continuous cover is obtained by properly spaced exposures timed to give sufficient
overlap between frames. @anoramic cameras are most advantageous for applications re?uiring the
resolution of small ground detail from high altitudes.
Types of 2ilm
!ypes of .ilm
Types of film generally used in aerial photography include panchromatic infrared and color.
.amouflage detection film is also available.
a. 8anchromatic. This is the same type of film that is used in the average hand1held
small camera. It records the amount of light reflected from objects in tones of gray running from white
to black. 6ost aerial photography is taken with panchromatic film.
b. =nfrared. This is a black1and1white film that is sensitive to infrared waves. It can be
used to detect artificial camouflage materials and to take photographs at night if there is a source of
infrared radiation.
c. (olor. This film is the same as that used in the average hand1held camera. It is limited in
its use because of the time re?uired to process it and its need for clear sunny weather.
d. (amouflage Detection. This film is a special type that records natural vegetation
in a reddish color. #hen artificial camouflage materials are photographed they appear bluish or
purplish. The name of this film indicates its primary use.
"cale 5etermination
"cale Determination
)efore a photograph can be used as a map supplement or substitute it is necessary to know its
scale. On a map the scale is printed as a representative fraction that expresses the ratio of map
distance to ground distance 2or example,
R
,
N
MD
GG
'D
On a photograph the scale is also expressedas a ratio but is the ratio of the photo distance 3$D4
to ground distance. 2or example,
R
,
N
$D
GG
'D
The approximate scale or average scale 3R,4 of a vertical aerial photograph is determined by
either of two methods/ the comparison method or the focal length1flight altitude method.
a. (omparison /ethod. The scale of a vertical aerial photograph is determined by
comparing the measured distance between two points on the photograph with the measured ground
distance between the same two points.
SC
)L@ (R,
N
$%oto Distance
GGGGGGGG
'round Distance
The ground distance is determined by actual measurement on the ground or by the use of the
scale on a map of the same area. The points selected on the photograph must be identifiable on the
ground or map of the same area and should be spaced in such a manner that a line connecting them
will pass through or nearly through the center of the photograph 32igure C1C 4.
2igure C1C. "election of points for scale determination.
b. .ocal :ength;.light #ltitude /ethod. #hen the marginal information of a
photograph includes the focal length and the flight altitude the scale of the photo is determined using
the following formula 32igure C1& 4.
2igure C1&. .omputation of scale from terrain level.
#hen the ground elevation is at sea level 7 becomes 9ero and the formula is as shown in
2igure C110 .
.igure C;C
.igure C;E
Indexing
=nde6ing
#hen aerial photos are taken of an area it is convenient to have a record of the extent of
coverage of each photo. % map on which the area covered by each photo is outlined and numbered or
indexed to correspond to the photo is called an index map. There are two methods of preparing index
maps.
a. The four1corner method 32igures C111 and C11; 4 re?uires location on the map of the
exact point corresponding to each corner of the photo. If a recogni9able object such as a house or road
junction can be found exactly at one of the corners this point may be used on the map as the corner of
the photo. If recogni9able objects cannot be found at the corners then the edges of the photo should be
outlined on the map by lining up two or more identifiable objects along each edge/ the points where
the edges intersect should be the exact corners of the photo. If the photo is not a perfect vertical the
area outlined on the map will not be a perfect s?uare or rectangle. %fter the four sides are drawn on the
map the number of the photograph is written in the enclosed area for identification. This number
should be placed in the same corner as it is on the photo.
2igure C111. 2our1corner method 3selection of points4.

2igure C11;. @lotting using the four1corner method.
b. The template method is used when a large number of photos are to be indexed and the exact
area covered by each is not as important as approximate area and location. In this case a template
3cardboard pattern or guide4 is cut to fit the average area the photos cover on the index map. It is used
to outline the individual area covered by each photo. To construct a template find the average map
dimensions covered by the photos to be indexed as follows. 6ultiply the average length of the photos
by the denominator of the average scale of the photos/ multiply this by the scale of the map. 5o the
same for the width of the photos. This gives the average length and width of the area each photo
covers on the map11or the si9e to which the template should be cut 32igure C11= 4.
.igure C;
.igure C;*
.igure C;+
2igure C11=. .onstructing a template.
c. To index the map select the general area covered by the first photo and orient the photo to
the map. @lace the template over the area on the map and adjust it until it covers the area as completely
and accurately as possible. 5raw lines around the edges of the template. <emove the rectangle and
proceed to the next photo 32igure C11* 4.
2igure C11*. Indexing with a template.
d. %fter all photos have been plotted write on the map sufficient information to identify the
mission or sortie. If more than one sortie is plotted on one map or overlay use a different color for
each sortie.
e. In most cases when a unit orders aerial photography an index is included to give the basic
information. Instead of being annotated on a map of the area it appears on an overlay and is keyed to
a map.
Orienting of @hotographs
Orienting of 8hotographs
Orienting the photograph is important because it is of very little value as a map supplement or
substitute if its location and direction are not known by the user.
a. If a map of the same area as the photograph is available the photograph is oriented to the
map by comparing features common to both and then transferring a direction line from the map to the
photograph.
b. If no map is available the shadows on a photograph may be used to get an approximate
true1north line. This method is not recommended in the torrid 9one 32igure C11- 4.
2igure C11-. $sing shadows on a photograph to find north.
)' (ort% Temperate Aone. The sun moves from the east in the morning
through south at noon to west in the afternoon. .onversely shadow fall varies from west through
north to east. )efore noon therefore north is to the right of the direction of shadow fall/ at noon north
is the direction of shadow fall/ and after noon north is to the left of shadow fall. On an average the
amount of variation in shadow fall per hour is 1- degrees. 2rom marginal information determine the
number of hours from noon that the photo was taken and multiply that number by 1-K. #ith a
protractor measure an angle of that amount in the proper direction 3right to left4 from a clear distinct
shadow and north is obtained. 2or photographs taken within three hours of noon a reasonable
.igure C;4
.igure C;5
accurate north direction can be obtained. )eyond these limits the 1-K must be corrected depending on
time of year and latitude.
)*' Sout% Temperate Aone. The sun moves from east through north at noon to
west. "hadows then vary from west through south to east. )efore noon south is to the left of shadow
fall/ at noon south is shadow fall/ and after noon south is to the right of shadow fall. @roceed as in 314
above to determine the direction of south.
c. On a photograph that can be oriented to the surrounding ground features by inspection a
magnetic1north line can be established using a compass.
)' Orient the photograph by inspection.
)*' Open the compass and place it on the photograph.
)+' #ithout moving the photograph rotate the compass until the north arrow is under the
stationary black line.
)4' 5raw a line along the straight edge of the compass. This is a magnetic1north line.
@oint 5esignation 8rid
8oint Designation <rid
"ince aerial photographs are seldom exactly the same scale as a map of the same area it is not
feasible to print military grids on them. % special grid is used for the designation of points on
photographs 32igure C11+ 4. This grid known as the point designation grid has no relation to the
scale of the photo to any direction or to the grid used on any other photograph or map. It has only one
purpose to designate points on photographs.
2igure C11+. @oint designation grid.
a. The point designation grid is rarely printed on photographs/ therefore it becomes the
responsibility of each user to construct the grid on the photograph. %ll users must construct the grid in
exactly the same way. )efore the grid can be constructed or used the photograph must be held so that
the marginal information regardless of where it is located is in the normal reading position 32igure
C11B step 14.
)' 5raw lines across the photograph joining opposite reference marks at the center of
each photograph 3fiducial marks4. If there are no fiducial marks the center of each side of the
photograph is assumed to be the location of the marks 32igure C11B step ;4.
)*' "pace grid lines starting with the center line * centimeters 31.-B- inches4 apart 3a
distance e?ual to 1000 meters at a scale of 1,;-0004. The 1,;-000 map coordinate scale can be
used for this dimension and to accurately designate points on the photograph but this does not
mean that distance can be scaled from the photograph. 'xtend the grid past the margins of the
photograph so that a hori9ontal and vertical grid line fall outside the picture area 32igure C11B
.igure C;A
.igure C;B
step =4.
)+' Dumber each center line !-0! and give numerical values to the remaining hori9ontal
and vertical lines so that they increase to the right and up 32igure C11B step *4.
2igure C11B. .onstructing a point designation grid.
b. The point designation grid is used once the photograph is oriented in the same manner as
the grid on a map 32igure C11C 4 read right and up. The coordinate scale used with the $T6 grid
on maps at the scale of 1,;-000 may be used to subdivide the grid s?uare in the same manner as on a
map. 7owever because the same point designation grid is used on all photographs the coordinates of
a point on the photograph must be prefixed by the identifying marginal information of the photograph.
2igure C11C. <eading point designation grid coordinates.
c. % grid coordinate using the point designation grid 32igure C11& 4 consists of three parts,
)' The letters !@58! to indicate an aerial photograph rather than a map grid coordinate.
)*' The mission and photo negative number to identify which photograph is being used.
)+' The six numerical digits to locate the actual point on the photograph.
2igure C11&. :ocating the grid coordinate on a point designation grid.
2igure C110. )asic computation of scale from sea level.
Indentification of @hotograph 2eatures
.igure C;E
.igure C;4
.igure C;C
=ndentification of 8hotograph .eatures
The identification of features on a photograph is not difficult if the following facts are
remembered. The view that is presented by the aerial photograph is from above and as a result
objects do not look familiar. Objects that are greatly reduced in si9e appear distorted. 6ost aerial
photography is black and white and all colors appear on the photograph in shades of gray. 8enerally
speaking the darker the natural color the darker it will appear on the photograph.
a. The identification of features on aerial photographs depends upon a careful application of
five factors of recognition. Do one factor will give a positive identification/ it re?uires the use of all
five.
)' Size. The si9e of unknown objects on a photograph as determined from the scale
of the photograph or a comparison with known objects of known si9e gives a clue to their identity.
2or example in a built1up area the smaller buildings are usually dwellings and the larger buildings are
commercial or community buildings.
)*' S%ape ($attern". 6any features possess characteristic shapes that readily
identify the features. 6an1made features appear as straight or smooth curved lines while natural
features usually appear to be irregular. "ome of the most prominent man1made features are highways
railroads bridges canals and buildings. .ompare the regular shapes of these to the irregular shapes of
such natural features as streams and timber lines.
)+' S%ado-s. "hadows are very helpful in identifying features since they show the
familiar side view of the object. "ome excellent examples are the shadows of water towers or smoke
stacks. %s viewed directly from above only a round circle or dot is seen whereas the shadow shows
the profile and helps to identify the object. <elative lengths of shadows also usually give a good
indication of relative heights of objects.
)4' S%ade (Tone or Te:ture". Of the many different types of photographic film
in use today the film used for most aerial photography except for special purposes is panchromatic
film. @anchromatic film is sensitive to all the colors of the spectrum/ it registers them as shades of
gray ranging from white to black. This lighter or darker shade of features on aerial photographs is
known as the tone. The tone is also dependent on the texture of the features/ a paved highway has a
smooth texture and produces an even tone on the photograph while a recently plowed field or a marsh
has a rough choppy texture and results in a rough or grainy tone. It is also important to remember that
similar features may have different tones on different photographs depending on the reflection of
sunlight. 2or example a river or body of water appears light if it is reflecting sunlight directly toward
the camera but appears dark otherwise. Its texture may be smooth or rough depending on the surface
of the water itself. %s long as the variables are kept in mind tone and texture may be used to great
advantage.
)5' Surrounding Ob>ects. Euite often an object not easily recogni9ed by itself
may be identified by its relative position to surrounding objects. :arge buildings located beside
railroads or railroad sidings are usually factories or warehouses. Identify schools by the baseball or
football fields. It would be hard to tell the difference between a water tower next to a railroad station
and a silo next to a barn unless the surrounding objects such as the railroad tracks or cultivated fields
were considered.
b. )efore a vertical photograph can be studied or used for identification of features it must be
oriented. This orienting is different from the orienting re?uired for the construction or use of the point
designation grid. Orienting for study consists of rotating the photograph so that the shadows on the
photograph point toward yourself. Fou then face a source of light. This places the source of light an
object and its shadow in a natural relationship. 2ailure to orient a photograph properly may cause the
height or depth of an object to appear reversed. 2or example a mine or ?uarry may appear to be a hill
instead of a depression.
"tereovision
"tereo&ision
One of the limitations of the vertical aerial photograph is the lack of apparent relief. "tereoscopic
vision 3or as it is more commonly known stereovision or depth perception4 is the ability to see three1
dimensionally or to see length width and depth 3distance4 at the same time. This re?uires two views
of a single object from two slightly different positions. 6ost people have the ability to see three1
dimensionally. #henever an object is viewed it is seen twice11once with the left eye and once with the
right eye. The fusion or blending together of these two images in the brain permits the judgment of
depth or distance.
a. In taking aerial photographs it is rare for only a single picture to be taken. 8enerally the
aircraft flies over the area to be photographed taking a series of pictures each of which overlaps the
photograph preceding it and the photograph following it so that an unbroken coverage of the area is
obtained 32igure C1;0 4. The amount of overlap is usually -+ percent which means that -+ percent
of the ground detail appearing on one photo also appears on the next photograph. #hen a single flight
does not give the necessary coverage of an area additional flights must be made. These additional
flights are parallel to the first and must have an overlap between them. This overlap between flights is
known as side lap and usually is between 1- and ;0 percent 32igure C1;1 4.
2igure C1;0. @hotographic overlap.

2igure C1;1. "ide lap.
b. The re?uirement for stereovision can be satisfied by overlapping photographs if one eye
sees the object on one photograph and the other eye sees the same object on another photograph.
#hile this can be done after practice with the eyes alone it is much easier if an optical aid is used.
.igure C;*4
.igure C;*
These optical aids are known as stereoscopes. There are many types of stereoscopes but only the two
most commonly used are discussed in this manual.
)' $oc;et Stereoscope. The pocket stereoscope 32igure C1;; 4 sometimes known
as a lens stereoscope consists of two magnifying lenses mounted in a metal frame. )ecause of its
simplicity and ease of carrying it is the type used most fre?uently by military personnel.
2igure C1;;. @ocket stereoscope.
3;4 Mirror Stereoscope. The mirror stereoscope 32igure C1;= 4 is larger
heavier and more subject to damage than the pocket stereoscope. It consists of four mirrors mounted
in a metal frame.
2igure C1;=. 6irror stereoscope.
c. % method to orient a pair of aerial photographs for best three1dimensional viewing is
outlined below,
314 %rrange the selected pair of photos in such a way that the shadows on them generally
appear to fall toward the viewer. It is also desirable that the light source enters the side away from
the observer during the study of the photographs 32igure C1;* 4.
2igure C1;*. @lacement of stereoscope over stereopair.
)*' @lace the pair of photographs on a flat surface so that the detail on one photograph is
directly over the same detail on the other photograph 32igure C1;* 4.
)+' @lace the stereoscope over the photographs so that the left lens is over the left
photograph and the right lens is over the right photograph 32igure C1;* 4.
)4' "eparate the photographs along the line of flight until a piece of detail appearing in the
overlap area of the left photograph is directly under the left lens and the same piece of detail on
the right photo is directly under the right lens.
)5' #ith the photograph and stereoscope in this position a three1dimensional image
should be seen. % few minor adjustments may be necessary such as adjusting the aerial
photographs of the stereoscope to obtain the correct position for your eyes. The hills appear to
rise and the valleys sink so that there is the impression of being in an aircraft looking down at the
ground.
)A' The identification of features on photographs is much easier and more accurate with
this three1dimensional view. The same five factors of recognition 3si9e shape shadow tone and
surrounding objects4 must still be applied/ but now with the addition of relief a more natural
.igure C;**
.igure C;*+
.igure C;*4
view is seen.
C.,a&igation -0uipment and /ethods
Compasses are the primary navigation tools to use when moving in an outdoor world where
there is no other way to find directions. +oldiers should be thoroughly familiar with the compass and
its uses. 7art !ne of this manual discussed the techniues of map reading. To complement these
techniues, a mastery of field movement techniues is essential. This chapter describes the lensatic
compass and its uses, and some of the field expedient methods used to find directions when compasses
are not available.
Types of .ompasses
!ypes of (ompasses
The lensatic compass is the most common and simplest instrument for measuring direction. It is
discussed in detail below. The wrist/pocket compass is a small magnetic compass that can be
attached to a wristwatch band. It contains a north1seeking arrow and a dial in degrees. % protractor
can be used to determine a9imuths when a compass is not available. 7owever it should be noted that
when using the protractor on a map only grid a9imuths are obtained.
E;*. :-,"#!=( (O/8#""
The lensatic compass 32igure &11 4 consists of three major parts, the cover the base and the
lens.
2igure &11. :ensatic compass.
a. (o&er. The compass cover protects the floating dial. It contains the sighting wire 3front
sight4 and two luminous sighting slots or dots used for night navigation.
b. %ase. The body of the compass contains the following movable parts,
)' The floating dial is mounted on a pivot so it can rotate freely when the compass is held
level. @rinted on the dial in luminous figures are an arrow and the letters ' and #. The arrow
always points to magnetic north and the letters fall at east 3'4 &0K and west 3#4 ;B0K on the dial.
There are two scales/ the outer scale denotes mils and the inner scale 3normally in red4 denotes
degrees.
)*' 'ncasing the floating dial is a glass containing a fixed black index line.
)+' The be9el ring is a ratchet device that clicks when turned. It contains 1;0 clicks when
rotated fully/ each click is e?ual to =K. % short luminous line that is used in conjunction with the
north1seeking arrow during navigation is contained in the glass face of the be9el ring.
.igure E;
)4' The thumb loop is attached to the base of the compass.
c. :ens. The lens is used to read the dial and it contains the rear1sight slot used in
conjunction with the front for sighting on objects. The rear sight also serves as a lock and clamps the
dial when closed for its protection. The rear sight must be opened more than *-K to allow the dial to
float freely.
,
O!-
:
#hen opened the straightedge on the left side of the compass
has a coordinate scale/ the scale is 1,-0000 in newer compasses.
W#2,=,<
"ome older compasses will ha&e a :*51444 scale. !his scale can be used with a :541444;
scale map1 but the &alues read must be hal&ed. (heck the scale.
.ompass 7andling
(ompass $andling
.ompasses are delicate instruments and should be cared for accordingly.
a. =nspection. % detailed inspection is re?uired when first obtaining and using a compass.
One of the most important parts to check is the floating dial which contains the magnetic needle. The
user must also make sure the sighting wire is straight the glass and crystal parts are not broken the
numbers on the dial are readable and most important that the dial does not stick.
b. -ffects of /etal and -lectricity. 6etal objects and electrical sources can affect
the performance of a compass. 7owever nonmagnetic metals and alloys do not affect compass
readings. The following separation distances are suggested to ensure proper functioning of a compass,
7igh1tension power
lines .................................................
--
meters.
2ield gun truck or
tank ..................................................
1C
meters.
Telegraph or telephone wires and barbed
wire ................
10
meters.
6achine
gun ...................................................................
;
meters.
"teel helmet or
rifle ..........................................................
1>;
meter.
c. #ccuracy. % compass in good working condition is very accurate. 7owever a compass
has to be checked periodically on a known line of direction such as a surveyed a9imuth using a
declination station. .ompasses with more than =K O variation should not be used.
d. 8rotection. If traveling with the compass unfolded make sure the rear sight is fully
folded down onto the be9el ring. This will lock the floating dial and prevent vibration as well as
protect the crystal and rear sight from damage.
$sing a .ompass
?sing a (ompass
6agnetic a9imuths are determined with the use of magnetic instruments such as lensatic and
6; compasses. The techni?ues employed when using the lensatic compass are as follows,
a. ?sing the (enterhold !echni0ue. 2irst open the compass to its fullest so that
the cover forms a straightedge with the base. 6ove the lens 3rear sight4 to the rearmost position
allowing the dial to float freely. Dext place your thumb through the thumb loop form a steady base
with your third and fourth fingers and extend your index finger along the side of the compass. @lace
the thumb of the other hand between the lens 3rear sight4 and the be9el ring/ extend the index finger
along the remaining side of the compass and the remaining fingers around the fingers of the other
hand. @ull your elbows firmly into your sides/ this will place the compass between your chin and your
belt. To measure an a9imuth simply turn your entire body toward the object pointing the compass
cover directly at the object. Once you are pointing at the object look down and read the a9imuth from
beneath the fixed black index line 32igure &1; 4. This preferred method offers the following
advantages over the sighting techni?ue,
)' It is faster and easier to use.
)*' It can be used under all conditions of visibility.
)+' It can be used when navigating over any type of terrain.
)4' It can be used without putting down the rifle/ however the rifle must be slung well
back over either shoulder.
)5' It can be used without removing eyeglasses.
2igure &1;. .enterhold techni?ue.
b. ?sing the (ompass;to;(heek !echni0ue. 2old the cover of the compass
containing the sighting wire to a vertical position/ then fold the rear sight slightly forward. :ook
through the rear1sight slot and align the front1sight hairline with the desired object in the distance.
Then glance down at the dial through the eye lens to read the a9imuth 32igure &1= 4.
,
O!-
:
The compass1to1cheek techni?ue is used almost exclusively for
sighting and it is the best techni?ue for this purpose.
2igure &1=. .ompass1to1cheek techni?ue.
c. 8resetting a (ompass and .ollowing an #9imuth. %lthough different
models of the lensatic compass vary somewhat in the details of their use the principles are the same.
2igure &1;
.igure E;+
)' 5uring daylight hours or with a light source,
)a' 7old the compass level in the palm of the hand.
)b' <otate it until the desired a9imuth falls under the fixed black index line 3for
example =;0K4 maintaining the a9imuth as prescribed 32igure &1* 4.
2igure &1*. .ompass preset at =;0 degrees.
)c' Turn the be9el ring until the luminous line is aligned with the north1seeking arrow.
Once the alignment is obtained the compass is preset.
)d' To follow an a9imuth assume the centerhold techni?ue and turn your body until
the north1seeking arrow is aligned with the luminous line. Then proceed forward in the
direction of the front cover0s sighting wire which is aligned with the fixed black index line
that contains the desired a9imuth.
)*' 5uring limited visibility an a9imuth may be set on the compass by the click method.
<emember that the be9el ring contains =K intervals 3clicks4.
)a' <otate the be9el ring until the luminous line is over the fixed black index line.
)b' 2ind the desired a9imuth and divide it by three. The result is the number of clicks
that you have to rotate the be9el ring.
)c' .ount the desired number of clicks. If the desired a9imuth is smaller than 1C0K
the number of clicks on the be9el ring should be counted in a counterclockwise direction.
2or example the desired a9imuth is -1K. 5esired a9imuth is -1KS = N 1B clicks
counterclockwise. If the desired a9imuth is larger than 1C0K subtract the number of degrees
from =+0K and divide by = to obtain the number of clicks. .ount them in a clockwise
direction. 2or example the desired a9imuth is ==0K/ =+0K1==0K N =0 S = N 10 clicks
clockwise.
)d' #ith the compass preset as described above assume a centerhold techni?ue and
rotate your body until the north1seeking arrow is aligned with the luminous line on the be9el.
Then proceed forward in the direction of the front cover0s luminous dots which are aligned
with the fixed black index line containing the a9imuth.
)e' #hen the compass is to be used in darkness an initial a9imuth should be set while
light is still available if possible. #ith the initial a9imuth as a base any other a9imuth that is
a multiple of three can be established through the use of the clicking feature of the be9el
ring.
,
O!-
:
"ometimes the desired a9imuth is not exactly divisible by three
causing an option of rounding up or rounding down. If the a9imuth is
rounded up this causes an increase in the value of the a9imuth and the
object is to be found on the left. If the a9imuth is rounded down this
causes a decrease in the value of the a9imuth and the object is to be
found on the right.
.igure E;4
d. %ypassing an Obstacle. To bypass enemy positions or obstacles and still stay
oriented detour around the obstacle by moving at right angles for specified distances.
)' 2or example while moving on an a9imuth of &0K change your a9imuth to 1C0K and
travel for 100 meters. .hange your a9imuth to &0Kand travel for 1-0 meters. .hange your
a9imuth to =+0Kand travel for 100 meters. Then change your a9imuth to &0Kand you are back on
your original a9imuth line 32igure &1- 4.
2igure &1-. )ypassing an obstacle.
)*' )ypassing an unexpected obstacle at night is a fairly simple matter. To make a &0K turn to
the right hold the compass in the centerhold techni?ue/ turn until the center of the luminous letter ' is
under the luminous line 3do not move the be9el ring4. To make a &0K turn to the left turn until the
center of the luminous letter # is under the luminous line. This does not re?uire changing the compass
setting 3be9el ring4 and it ensures accurate &0K turns.
e. Offset. % deliberate offset is a planned magnetic deviation to the right or left of an a9imuth
to an objective. $se it when the objective is located along or in the vicinity of a linear feature such as a
road or stream. )ecause of errors in the compass or in map reading the linear feature may be reached
without knowing whether the objective lies to the right or left. % deliberate offset by a known number
of degrees in a known direction compensates for possible errors and ensures that upon reaching the
linear feature the user knows whether to go right or left to reach the objective. Ten degrees is an
ade?uate offset for most tactical uses. 'ach degree offset moves the course about 1C meters to the right
or left for each 1000 meters traveled. 2or example in 2igure &1+ the number of degrees offset is
10. If the distance traveled to !x! in 1000 meters then !x! is located about 1C0 meters to the right of
the objective.
2igure &1+. 5eliberate offset to the objective.
2ield1'xpedient 6ethods
.ield;-6pedient /ethods
#hen a compass is not available different techni?ues should be used to determine the four
cardinal directions.
a. "hadow;!ip /ethod.
)' This simple and accurate method of finding direction by the sun consists of four basic
steps 32igure &1B 4.
.igure E;B
.igure E;A
2I8$<' &1-
2igure &1B. 5etermining directions and time by shadow.
"tep . @lace a stick or branch into the ground at a level spot where a distinctive shadow
will be cast. 6ark the shadow tip with a stone twig or other means. This first shadow mark is
always the west direction.
"tep *. #ait 10 to 1- minutes until the shadow tip moves a few inches. 6ark the new
position of the shadow tip in the same way as the first.
"tep +. 5raw a straight line through the two marks to obtain an approximate east1west
line.
"tep 4. "tanding with the first mark 3west4 to your left the other directions are simple/
north is to the front east is to the right and south is behind you.
)*' % line drawn perpendicular to the east1west line at any point is the approximate north1south
line. If you are uncertain which direction is east and which is west observe this simple rule11the first
shadow1tip mark is always in the west direction everywhere on earth.
)+' The shadow1tip method can also be used as a shadow clock to find the approximate time of
day 32igure &1B 4.
)a' To find the time of day move the stick to the intersection of the east1west line and the
north1south line and set it vertically in the ground. The west part of the east1west line indicates
0+00 hours and the east part is 1C00 hours anywhere on earth because the basic rule always
applies.
)b' The north1south line now becomes the noon line. The shadow of the stick is an hour
hand in the shadow clock and with it you can estimate the time using the noon line and the +
o0clock line as your guides. 5epending on your location and the season the shadow may move
either clockwise or counterclockwise but this does not alter your manner of reading the shadow
clock.
)c' The shadow clock is not a timepiece in the ordinary sense. It makes every day 1;
une?ual hours long and always reads 0+00 hours at sunrise and 1C00 hours at sunset. The
shadow clock time is closest to conventional clock time at midday but the spacing of the other
hours compared to conventional time varies somewhat with the locality and the date. 7owever it
does provide a satisfactory means of telling time in the absence of properly set watches.
)d' The shadow1tip system is not intended for use in polar regions which the 5epartment
of 5efense defines as being above +0K latitude in either hemisphere. 5istressed persons in these
areas are advised to stay in one place so that search>rescue teams may easily find them. The
presence and location of all aircraft and ground parties in polar regions are reported to and
checked regularly by governmental or other agencies and any need for help becomes ?uickly
known.
b. Watch /ethod.
)' % watch can be used to determine the approximate true north and true south. In the
north temperate 9one only the hour hand is pointed toward the sun. % south line can be found
midway between the hour hand and 1;00 hours standard time. If on daylight saving time the
north1south line is found between the hour hand and 1=00 hours. If there is any doubt as to which
end of the line is north remember that the sun is in the east before noon and in the west after
noon.
)*' The watch may also be used to determine direction in the south temperate 9one/
however the method is different. The 1;001hour dial is pointed toward the sun and halfway
between 1;00 hours and the hour hand will be a north line. If on daylight saving time the north
line lies midway between the hour hand and 1=00 hours 32igure &1C 4.
.igure E;C. Determining direction by using a watch.
)+' The watch method can be in error especially in the lower latitudes and may cause
circling. To avoid this make a shadow clock and set your watch to the time indicated. %fter
traveling for an hour take another shadow1clock reading. <eset your watch if necessary.
c. "tar /ethod.
)' :ess than +0 of approximately -000 stars visible to the eye are used by navigators.
The stars seen as we look up at the sky at night are not evenly scattered across the whole sky.
Instead they are in groups called constellations.
)*' The constellations that we see depends partly on where we are located on the earth the
time of the year and the time of the night. The night changes with the seasons because of the
journey of the earth around the sun and it also changes from hour to hour because the turning of
the earth makes some constellations seem to travel in a circle. )ut there is one star that is in
almost exactly the same place in the sky all night long every night. It is the Dorth "tar also
known as the @olar "tar or @olaris.
)+' The Dorth "tar is less than 1K off true north and does not move from its place because
the axis of the earth is pointed toward it. The Dorth "tar is in the group of stars called the :ittle
5ipper. It is the last star in the handle of the dipper. There are two stars in the )ig 5ipper which
are a big help when trying to find the Dorth "tar. They are called the @ointers and an imaginary
line drawn through them five times their distance points to the Dorth "tar. There are many stars
brighter than the Dorth "tar but none is more important because of its location. 7owever the
Dorth "tar can only be seen in the northern hemisphere so it cannot serve as a guide south of the
e?uator. The farther one goes north the higher the Dorth "tar is in the sky and above latitude
B0K it is too high in the sky to be useful 32igure &1& 4.
2igure &1&. 5etermining direction by the Dorth "tar and "outhern .ross.
)4' 5epending on the star selected for navigation a9imuth checks are necessary. % star
near the north hori9on serves for about half an hour. #hen moving south a9imuth checks should
be made every 1- minutes. #hen traveling east or west the difficulty of staying on a9imuth is
caused more by the likelihood of the star climbing too high in the sky or losing itself behind the
western hori9on than it is by the star changing direction angle. #hen this happens it is necessary
.igure E;E
to change to another guide star. The "outhern .ross is the main constellation used as a guide
south of the e?uator and the above general directions for using north and south stars are reversed.
#hen navigating using the stars as guides the user must know the different constellation shapes
and their locations throughout the world 32igure &110 and 2igure &111 4.
2igure &110. .onstellations northern hemisphere.

2igure &111. .onstellations southern hemisphere.
2or more field1expedient methods check out #ilderness "urvival
8lobal @ositioning "ystem
<lobal 8ositioning "ystem
The 8@" is a space1based global all1weather continuously available radio positioning
navigation system. It is highly accurate in determining position location derived from signal
triangulation from a satellite constellation system. It is capable of determining latitude longitude and
altitude of the individual user. It is being fielded in hand1held manpack vehicular aircraft and
watercraft configurations. The 8@" receives and processes data from satellites on either a
simultaneous or se?uential basis. It measures the velocity and range with respect to each satellite
processes the data in terms of an earth1centered earth1fixed coordinate system and displays the
information to the user in geographic or military grid coordinates.
a. The 8@" can provide precise steering information as well as position location. The receiver
can accept many checkpoints entered in any coordinate system by the user and convert them to the
desired coordinate system. The user then calls up the desired checkpoint and the receiver will display
direction and distance to the checkpoint. The 8@" does not have inherent drift an improvement over
the Inertial Davigation "ystem and the receiver will automatically update its position. The receiver
can also compute time to the next checkpoint.
b. "pecific uses for the 8@" are position location/ navigation/ weapon location/ target and
sensor location/ coordination of firepower/ scout and screening operations/ combat resupply/ location
of obstacles barriers and gaps/ and communication support. The 8@" also has the potential to allow
units to train their soldiers and provide the following,
8erformance feedback.
Jnowledge of routes taken by the soldier.
Jnowledge of errors committed by the soldier.
.igure E;
.igure E;4
(omparison of planned &ersus e6ecuted routes.
"afety and control of lost and in7ured soldiers.
E.-le&ation and 2elief
The elevation of points on the ground and the relief of an area affect the movement, positioning,
and, in some cases, effectiveness of military units. +oldiers must know how to determine locations of
points on a map, measure distances and a2imuths, and identify symbols on a map. They must also be
able to determine the elevation and relief of areas on standard military maps. To do this, they must
first understand how the mapmaker indicated the elevation and relief on the map.
5efinitions
Definitions
The reference or start point for vertical measurement of elevation on a standard military map
are the datum plane or mean sea level the point halfway between high tide and low tide. 'levation
of a point on the earthPs surface is the vertical distance it is above or below mean sea level. <elief
is the representation 3as depicted by the mapmaker4 of the shapes of hills valleys streams or
terrain features on the earth0s surface.
6ethods of 5epicting <elief
/ethods of Depicting 2elief
6apmakers use several methods to depict relief of the terrain.
a. :ayer !inting. :ayer tinting is a method of showing relief by color. % different color
is used for each band of elevation. 'ach shade of color or band represents a definite elevation range.
% legend is printed on the map margin to indicate the elevation range represented by each color.
7owever this method does not allow the map user to determine the exact elevation of a specific point
Gonly the range.
b. .orm :ines. 2orm lines are not measured from any datum plane. 2orm lines have no
standard elevation and give only a general idea of relief. 2orm lines are represented on a map as
dashed lines and are never labeled with representative elevations.
c. "haded 2elief. <elief shading indicates relief by a shadow effect achieved by tone and
color that results in the darkening of one side of terrain features such as hills and ridges. The darker
the shading the steeper the slope. "haded relief is sometimes used in conjunction with contour lines to
emphasi9e these features.
d. $achures. 7achures are short broken lines used to show relief. 7achures are
sometimes used with contour lines. They do not represent exact elevations but are mainly used to
show large rocky outcrop areas. 7achures are used extensively on small1scale maps to show mountain
ranges plateaus and mountain peaks.
e. (ontour :ines. .ontour lines are the most common method of showing relief and
elevation on a standard topographic map. % contour line represents an imaginary line on the ground
above or below sea level. %ll points on the contour line are at the same elevation. The elevation
represented by contour lines is the vertical distance above or below sea level. The three types of
contour lines 32igure 1011 4 used on a standard topographic map are as follows,
2igure 1011.
.ontour lines.
314
?nde:.
"tarting
at 9ero
elevation
or mean
sea level
every fifth contour line is a heavier line. These are known as index contour lines. Dormally
each index contour line is numbered at some point. This number is the elevation of that line.
)*' ?ntermediate. The contour lines falling between the index contour lines are
called intermediate contour lines. These lines are finer and do not have their elevations given. There
are normally four intermediate contour lines between index contour lines.
)+' Supplementary. These contour lines resemble dashes. They show changes in
elevation of at least one1half the contour interval. These lines are normally found where
there is very little change in elevation such as on fairly level terrain.
.ontour Intervals
(ontour =nter&als
)efore the elevation of any point on the map can be determined the user must know the contour
interval for the map he is using. The contour interval measurement given in the marginal information
is the vertical distance between adjacent contour lines. To determine the elevation of a point on the
mapG
a. 5etermine the contour interval and the unit of measure used for example feet meters or
yards 32igure 101; 4.
2igure 101;.
.ontour interval
note.
b. 2ind the numbered index contour line nearest the point of which you are trying to determine
the elevation 32igure 101= 4.
2igure 101=.
@oints on
contour lines.
c.
5etermine if you
are going from
lower elevation to
higher or vice
versa. In 2igure
101= point 3a4 is between the index contour lines. The lower index contour line is numbered -00
which means any point on that line is at an elevation of -00 meters above mean sea level. The upper
index contour line is numbered +00 or +00 meters. 8oing from the lower to the upper index contour
line shows an increase in elevation.
d. 5etermine the exact elevation of point 3a4 start at the index contour line numbered -00 and
count the number of intermediate contour lines to point 3a4. :ocate point 3a4 on the second
intermediate contour line above the -001meter index contour line. The contour interval is ;0 meters
32igure 101; 4 thus each one of the intermediate contour lines crossed to get to point 3a4 adds ;0
meters to the -001meter index contour line. The elevation of point 3a4 is -*0 meters/ the elevation has
increased.
e. 5etermine the elevation of point 3b4. 8o to the nearest index contour line. In this case it is
the upper index contour line numbered +00. :ocate point 3b4 on the intermediate contour line
immediately below the +001meter index contour line. )elow means downhill or a lower elevation.
Therefore point 3b4 is located at an elevation of -C0 meters. <emember if you are increasing
elevation add the contour interval to the nearest index contour line. If you are decreasing elevation
subtract the contour interval from the nearest index contour line.
f. 5etermine the elevation to a hilltop point 3c4. %dd one1half the contour interval to the
elevation of the last contour line. In this example the last contour line before the hilltop is an index
contour line numbered +00. %dd one1half the contour interval 10 meters to the index contour line.
The elevation of the hilltop would be +10 meters.
g. There may be times when you need to determine the elevation of points to a greater
accuracy. To do this you must determine how far between the two contour lines the point lies.
7owever most military needs are satisfied by estimating the elevation of points between contour lines
32igure 101* 4.
2igure 101*.
@oints between
contour lines.
)'
If the
point is less than one1fourth the distance between contour lines the elevation will be the
same as the last contour line. In 2igure 101* the elevation of point awill be 100 meters.
To estimate the elevation of a point between one1fourth and three1fourths of the distance
between contour lines add one1half the contour interval to the last contour line.
)*' 7oint bis one1half the distance between contour lines. The contour line
immediately below point bis at an elevation of 1+0 meters. The contour interval is ;0
meters/ thus one1half the contour interval is 10 meters. In this case add 10 meters to the last
contour line of 1+0 meters. The elevation of point bwould be about 1B0 meters.
)+' % point located more than three1fourths of the distance between contour lines is
considered to be at the same elevation as the next contour line. 7oint cis located three1
fourths of the distance between contour lines. In 2igure 101* point cwould be
considered to be at an elevation of 1C0 meters.
h. To estimate the elevation to the bottom of a depression subtract one1half the contour
interval from the value of the lowest contour line before the depression. In 2igure 101- the lowest
contour line before the depression is ;*0 meters in elevation. Thus the elevation at the edge of the
depression is ;*0 meters. To determine the elevation at the bottom of the depression subtract one1half
the contour interval. The contour interval for this example is ;0 meters. "ubtract 10 meters from the
lowest contour line immediately before the depression. The result is that the elevation at the bottom of
the depression is ;=0 meters. The tick marks on the contour line forming a depression always point to
lower elevations.
.igure 4;5.
Depression.
i. In
addition to the
contour lines
bench marks and
spot elevations are
used to indicate
points of known
elevations on the map.
)' )ench marks the more accurate of the two are symboli9ed by a black I such as
I )6 ;1*. The ;1* indicates that the center of the I is at an elevation of ;1* units of
measure 3feet meters or yards4 above mean sea level. To determine the units of measure
refer to the contour interval in the marginal information.
)*' "pot elevations are shown by a brown I and are usually located at road junctions
and on hilltops and other prominent terrain features. If the elevation is shown in black
numerals it has been checked for accuracy/ if it is in brown it has not been checked.
,
O!-
:
Dew maps are being printed using a dot instead of brown Is.
Types of "lopes
!ypes of "lopes
5epending on the military mission soldiers may need to determine not only the height of a hill
but the degree of the hill0s slope as well. The rate of rise or fall of a terrain feature is known as its
slope. The speed at which e?uipment or personnel can move is affected by the slope of the ground or
terrain feature. This slope can be determined from the map by studying the contour linesGthe closer
the contour lines the steeper the slope/ the farther apart the contour lines the gentler the slope. 2our
types of slopes that concern the military are as follows,
a. <entle. .ontour lines showing a uniform gentle slope will be evenly spaced and wide
apart 32igure 101+ 4. .onsidering relief only a uniform gentle slope allows the defender to use
gra9ing fire. The attacking force has to climb a slight incline.
2igure 101+. $niform gentle slope.
b. "teep. .ontour lines showing a uniform steep slope on a map will be evenly spaced but
close together. <emember the closer the contour lines the steeper the slope 32igure 101B 4.
.onsidering relief only a uniform steep slope allows the defender to use gra9ing fire and the
attacking force has to negotiate a steep incline.
2igure 101B. $niform steep slope.
c. (onca&e. .ontour lines showing a concave slope on a map will be closely spaced at the
top of the terrain feature and widely spaced at the bottom 32igure 101C 4. .onsidering relief only
the defender at the top of the slope can observe the entire slope and the terrain at the bottom but he
cannot use gra9ing fire. The attacker would have no cover from the defender0s observation of fire and
his climb would become more difficult as he got farther up the slope.
2igure 101C. .oncave slope.
d. (on&e6. .ontour lines showing a convex slope on a map will be widely spaced at the
top and closely spaced at the bottom 32igure 101& 4. .onsidering relief only the defender at the top
of the convex slope can obtain a small distance of gra9ing fire but he cannot observe most of the slope
or the terrain at the bottom. The attacker will have concealment on most of the slope and an easier
climb as he nears the top.
2igure 101&. .onvex slope.
@ercentage of "lope
8ercentage of "lope
The speed at which personnel and e?uipment can move up or down a hill is affected by the slope
of the ground and the limitations of the e?uipment. )ecause of this a more exact way of describing a
slope is necessary.
a. "lope may be expressed in several ways but all depend upon the comparison of vertical
distance 3A54 to hori9ontal distance 3754 32igure 10110 4. )efore we can determine the percentage
of a slope we must know the A5 of the slope. The A5 is determined by subtracting the lowest point
of the slope from the highest point. $se the contour lines to determine the highest and lowest point of
the slope 32igure 10111 4.
2igure 101
10. "lope
diagram.

2igure 10111. .ontour line around a slope.
b. To determine the percentage of the slope between points 3a4 and 3b4 in 2igure 10111
determine the elevation of point 3b4 3-&0 meters4. Then determine the elevation of point 3a4 3=C0
meters4. 5etermine the vertical distance between the two points by subtracting the elevation of point
3a4 from the elevation of point .The difference 3;10 meters4 is the A5 between points 3a4 and 3b4. Then
measure the 75 between the two points on the map in 2igure 1011; . %fter the hori9ontal distance
has been determined compute the percentage of the slope by using the formula shown in 2igure 101
1= .
2igure 1011;. 6easuring hori9ontal distance.

2igure 1011=. @ercentage of slope in meters.
c. The slope angle can also be expressed in degrees. To do this determine the A5 and 75 of
the slope. 6ultiply the A5 by -B.= and then divide the total by the 75 32igure 1011* 4. This
method determines the approximate degree of slope and is reasonably accurate for slope angles less
than ;0T.
2igure 1011*. 5egree of slope.
d. The slope angle can also be expressed as a gradient. The relationship of hori9ontal and
vertical distance is expressed as a fraction with a numerator of one 32igure 1011- 4.
2igure 1011-. 8radient.
Terrain 2eatures
!errain .eatures
%ll terrain features are derived from a complex landmass known as a mountain or ridgeline
32igure 1011+ 4. The term ridgeline is not interchangeable with the term ridge. % ridgeline is a line
of high ground usually with changes in elevation along its top and low ground on all sides from which
a total of 10 natural or man1made terrain features are classified.
2igure 1011+. <idgeline.
a. /a7or !errain .eatures.
314 9ill. % hill is an area of high ground. 2rom a hilltop the ground slopes down
in all directions. % hill is shown on a map by contour lines forming concentric circles. The inside of
the smallest closed circle is the hilltop 32igure 1011B 4.
2igure 1011B. 7ill.
3;4 Saddle. % saddle is a dip or low point between two areas of higher ground. %
saddle is not necessarily the lower ground between two hilltops/ it may be simply a dip or break along
a level ridge crest. If you are in a saddle there is high ground in two opposite directions and lower
ground in the other two directions. % saddle is normally represented as an hourglass 32igure 1011C 4.
2igure 1011C. "addle.
)+' Balley. % valley is a stretched1out groove in the land usually formed by
streams or rivers. % valley begins with high ground on three sides and usually has a course of running
water through it. If standing in a valley three directions offer high ground while the fourth direction
offers low ground. 5epending on its si9e and where a person is standing it may not be obvious that
there is high ground in the third direction but water flows from higher to lower ground. .ontour lines
forming a valley are either $1shaped or A1shaped. To determine the direction water is flowing look at
the contour lines. The closed end of the contour line 3$ or A4 always points upstream or toward high
ground 32igure 1011& 4.
2igure 1011&. Aalley.
)4' Ridge. % ridge is a sloping line of high ground. If you are standing on the centerline of a
ridge you will normally have low ground in three directions and high ground in one direction with
varying degrees of slope. If you cross a ridge at right angles you will climb steeply to the crest and
then descend steeply to the base. #hen you move along the path of the ridge depending on the
geographic location there may be either an almost unnoticeable slope or a very obvious incline.
.ontour lines forming a ridge tend to be $1shaped or A1shaped. The closed end of the contour line
points away from high ground 32igure 101;0 4.
2igure 101;0. <idge.
)5' Depression. % depression is a low point in the ground or a sinkhole. It could be
described as an area of low ground surrounded by higher ground in all directions or simply a hole in
the ground. $sually only depressions that are e?ual to or greater than the contour interval will be
shown. On maps depressions are represented by closed contour lines that have tick marks pointing
toward low ground 32igure 101;1 4.
2igure 101;1. 5epression.
b. /inor !errain .eatures.
)' Dra-. % draw is a less developed stream course than a valley. In a draw there
is essentially no level ground and therefore little or no maneuver room within its confines. If you are
standing in a draw the ground slopes upward in three directions and downward in the other direction.
% draw could be considered as the initial formation of a valley. The contour lines depicting a draw are
$1shaped or A1shaped pointing toward high ground 32igure 101;; 4.
2igure 101;;. 5raw.
)*' Spur. % spur is a short continuous sloping line of higher ground normally
jutting out from the side of a ridge. % spur is often formed by two rough parallel streams which cut
draws down the side of a ridge. The ground sloped down in three directions and up in one direction.
.ontour lines on a map depict a spur with the $ or A pointing away from high ground 32igure 101;=
4.
2igure 101;=. "pur.
3=4 Cli. % cliff is a vertical or near vertical feature/ it is an abrupt change of the land. #hen
a slope is so steep that the contour lines converge into one !carrying! contour of contours this last
contour line has tick marks pointing toward low ground 32igure 101;*% 4. .liffs are also shown by
contour lines very close together and in some instances touching each other 32igure 101;*) 4.
2igure 101;*%. .liff.

2igure 101;*). .liff.
c. "upplementary !errain .eatures.
)' Cut. % cut is a man1made feature resulting from cutting through raised
ground usually to form a level bed for a road or railroad track. .uts are shown on a map when they
are at least 10 feet high and they are drawn with a contour line along the cut line. This contour line
extends the length of the cut and has tick marks that extend from the cut line to the roadbed if the map
scale permits this level of detail 32igure 101;- 4.
2igure 101;-. .ut and fill.
)*' ,ill. % fill is a man1made feature resulting from filling a low area usually to
form a level bed for a road or railroad track. 2ills are shown on a map when they are at least 10 feet
high and they are drawn with a contour line along the fill line. This contour line extends the length of
the filled area and has tick marks that point toward lower ground. If the map scale permits the length
of the fill tick marks are drawn to scale and extend from the base line of the fill symbol 32igure 101
;- 4.
Interpretation of Terrain 2eatures
=nterpretation of !errain .eatures
Terrain features do not normally stand alone. To better understand these when they are depicted
on a map you need to interpret them. Terrain features 32igure 101;+ 4 are interpreted by using
contour lines the "O"'" approach ridgelining or streamlining.
2igure 101;+. Terrain features.
a. (ontour :ines. 'mphasi9ing the main contour lines is a techni?ue used to interpret
the terrain of an area. )y studying these contour lines you able to obtain a better understanding of the
layout of the terrain and to decide on the best route.
)' The following description pertains to 2igure 101;B . <unning east to west
across the complex landmass is a ridgeline. % ridgeline is a line of high ground usually with
changes in elevation along its top and low ground on all sides. The changes in elevation are
the three hilltops and two saddles along the ridgeline. 2rom the top of each hill there is
lower ground in all directions. The saddles have lower ground in two directions and high
ground in the opposite two directions. The contour lines of each saddle form half an
hourglass shape. )ecause of the difference in si9e of the higher ground on the two opposite
sides of a saddle a full hourglass shape of a saddle may not be apparent.
2igure 101;B. <idgelining and streamlining.
)*' There are four prominent ridges. % ridge is on each end of the ridgeline and two
ridges extend south from the ridgeline. %ll of the ridges have lower ground in three
directions and higher ground in one direction. The closed ends of the $0s formed by the
contour lines point away from higher ground.
)+' To the south lies a valley/ the valley slopes downward from east to west. Dote that
the $ of the contour line points to the east indicating higher ground in that direction and
lower ground to the west. %nother look at the valley shows high ground to the north and
south of the valley.
)4' Hust east of the valley is a depression. There is higher ground in all directions
when looking from the bottom of the depression.
)5' There are several spurs extending generally south from the ridgeline. They like
ridges have lower ground in three directions and higher ground in one direction. Their
contour line $0s point away from higher ground.
)A' )etween the ridges and spurs are draws. They like valleys have higher ground in
three directions and lower ground in one direction. Their contour line $0s and A0s point
toward higher ground.
)B' Two contour lines on the north side of the center hill are touching or almost
touching. They have ticks indicating a vertical or nearly vertical slope or a cliff.
)C' The road cutting through the eastern ridge depicts cuts and fills. The breaks in the
contour lines indicate cuts and the ticks pointing away from the roadbed on each side of the
road indicate fills.
b. "O"-". % recommended techni?ue for identifying specific terrain features and then
locating them on the map is to make use of five of their characteristics known by the mnemonic
"O"'". Terrain features can be examined described and compared with each other and with
corresponding map contour patterns in terms of their shapes orientations si9es elevations and slopes.
)' S%ape. The general form or outline of the feature at its base.
)*' Orientation. The general trend or direction of a feature from your viewpoint. %
feature can be in line across or at an angle to your viewpoint.
3=4 Size. The length or width of a feature hori9ontally across its base. 2or example
one terrain feature might be larger or smaller than another terrain feature.
3*4 @le!ation. The height of a terrain feature. This can be described either in
absolute or relative terms as compared to the other features in the area. One landform may be higher
lower deeper or shallower than another.
3-4 Slope. The type 3uniform convex or concave4 and the steepness or angle 3steep or
gentle4 of the sides of a terrain feature.
Through practice you can learn to identify several individual terrain features in the field and see
how they vary in appearance.
,
O!-
:
2urther terrain analysis using "O"'" can be learned by using the
6ap Interpretation and Terrain %ssociation .ourse. It consists of three
separate courses of instruction, basic intermediate and advanced.
$sing photographic slides of terrain and other features basic
instruction teaches how to identify basic terrain feature types on the
ground and on the map. Intermediate instruction teaches elementary
map interpretation and terrain association using real world scenes and
map sections of the same terrain. %dvanced instruction teaches
advanced techni?ues for map interpretation and terrain association. The
primary emphasis is on the concepts of map design guidelines and
terrain association skills. 6ap design guidelines refer to the rules and
practices used by cartographers in the compilation and symboli9ation
of military topographic maps. (nowledge of the selection
classification and symboli9ation of mapped features greatly enhances
the user0s ability to interpret map information.
c. 2idgelining. This techni?ue helps you to visuali9e the overall lay of the ground within
the area of interest on the map. 2ollow these steps,
)' Identify on the map the crests of the ridgelines in your area of operation by identifying
the close1out contours that lie along the hilltop.
)*' Trace over the crests so each ridgeline stands out clearly as one identifiable line.
)+' 8o back over each of the major ridgelines and trace over the prominent ridges and
spurs that come out of the ridgelines.
The usual colors used for this tracing are red or brown/ however you may use any color at hand.
#hen you have completed the ridgelining process you will find that the high ground on the map will
stand out and that you will be able to see the relationship between the various ridgelines 32igure 101
;B 4.
d. "treamlining. This procedure 32igure 101;B 4 is similar to that of ridgelining.
)' Identify all the mapped streams in the area of operations.
)*' Trace over them to make them stand out more prominently.
)+' Then identify other low ground such as smaller valleys or draws that feed into the
major streams and trace over them.
This brings out the drainage pattern and low ground in the area of operation on the map. The
color used for this is usually blue/ but again if blue is not available use any color at hand so long as
the distinction between the ridgelines and the streamlines is clear.
@rofiles
8rofiles
The study of contour lines to determine high and low points of elevation is usually ade?uate for
military operations. 7owever there may be a few times when we need a ?uick and precise reference to
determine exact elevations of specific points. #hen exactness is demanded a profile is re?uired. %
profile within the scope and purpose of this manual is an exaggerated side view of a portion of the
earth0s surface along a line between two or more points.
a. % profile can be used for many purposes. The primary purpose is to determine if line of sight
is available. :ine of sight is usedG
)' To determine defilade positions.
)*' To plot hidden areas or dead space.
)+' To determine potential direct fire weapon positions.
)4' To determine potential locations for defensive positions.
)5' To conduct preliminary planning in locating roads pipelines railroads or other
construction projects.
b. % profile can be constructed from any contoured map. Its construction re?uires the
following steps,
)' 5raw a line on the map from where the profile is to begin to where it is to end 32igure
101;C 4.
2igure 101;C. .onnecting points.
)*' 2ind the value of the highest and lowest contour lines that cross or touch the profile
line. %dd one contour value above the highest and one below the lowest to take care of hills and
valleys.
)+' "elect a piece of lined notebook paper with as many lines as was determined in 3;4
above. The standard %rmy green pocket notebook or any other paper with 1>*1inch lines is ideal.
#ider lines up to ->C1inch may be used. If lined paper is not available draw e?ually spaced
hori9ontal lines on a blank sheet of paper.
)4' Dumber the top line with the highest value and the bottom line with the lowest value as
determined in 3;4 above.
)5' Dumber the rest of the lines in se?uence starting with the second line from the top.
The lines will be numbered in accordance with the contour interval 32igure 101;& 4.
.igure 4;*E. Dropping perpendiculars.
)A' @lace the paper on the map with the lines next to and parallel to the profile line
32igure 101;& 4.
)B' 2rom every point on the profile line where a contour line stream intermittent stream
or other body of water crosses or touches drop a perpendicular line to the line having the same
value. @lace a tick mark where the perpendicular line crosses the number line 32igure 101;& 4.
#here trees are present add the height of the trees to the contour line and place a tick mark there.
%ssume the height of the trees to be -0 feet or 1- meters where dark green tint is shown on the
map. Aegetation height may be adjusted up or down when operations in the area have provided
known tree heights.
)C' %fter all perpendicular lines have been drawn and tick marks placed where the lines
cross connect all tick marks with a smooth natural curve to form a hori9ontal view or profile of
the terrain along the profile line 32igure 101;& 4.
,
O!-
:
The profile drawn may be exaggerated. The spacing between the
lines drawn on the sheet of paper determines the amount of
exaggeration and may be varied to suit any purpose.
)E' 5raw a straight line from the start point to the end point on the profile. If the straight
line intersects the curved profile line of sight to the end point is not available 32igure 101=0 4.
2igure 101=0. 5rawing lines to additional points.
)4' 5etermine the line of sight to other points along the profile line by drawing a line
from the start point to additional points. In 2igure 101=1 line of sight is available toG
2igure 101=1. 5rawing a hasty profile.
The vertical distance between navigable ground up to the line of sight line is the depth of
defilade.
c. #hen time is short or when a complete profile is not needed one may be constructed
showing only the hilltops ridges and if desired the valleys. This is called a hasty profile. It is
constructed in the same manner as a full profile 32igure 101=1 4.
#I
Kes
DI
Kes
<I
Kes
%I
,o
-I
,o
$I
,o
(I
,o
.I
,o
=I
,o
E.!errain #ssociation
'ailure to make use of the vast amounts of information presented by the map and available to
the eye on the ground reduces the chances for success in land navigation. The soldier who has
repeatedly practiced the skills of identifying and discriminating among the many types of terrain and
other features knows how these features are mapped. 8e can begin to visuali2e the shape of the land
by studying the map, estimate distances, and perform uick resection from the many landmarks he
sees is the one who will be at the right place to help defeat the enemy on the battlefield. This chapter
tells how to orient a map with and without a compass, how to find locations on a map as well as on
the ground, how to study the terrain, and how to move on the ground using terrain association and
dead reckoning.
Orienting the 6ap
Orienting the /ap
The first step for a navigator in the field is orienting the map. % map is oriented when it is in a
hori9ontal position with its north and south corresponding to the north and south on the ground. "ome
orienting techni?ues follow,
a. ?sing a (ompass. #hen orienting a map with a compass remember that the
compass measures magnetic a9imuths. "ince the magnetic arrow points to magnetic north pay special
attention to the declination diagram. There are two techni?ues used.
)' ,irst Tec%ni+ue. 5etermine the direction of the declination and its value
from the declination diagram.
)a' #ith the map in a hori9ontal position take the straightedge on the left side of the
compass and place it alongside the north1south grid line with the cover of the compass
pointing toward the top of the map. This procedure places the fixed black index line of the
compass parallel to north1south grid lines of the map.
)b' (eeping the compass aligned as directed above rotate the map and compass
together until the magnetic arrow is below the fixed black index line on the compass. %t this
time the map is close to being oriented.
)c' <otate the map and compass in the direction of the declination diagram.
)d' If the magnetic north arrow on the map is to the left of the grid north check the
compass reading to see if it e?uals the 816 angle given in the declination diagram. The map
is then oriented 32igure 1111 4.
2igure 1111. 6ap oriented with 11 degrees west declination.
)e' If the magnetic north is to the right of grid north check the compass reading to see if it
e?uals =+0 degrees minus the 816 angle 32igure 111; 4.
2igure 111;. 6ap oriented with ;1 degrees east declination.
)*' Second Tec%ni+ue. 5etermine the direction of the declination and its value from the
declination diagram.
)a' $sing any north1south grid line on the map as a base draw a magnetic a9imuth e?ual
to the 816 angle given in the declination diagram with the protractor.
)b' If the declination is easterly 3right4 the drawn line is e?ual to the value of the 816
angle. Then align the straightedge which is on the left side of the compass alongside the drawn
line on the map. <otate the map and compass until the magnetic arrow of the compass is below
the fixed black index line. The map is now oriented 32igure 111= 4.
2igure 111=. 6ap oriented with 1- degrees east declination.
)c' If the declination is westerly 3left4 the drawn line will e?ual =+0 degrees minus the
value of the 816 angle. Then align the straightedge which is on the left side of the compass
alongside the drawn line on the map. <otate the map and compass until the magnetic arrow of the
compass is below the fixed black index line. The map is now oriented 32igure 111* 4.
2igure 111*. 6ap oriented with 10 degrees west declination.
,
O!-
:
1. Once the map is oriented magnetic a9imuths are determined
using the compass. 5o not move the map from its oriented position
since any change in its position moves it out of line with the magnetic
north.
;. "pecial care should be taken whenever orienting your map
with a compass. % small mistake can cause you to navigate in the
wrong direction.
b. ?sing !errain #ssociation. % map can be oriented by terrain association when a
compass is not available or when the user has to make many ?uick references as he moves across
country. $sing this method re?uires careful examination of the map and the ground and the user must
know his approximate location 32igure 111- 4. Orienting by this method is discussed in detail in
latter parts of this section.
2igure 111-. Terrain association.
c. ?sing .ield;-6pedient /ethods.#hen a compass is not available and there are
no recogni9able terrain features a map may be oriented by any of the field1expedient methods
described
here .
%lso see
2igure
111+ .
2igure 111+. 2ield1expedient method.
:ocations
:ocations
The key to success in land navigation is to know your location at all times. #ith this basic
knowledge you can decide what direction and what distance to travel.
a. Jnown 8osition. 6ost important of all is the initial location of the user before
starting any movement in the field. If movement takes place without establishing the initial location
everything that is done in the field from there on is a gamble. 5etermine the initial location by
referring to the last known position by grid coordinates and terrain association or by locating and
orienting your position on the map and ground.
b. Jnown 8oint/Jnown Distance )8olar 8lot'. This location can be
determined by knowing the starting point the a9imuth to the desired objective and the distance to it.
c. 2esection. "ee !5irection!.
d. /odified 2esection. "ee !5irection!.
e. =ntersection. "ee !5irection!.
f. =ndirect .ire. 2inding a location by indirect fire is done with smoke. $se the point of
impact of the round as a reference point from which distances and a9imuth can be obtained.
Terrain %ssociation $sage
!errain #ssociation ?sage
The techni?ue of moving by terrain association is more forgiving of mistakes and far less time1
consuming than dead reckoning. It best suits those situations that call for movement from one area to
another. 'rrors made using terrain association are easily corrected because you are comparing what
you expected to see from the map to what you do see on the ground. 'rrors are anticipated and will
not go unchecked. Fou can easily make adjustments based upon what you encounter. @eriodic
position1fixing through either plotted or estimated resection will also make it possible to correct your
movements call for fire or call in the locations of enemy targets or any other information of tactical
or logistical importance.
a. /atching the !errain to the /ap by -6amining !errain
.eatures. )y observing the contour lines in detail the five major terrain features 3hilltop valley
ridge depression and saddle4 should be determined. This is a simple task in an area where the
observer has ample view of the terrain in all directions. One1by1one match the terrain features
depicted on the map with the same features on the ground. In restricted terrain this procedure
becomes harder/ however constantly check the map as you move since it is the determining factor
32igure 111- 4.
b. (omparing the Degetation Depicted on the /ap. #hen comparing the
vegetation a topographic map should be used to make a comparison of the clearings that appear on the
map with the ones on the ground. The user must be familiar with the different symbols such as
vineyards plantations and orchards that appear on the legend. The age of the map is an important
factor when comparing vegetation. "ome important vegetation features were likely to be different
when the map was made. %nother important factor about vegetation is that it can change overnight by
natural accidents or by man 3forest fires clearing of land for new developments farming and so
forth4.
c. /asking by the Degetation. .amouflage the important landforms using
vegetation. $se of camouflage makes it harder for the navigator to use terrain association.
d. ?sing the $ydrography. Inland bodies of water can help during terrain
association. The shape and si9e of lakes in conjunction with the si9e and direction of flow of the rivers
and streams are valuable help.
e. ?sing /an;made .eatures. 6an1made features are an important factor during
terrain association. The user must be familiar with the symbols shown in the legend representing those
features. The direction of buildings roads bridges high1tension lines and so forth make the terrain
inspection a lot easier/ however the age of the map must be considered because man1made features
appear and disappear constantly.
f. -6amining the "ame 8iece of !errain During the Different
"easons of the Kear. In those areas of the world where the seasons are distinctive a detailed
examination of the terrain should be made during each of the seasons. The same piece of land does not
present the same characteristics during both spring and winter.
)' 5uring winter the snow packs the vegetation delineating the land making the terrain
features appear as clear as they are shown by the contour lines on the map. <idges valleys and
saddles are very distinctive.
)*' 5uring spring the vegetation begins to reappear and grow. Dew vegetation causes a
gradual change of the land to the point that the foliage conceals the terrain features and makes the
terrain hard to recogni9e.
)+' 5uring summer months the effects are similar to those in the spring.
)4' 2all makes the land appear different with its change of color and gradual loss of
vegetation.
)5' 5uring the rainy season the vegetation is green and thick and the streams and ponds
look like small rivers and lakes. In scarcely vegetated areas the erosion changes the shape of the
land.
)A' 5uring a period of drought the vegetation dries out and becomes vulnerable to forest
fires that change the terrain whenever they occur. %lso during this season the water levels of
streams and lakes drop adding new dimensions and shape to the existing mapped areas.
g. .ollowing an -6ample of !errain #ssociation. Four location is hilltop
-1* in the lower center of the map in 2igure 111B .
2igure 111B. 'xample of terrain association.
)' To T%e (ort%. The contour lines indicate that the hill slopes down for about
1&0 meters and that it leads into a small valley containing an intermittent stream. On the other side of
the stream as you continue with your northerly inspection the terrain starts a gradual ascent
indicating a hilltop partially covered with vegetation until an unimproved road is reached. This road
runs along a gradual ridgeline with north1west direction. Then the contour line spacings become
narrow indicating a steeper grade that leads to a narrow valley containing a small intermittent stream.
%s you continue up you find a small but prominent ridge with a clearing. The contour lines once
again show a steeper grade leading to a moderate valley containing an intermittent stream running in a
south1east direction.
)*' To T%e @ast. There is a clearing of the terrain as it slopes down to "chley @ond.
%n ample valley is clearly seen on the right side of the pond as indicated by the !$! and !A! shape of
the contour lines. This valley contains some swamp areas and there is a long ridgeline on the north
portion of the valley.
)+' To T%e Sout%. The terrain gently slopes downward until a clear area is reached.
It continues in a downward direction to an intermittent stream running south1east in a small valley.
There is also an improved road running in the same direction as the valley. %t the intersection of the
roads as you face south there is a clearing of about 1;0 meters on the ridge. %t the bottom of it a
stream runs from "chley @ond in a south1west direction through an ample valley fed by two
intermittent streams. %s you continue a steep vegetated hill is found with a clearing on its top
followed by a small saddle and another hilltop.
)4' To T%e 8est. 2irst you see a small clear valley. It is followed by a general
ridgeline running north1west in which an unimproved road is located just before a hilltop. .ontinuing
on a westerly direction you will find a series of alternate valleys and ridges.
6ovement and <oute "election
/o&ement and 2oute "election
One key to success in tactical missions is the ability to move undetected to the objective. There
are four steps to land navigation. )eing given an objective and the re?uirement to move there you
must know where you are plan the route stay on the route and recogni9e the objective.
a. Jnow Where Kou #re )"tep '.Fou must know where you are on the map and
on the ground at all times and in every possible way. This includes knowing where you are relative to
G
Kour directional orientation.
!he direction and distances to your ob7ecti&e.
Other landmarks and features.
#ny impassable terrain1 the enemy1 and danger areas.
%oth the ad&antages and disad&antages presented by the terrain between you and your
ob7ecti&e.
This step is accomplished by knowing how to read a map recogni9e and identify specific terrain
and other features/ determine and estimate direction/ pace measure and estimate distances and both
plot and estimate a position by resection.
b. 8lan the 2oute )"tep *'. 5epending upon the si9e of the unit and the length and
type of movement to be conducted several factors should be considered in selecting a good route or
routes to be followed. These includeG
!ra&el time.
!ra&el distance.
/aneu&er room needed.
!rafficability.
:oad;bearing capacities of the soil.
-nergy e6penditure by troops.
!he factors of /-!!;!.
!actical aspects of terrain )O(OJ#'.
-ase of logistical support.
8otential for surprising the enemy.
#&ailability of control and coordination features.
#&ailability of good checkpoints and steering marks.
In other words the route must be the result of careful map study and should address the
re?uirements of the mission tactical situation and time available. It must also provide for ease of
movement and navigation.
)' Three route1selection criteria that are important for small1unit movements are cover
concealment and the availability of reliable checkpoint features. The latter is weighted even
more heavily when selecting the route for a night operation. The degree of visibility and ease of
recognition 3visual effect4 are the key to the proper selection of these features.
)*' The best checkpoints are linear features that cross the route. 'xamples include
perennial streams hard1top roads ridges valleys railroads and power transmission lines. Dext
it is best to select features that represent elevation changes of at least two contour intervals such
as hills depressions spurs and draws. @rimary reliance upon cultural features and vegetation is
cautioned against because they are most likely to have changed since the map was last revised.
)+' .heckpoints located at places where changes in direction are made mark your decision
points.)e especially alert to see and recogni9e these features during movement. 5uring
preparation and planning it is especially important to review the route and anticipate where
mistakes are most likely to be made so they can be avoided.
)4' 2ollowing a valley floor or proceeding near 3not on4 the crest of a ridgeline generally
offers easy movement good navigation checkpoints and sufficient cover and concealment. It is
best to follow terrain features whenever you canGnot to fight them.
)5' % lost or a late arriving unit or a tired unit that is tasked with an unnecessarily difficult
move does not contribute to the accomplishment of a mission. On the other hand the unit that
moves too ?uickly and carelessly into a destructive ambush or leaves itself open to air strikes also
have little effect. .areful planning and study are re?uired each time a movement route is to be
selected.
c. "tay on the 2oute )"tep +'.In order to know that you are still on the correct route
you must be able to compare the evidence you encounter as you move according to the plan you
developed on the map when you selected your route. This may include watching your compass
reading 3dead reckoning4 or recogni9ing various checkpoints or landmarks from the map in their
anticipated positions and se?uences as you pass them 3terrain association4. % better way is to use a
combination of both.
d. 2ecogni9e the Ob7ecti&e )"tep 4'.The destination is rarely a highly
recogni9able feature such as a dominant hilltop or road junction. "uch locations as this are seldom
missed by the most inexperienced navigators and are often dangerous places for soldiers to occupy.
The relatively small obscure places are most likely to be the destinations.
)' Hust how does a soldier travel over unfamiliar terrain for moderate to great distances
and know when he reaches the destinationU One minor error when many are possible can cause
the target to be missed.
)*' The answer is simple. "elect a checkpoint 3reasonably close to the destination4 that is
not so difficult to find or recogni9e. Then plan a short fine1tuned last leg from the new expanded
ob9ectiveto the final destination. 2or example you may be able to plan and execute the move as a
series of se?uenced movements from one checkpoint or landmark to another using both the
terrain and a compass to keep you on the correct course. 2inally after arriving at the last
checkpoint you might follow a specific compass a9imuth and pace off the relatively short
known distance to the final pinpoint destination. This procedure is called point navigation. %
short movement out from a unit position to an observation post or to a coordination point may
also be accomplished in the same manner.
Davigation 6ethods
,a&igation /ethods
"taying on the route is accomplished through the use of one or two navigation techni?uesGdead
reckoning and terrain association. These methods are discussed in detail below.
a. /o&ing by Dead 2eckoning. 5ead reckoning consists of two fundamental steps.
The first is the use of a protractor and graphic scales to determine the direction and distance from one
point to another on a map. The second step is the use of a compass and some means of measuring
distance to apply this information on the ground. In other words it begins with the determination of a
polar coordinate on a map and ends with the act of finding it on the ground.
)' 5ead reckoning along a given route is the application of the same process used by a
mapmaker as he establishes a measured line of reference upon which to construct the framework
of his map. Therefore triangulation exercises 3either resection or intersection4 can be easily
undertaken by the navigator at any time to either determine or confirm precise locations along or
near his route. )etween these position1fixes establish your location by measuring or estimating
the distance traveled along the a9imuth being followed from the previous known point. Fou
might use pacing a vehicle odometer or the application of elapsed time for this purpose
depending upon the situation.
)*' 6ost dead reckoned movements do not consist of single straight1line distances because
you cannot ignore the tactical and navigational aspects of the terrain enemy situation natural and
man1made obstacles time and safety factors. %nother reason most dead reckoning movements
are not single straight1line distances is because compasses and pace1counts are imprecise
measures. 'rror from them compounds over distance/ therefore you could soon be far afield
from your intended route even if you performed the procedures correctly. The only way to
counteract this phenomenon is to reconfirm your location by terrain association or resection.
<outes planned for dead reckoning generally consist of a series of straight1line distances between
several checkpoints with perhaps some travel running on or parallel to roads or trails.
)+' There are two advantages to dead reckoning. 2irst dead reckoning is easy to teach and
to learn. "econd it can be a highly accurate way of moving from one point to another if done
carefully over short distances even where few external cues are present to guide the movements.
)4' 5uring daylight across open country along a specified magnetic a9imuth never walk
with the compass in the open position and in front of you. )ecause the compass will not stay
steady or level it does not give an accurate reading when held or used this way. )egin at the start
point and face with the compass in the proper direction then sight in on a landmark that is
located on the correct a9imuth to be followed. .lose the compass and proceed to that landmark.
<epeat the process as many times as necessary to complete the straight1line segment of the route.
)5' The landmarks selected for this purpose are called steering marks and their selection is
crucial to success in dead reckoning. "teering marks should never be determined from a map
study. They are selected as the march progresses and are commonly on or near the highest points
that you can see along the a9imuth line that you are following when they are selected. They may
be uni?uely shaped trees rocks hilltops posts towers and buildingsGanything that can be
easily identified. If you do not see a good steering mark to the front you might use a back
a9imuth to some feature behind you until a good steering mark appears out in front.
.haracteristics of a good steering mark are,
)a' It must have some characteristics about it such as color shade of color si9e or
shape 3preferably all four4 that will assure you that it will continue to be recogni9ed as you
approach it.
)b' If several easily distinguished objects appear along your line of march the best
steering mark is the most distant object. This procedure enables you to travel farther with
fewer references to the compass. If you have many options select the highest object. %
higher mark is not as easily lost to sight as is a lower mark that blends into the background
as you approach it. % steering mark should be continuously visible as you move toward it.
)c' "teering marks selected at night must have even more uni?ue shapes than those
selected during daylight. %s darkness approaches colors disappear and objects appear as
black or gray silhouettes. Instead of seeing shapes you begin to see only the general outlines
that may appear to change as you move and see the objects from slightly different angles.
)A' 5ead reckoning without natural steering marks is used when the area through which you are
traveling is devoid of features or when visibility is poor. %t night it may be necessary to send a
member of the unit out in front of your position to create your own steering mark in order to proceed.
7is position should be as far out as possible to reduce the number of chances for error as you move.
%rm1and1hand signals or a radio may be used in placing him on the correct a9imuth. %fter he has been
properly located move forward to his position and repeat the process until some steering marks can be
identified or until you reach your objective.
)B' #hen handling obstacles>detours on the route follow these guidelines,
)a' #hen an obstacle forces you to leave your original line of march and take up a parallel
one always return to the original line as soon as the terrain or situation permits.
)b' To turn clockwise 3right4 &0 degrees you must add &0 degrees to your original
a9imuth. To turn counterclockwise 3left4 &0 degrees from your current direction you must
subtract &0 degrees from your present a9imuth.
)c' #hen making a detour be certain that only paces taken toward the final destination are
counted as part of your forward progress. They should not be confused with the local pacing that
takes place perpendicular to the route in order to avoid the problem area and in returning to the
original line of march after the obstacle has been passed.
)C' "ometimes a steering mark on your a9imuth of travel can be seen across a swamp or some
other obstacle to which you can simply walk out around. 5ead reckoning can then begin at that point.
If there is no obvious steering mark to be seen across the obstacle perhaps one can be located to the
rear. .ompute a back a9imuth to this point and later sight back to it once the obstacle has been passed
in order to get back on track.
)E' Fou can use the deliberate offset techni?ue. 7ighly accurate distance estimates and
precision compass work may not be re?uired if the destination or an intermediate checkpoint is located
on or near a large linear feature that runs nearly perpendicular to your direction of travel. 'xamples
include roads or highways railroads power transmission lines ridges or streams. In these cases you
should apply a deliberate error 3offset4 of about 10 degrees to the a9imuth you planned to follow and
then move using the lensatic compass as a guide in that direction until you encounter the linear
feature. Fou will know exactly which way to turn 3left or right4 to find your destination or checkpoint
depending upon which way you planned your deliberate offset.
)4' )ecause no one can move along a given a9imuth with absolute precision it is better to
plan a few extra steps than to begin an aimless search for the objective once you reach the linear
feature. If you introduce your own mistake you will certainly know how to correct it. This method
will also cope with minor compass errors and the slight variations that always occur in the earth0s
magnetic field.
)' There are disadvantages to dead reckoning. The farther you travel by dead reckoning
without confirming your position in relation to the terrain and other features the more errors you will
accumulate in your movements. Therefore you should confirm and correct your estimated position
whenever you encounter a known feature on the ground that is also on the map. @eriodically you
should accomplish a resection triangulation using two or more known points to pinpoint and correct
your position on the map. @ace counts or any type of distance measurement should begin anew each
time your position is confirmed on the map.
)a' It is dangerous to select a single steering mark such as a distant mountaintop and
then move blindly toward it. #hat will you do if you must suddenly call for fire support or a
medical evacuationU Fou must periodically use resection and terrain association techni?ues
to pinpoint your location along the way.
)b' "teering marks can be farther apart in open country thereby making navigation
more accurate. In areas of dense vegetation however where there is little relief during
darkness or in fog your steering marks must be close together. This of course introduces
more chance for error.
)c' 2inally dead reckoning is time1consuming and demands constant attention to the
compass. 'rrors accumulate easily and ?uickly. 'very fold in the ground and detours as
small as a single tree or boulder also complicate the measurement of distance.
b. /o&ing by !errain #ssociation. The techni?ue of moving by terrain
association is more forgiving of mistakes and far less time1consuming than dead reckoning. It best
suits those situations that call for movement from one area to another. Once an error has been made in
dead reckoning you are off the track. 'rrors made using terrain association are easily corrected
however because you are comparing what you expected to see from the map to what you do see on
the ground. 'rrors are anticipated and will not go unchecked. Fou can easily make adjustments based
upon what you encounter. %fter all you do not find the neighborhood grocery store by dead reckoning
Gyou adjust your movements according to the familiar landmarks you encounter along the way
32igure 111C 4. @eriodic position1fixing through either plotted or estimated resection will also make
it possible to correct your movements call for fire or call in the locations of enemy targets or any
other information of tactical or logistical importance.
2igure 111C. Terrain association navigation with a topographic map.
)' ?dentiying and Locating Selected ,eatures. )eing able to
identify and locate the selected features both on the map and on the ground are essential to
the success in moving by terrain association. The following rules may prove helpful.
)a' )e certain the map is properly oriented when moving along the route and use
the terrain and other features as guides. The orientation of the map must match the
terrain or it can cause confusion.
)b' To locate and identify features being used to guide the movement look for
the steepness and shape of the slopes the relative elevations of the various features and
the directional orientations in relation to your position and to the position of the other
features you can see.
)c' 6ake use of the additional cues provided by hydrography culture and
vegetation. %ll the information you can gather will assist you in making the move. The
ultimate test and the best practice for this movement techni?ue is to go out in the field
and use it. The use of terrain other natural features and any man1made objects that
appear both on the map and on the ground must be practiced at every opportunity.
There is no other way to learn or retain this skill.
)*' *sing 9andrails4 Catc%ing ,eatures4 and (a!igational
)ttac; $oints. 2irst because it is difficult to dead reckon without error over long distances with
your compass the alert navigator can often gain assistance from the terrain.
)a' $andrailsare linear features like roads or highways railroads power
transmission lines ridgelines or streams that run roughly parallel to your direction of
travel. Instead of using precision compass work you can rough compass without the
use of steering marks for as long as the feature travels with you on your right or left. It
acts as a handrail to guide the way.
)b' "econd when you reach the point where either your route or the handrail
changes direction you must be aware that it is time to go your separate ways. "ome
prominent feature located near this point is selected to provide this warning. This is
called a catching feature/ it can also be used to tell you when you have gone too far.
)c' Third the catching feature may also be your navigational attack point/ this
point is the place where area navigation ends and point navigation begins. 2rom this
last easily identified checkpoint the navigator moves cautiously and precisely along a
given a9imuth for a specified distance to locate the final objective. The selection of this
navigational attack point is important. % distance of -00 meters or less is most
desirable.
)+' Recognizing t%e Disad!antages o Terrain )ssociation. The
major disadvantage to navigation by terrain association is that you must be able to interpret the map
and analy9e the world around you. <ecognition of terrain and other features the ability to determine
and estimate direction and distance and knowing how to do ?uick1in1the1head position fixing are
skills that are more difficult to teach learn and retain than those re?uired for dead reckoning.
c. (ombination of !echni0ues.%ctually the most successful navigation is obtained
by combining the techni?ues described above. .onstant orientation of the map and continuous
observation of the terrain in conjunction with compass1read a9imuths and distance traveled on the
ground compared with map distance used together make reaching a destination more certain. One
should not depend entirely on compass navigation or map navigation/ either or both could be lost or
destroyed.
Dight Davigation
,ight ,a&igation
5arkness presents its own characteristics for land navigation because of limited or no visibility.
7owever the techni?ues and principles are the same as that used for day navigation. The success in
nighttime land navigation depends on rehearsals during the planning phase before the movement such
as detailed analysis of the map to determine the type of terrain in which the navigation is going to take
place and the predetermination of a9imuths and distances. Dight vision devices can greatly enhance
night navigation.
a. The basic techni?ue used for nighttime land navigation is dead reckoning with several
compasses recommended. The point man is in front of the navigator but just a few steps away for easy
control of the a9imuth. "maller steps are taken during night navigation so remember the pace count is
different. It is recommended that a pace count obtained by using a predetermined 1001meter pace
course be used at night.
b. Davigation using the stars is recommended in some areas/ however a thorough knowledge
of constellations and location of stars is needed. The four cardinal directions can also be obtained at
night by using the same techni?ue described for the shadow1tip method. Hust use the moon instead of
the sun. In this case the moon has to be bright enough to cast a shadow.
4.,a&igation in Different !ypes of !errain
The information, concepts, and skills already presented will help you to navigate anywhere in
the world& however, there are some special considerations and helpful hints that may assist you in
various special environments. The following information is not doctrine.
5esert Terrain
Desert !errain
%bout - percent of the earth0s land surface is covered by deserts 32igure 1=11 4. 5eserts are
large arid areas with little or no rainfall during the year. There are three types of desertsGmountain
rocky plateau and sandy or dune deserts. %ll types of forces can be deployed in the desert. %rmor and
mechani9ed infantry forces are especially suitable to desert combat except in rough mountainous
terrain where light infantry may be re?uired. %irborne air assault and motori9ed forces can also be
advantageously employed to exploit the vast distances characteristic of desert warfare.
.igure +;
2igure 1=11. 5eserts.
a. Desert 2egions. In desert regions terrain varies from nearly flat to lava beds and salt
marshes. 6ountain deserts contain scattered ranges or areas of barren hills or mountains. Table 1=11
lists some of the world0s major desert regions and their locations.
<egion :ocation
"ahara Dorth %frica
(alahari "outhwest %frica
%rabian "outhwest %sia
8obi 6ongolia and Dorthern .hina
<ub0al (hali "outh %rabia
8reat )asin .olorado .hihuahua Fuma "onoran
and 6ohave
Dorthern 6exico and #estern
$nited "tates
Takla 6akan Dorthern .hina
(y9yl (um "outhwest $""<
(ara (um "outhwest $""<
"yrian "audi %rabia Hordan and Ira?
8reat Aictoria #estern and "outh %ustralia
@atagonia "outhern %rgentina and .hile
%ltacama Dorthern .hile
Table 1=11. 6ajor desert regions.
)' 2inding the way in a desert presents some degree of difficulty for a person who has
never been exposed to this environment. 5esert navigators have learned their way through
generations of experience.
)*' Dormally desert people are nomadic constantly moving in caravans. Davigating
becomes second nature to them. Temperature in the tropical deserts reaches an average of 110K to
11-K during the day so most navigation takes place at night using the stars. 6ost deserts have
some prevailing winds during the seasons. "uch winds arrange the sand dunes in a specific
pattern that gives the navigator the opportunity to determine the four cardinal directions. 7e may
also use the sun0s shadow1tip method.
)+' % sense of direction can be obtained by watching desert animals on their way to and
from water holes 3oases4. #ater navigation and survival are closely related in desert areas. 6ost
deserts have pigeons or doves and their drinking habits are important to the navigator. %s a rule
these birds never drink in the morning or during the day making their evening flights the most
important. #hen returning from the oases their bodies are heavier from drinking and their flight
is accompanied by a louder flapping of their wings.
)4' Aisibility is also an important factor in the desert especially in judging distance. The
absence of trees or other features prevents comparison between the hori9on and the skyline.
b. =nterpretation and #nalysis. 6any desert maps are inaccurate which makes up1
to1date air aerial photo and ground reconnaissance necessary. In desert mountain areas contour
intervals are generally large so many of the intermediate relief features are not shown.
)' The desert normally permits observation and fire to maximum ranges. The terrain is
generally wide open and the exceptionally clear atmosphere offers excellent long1range visibility.
.ombine this with a powerful sun and low cloud density and you have nearly unlimited light and
visual clarity which often contribute to gross underestimations of ranges. 'rrors of up to ;00 or
=00 percent are not uncommon. 7owever visibility conditions may be severely affected by
sandstorms and mirages 3heat shimmer caused by air rising from the extremely hot daytime
desert surface4 especially if the observer is looking into the sun through magnifying optical
instruments.
)*' .over can be provided only by terrain feature masking because of the lack of heavy
vegetation and man1made objects. It only takes a few meters of relief to provide cover.
.oncealment in the desert is related to the following factors,
)a' +hape. In order not to be observed by the enemy attempt to alter the standard
shapes of vehicles so they and their shadows are not instantly recogni9ed.
)b' +hine. "hine or glitter is often the first thing that attracts the observer0s eye to
movement many kilometers away. It must be eliminated.
)c' Color and texture. %ll e?uipment should either be pattern painted or mudded to
blend in with the terrain.
)d' :ight and noise. :ight and noise discipline are essential because sound and light
travel great distances in the desert.
)e' 8eat. 6odern heat image technology makes shielding heat sources an important
consideration when trying to hide from the enemy. This technology is especially important
during night stops.
)f' )ovement. 6ovement itself creates a great deal of noise and dust but a rapid
execution using all the advantages the topography offers can help conceal it.
c. (a!igation. #hen operating in the broad basins between mountain ranges or on rocky
plateau deserts there are fre?uently many terrain features to guide your movement by. )ut observing
these known features over great distances may provide a false sense of security in determining your
precise location unless you fre?uently confirm your location by resection or referencing close1in
terrain features. It is not uncommon to develop errors of several kilometers when casually estimating a
position in this manner. Obviously this can create many problems when attempting to locate a small
checkpoint or objective calling for .%" reporting operational or intelligence information or meeting
."" re?uirements.
)' #hen operating in an area with few visual cues such as in a sandy or dune desert or
restricted visibility by a sandstorm or darkness you must proceed by dead reckoning. The four
steps and two techni?ues for navigation presented earlier remain valid in the desert. 7owever
understanding the special conditions found there are extremely helpful as you apply them.
)*' Tactical mobility and speed are key to successful desert operations. Obstacles and
areas such as lava beds or salt marshes which preclude surface movements do exist. )ut most
deserts permit two1dimensional movement by ground forces similar to that of a naval task force
at sea. "peed of execution is essential. 'veryone moves farther and faster on the desert. "pecial
navigation aids sometimes used in the desert include,
)a' +un compass. It can be used on moving vehicles and sextants. It re?uires accurate
timekeeping. 7owever the deviation on a magnetic compass that is caused by the metal and
electronics in the vehicle is usually less than O10K.
)b' ;yro compass. The gun a9imuth stabili9er is in fact a gyro compass. If used on
fairly flat ground it is useful for maintaining direction over limited distances.
)c' 'ires. @lanned tracer fire or mortar and artillery concentrations 3preferably smoke
during the day and illumination at night4 provide useful checks on estimated locations.
)d' 7repositioned lights. This method consists of placing two or more searchlights far
apart behind the line of contact beyond enemy artillery range and concealed from enemy
ground observation. $nits in the area can determine their own locations through resection
using the vertical beams of the lights. These lights must be moved on a time schedule known
to all friendly units.
)+' One final note on desert navigation is that the sand hard1baked ground rocky surfaces
thorny vegetation and heat generally found in the desert impose far greater demands for maintenance
than you would plan for in temperate regions. It may also take longer to perform that maintenance.
6ountain Terrain
/ountain !errain
6ountains are generally understood to be larger than hills. <arely do mountains occur
individually/ in most cases they are found in elongated ranges or circular groups. #hen they are
linked together they constitute a mountain system 32igure 1=1; 4. :ight forces 3infantry airborne
and air assault forces4 can operate effectively in mountainous regions because they are not terrain
limited. 7eavy forces must operate in passes and valleys that are negotiable by vehicle.
2igure 1=1;. 6ountain systems.
a. /a7or "ystems. 6ajor systems are listed in Table 1=1; .
"ystem :ocation
The %ndes .entral and "outh %merica
The <ockies Dorth %merica 3$"%1.anada4
The %ppalachians Dorth %merica 3$"%1.anada4
The %lps .entral 'urope
The 7imalayas %sia
The .aucasus
#estern %sia and 'urope
3<ussia4
Table 1=1;. 6ajor systems.
b. /inor "ystems."ome other systems are in %ntarctica 7awaii Hapan Dew Jealand
and Oceania. 6ountain systems are characteri9ed by high inaccessible peaks and steep slopes.
5epending on the altitude they may be snow covered. @rominent ridges and large valleys are also
found. Davigating in this type of terrain is not difficult providing you make a careful examination of
the map and the terrain.
c. (limate.)ecause of the elevations it is always colder 3=K to -K per =001meter gain in
altitude4 and wetter than you might expect. #ind speeds can increase the effects of the cold even
more. "udden severe storms and fog are encountered regularly. )elow the tree line vegetation is
.=<?2- +;*
heavy because of the extra rainfall and the fact that the land is rarely cleared for farming.
d. =nterpretation and #nalysis.The heights of mountainous terrain permit excellent
long1range observation. 7owever rapidly fluctuating weather with fre?uent periods of high winds
rain snow or fog may limit visibility. %lso the rugged nature of the terrain fre?uently produces
significant dead space at mid1ranges.
)' <educed mobility compartmented terrain and the effects of rapidly changing weather
increase the importance of air ground aerial photo and map reconnaissance. "ince mountain
maps often use large contour intevals microrelief interpretation and detailed terrain analysis
re?uire special emphasis.
)*' %t first glance some mountainous terrain may not appear to offer ade?uate cover and
concealment/ however you can improve the situation. #hen moving use rock outcroppings
boulders and heavy vegetation for cover and concealment/ use terrain features to mask
maneuvers. $se harsh weather which often obscures observation to enhance concealment.
)+' "ince there are only a few routing options all1round security must be of primary
concern. Datural obstacles are everywhere and the enemy can easily construct more.
e. ,a&igation.'xisting roads and trails offer the best routes for movement. Off1road
movement may enhance security provided there is detailed reconnaissance photo intelligence or
information from local inhabitants to ensure the route is negotiable. %gain the four steps and two
techni?ues for navigation presented earlier remain valid in the mountains. Devertheless understanding
the special conditions and the terrain will help you navigate. Other techni?ues that are sometimes
helpful in mountains are,
314 )spect o Slope. To determine the aspect of slope take a compass reading
along an imaginary line that runs straight down the slope. It should cut through each of the contour
lines at about a &0K angle. )y checking the map and knowing the direction of slope where you are
located you will be able to keep track of your location and it will help guide your cross1country
movement even when visibility is poor.
)*' *se o an )ltimeter. 'mployment of an altimeter with calibrations on the
scale down to 10 or ;0 meters is helpful to land navigators moving in areas where radical changes in
elevation exist. %n altimeter is a type of barometer that gauges air pressure except it measures on an
adjustable scale marked in feet or meters of elevation rather than in inches or centimeters of mercury.
.areful use of the altimeter helps to pinpoint your position on a map through a uni?ue type of
resection. Instead of finding your position by using two different directional values you use one
directional value and one elevation value.
Hungle Terrain
>ungle !errain
These large geographic regions are found within the tropics near the e?uator 3.entral %merica
along the %ma9on <iver "outh1'astern %sia and adjacent islands and vast areas in the middle of
%frica and India4 32igure 1=1= 4. Hungles are characteri9ed as rainy humid areas with heavy layers
of tangled impenetrable vegetation. Hungles contain many species of wildlife 3tigers monkeys
parrots snakes alligators and so forth4. The jungle is also a paradise for insects which are the worst
enemy of the navigator because some insects carry diseases 3malaria yellow fever cholera and so
forth4. #hile navigating in these areas very little terrain association can be accomplished because of
the heavy foliage. 5ead reckoning is one of the methods used in these areas. % lost navigator in the
jungle can eventually find his way back to civili9ation by following any body of water with a
downstream flow. 7owever not every civili9ation found is of a friendly nature.
2igure 1=1=. Hungles and savannas.
a. Operations.Operations in jungles tend to be isolated actions by small forces because of
the difficulties encountered in moving and in maintaining contact between units. 5ivisions can move
cross1country slowly/ but aggressive reconnaissance meticulous intelligence collection and detailed
coordination are re?uired to concentrate forces in this way. 6ore commonly large forces operate
along roads or natural avenues of movement as was the case in the mountains. @atrolling and other
surveillance operations are especially important to ensure security of larger forces in the close terrain
of jungles.
)' "hort fields of observation and fire and thick vegetation make maintaining contact
with the enemy difficult. The same factors reduce the effectiveness of indirect fire and make
jungle combat primarily a fight between infantry forces. "upport by air and mechani9ed forces
can be decisive at times but it will not always be available or effective.
)*' Hungles are characteri9ed by high temperatures heavy rains high humidity and an
abundance of vegetation. The climate varies with location. .lose to the e?uator all seasons are
nearly alike with heavy rains all year. 2arther from the e?uator 3India and "outheast %sia4 there
are distinct wet 3monsoon4 and dry seasons. )oth 9ones have high temperatures 3averaging B- to
&-O degrees 2ahrenheit4 heavy rainfall 3as much as *00O inches annually and high humidity 3&0
percent4 all year.
)+' In temperate climates it is the areas of vegetation that are most likely to be altered and
incorrectly portrayed on a map. In jungle areas the vegetation grows so rapidly that it is more
likely to be cleared and make these areas be shown incorrectly.
b. =nterpretation and #nalysis.The jungle environment includes dense forests
grasslands swamps and cultivated areas. 2orests are classified as primary and secondary based upon
the terrain and vegetation. @rimary forests include tropical rain forests and deciduous forests.
"econdary forests are found at the edges of both rain forests and deciduous forests and in areas where
jungles have been cleared and abandoned. These places are typically overgrown with weeds grasses
thorns ferns canes and shrubs. 6ovement is especially slow and difficult. The extremely thick
vegetation reaches a height of ; meters and severely limits observation to only a few meters.
)' Tropical rain forests consist mostly of large trees whose branches spread and lock
together to form canopies. These canopies which can exist at two and three different levels may
form as low as 10 meters from the ground. They prevent direct sunlight from reaching the
ground causing a lack of undergrowth on the jungle floor. 'xtensive above1ground root systems
and hanging vines are common and make vehicular travel difficult/ foot movement is easier.
8round observation is limited to about -0 meters and air observation is nearly impossible.
.igure +;+
)*' 5eciduous forests are in semitropical 9ones that have both wet and dry seasons. In the
wet season trees are fully leaved/ in the dry season much of the folliage dies. Trees are usually
less dense than in rain forests which allows more sunlight to filter to the ground. This procedure
produces thick undergrowth. 5uring the wet season air and ground observation is limited and
movement is difficult. 5uring the dry season both improve.
)+' "wamps are common to all low jungle areas where there is poor drainage. #hen
navigating in a swampy area a careful analysis of map and ground should be taken before any
movement. The soldiers should travel in small numbers with only the e?uipment re?uired for
their mission keeping in mind that they are going to be immersed in water part of the time. The
usual techni?ue used in swamp navigation is dead reckoning. There are two basic types of
swampsGmangrove and palm. 6angrove swamps are found in coastal areas wherever tides
influence water flow. 6angrove is a shrub1like tree that grows 1 to - meters high. These trees
have a tangled root system both above and below the waterline which restricts movement either
by foot or small boat. Observation on the ground and from the air is poor but concealment is
excellent.
)4' 8rassy plains or savannas are generally located away from the e?uator but within the
tropics. These vast land areas are characteri9ed by flatlands with a different type of vegetation
than jungles. They consist mainly of grasses 3ranging from 1 to more than 1; feet in height4
shrubs and isolated trees. The most difficult areas to navigate are the ones surrounded by tall
grass 3elephant grass4/ however vehicles can negotiate here better than in some areas. There are
few or no natural features to navigate by making dead reckoning or navigation by stars the only
techni?ue for movement 32igure 1=1= 4. 5epending on the height of the grass ground
observation may vary from poor to good. .oncealment from air observation is poor for both
soldiers and vehicles.
)5' )amboo stands are common throughout the tropics. They should be bypassed
whenever possible. They are formidable obstacles for vehicles and soldier movement through
them is slow exhausting and noisy.
)A' .ultivated areas exist in jungles also. They range from large well1planned well1
managed farms and plantations to small tracts cultivated by farmers. The three general types of
cultivated areas are rice paddies plantations and small farms.
c. ,a&igation.%reas such as jungles are generally not accurately mapped because heavy
vegetation makes aerial surveys difficult. The ability to observe terrain features near or far is
extremely limited. The navigator must rely heavily upon his compass and the dead reckoning
techni?ue when moving in the jungle. Davigation is further complicated by the inability to make
straight1line movements. Terrain analysis constant use of the compass and an accurate pace count are
essential to navigation in this environment.
)' <ates of movement and pace counts are particularly important to jungle navigators.
The most common error is to overestimate the distance traveled. The distances below can be used
as a rough guide for the maximum distances that might be traveled in various types of terrain
during one hour in daylight.
Type of
Terrain
6aximum 5istance 3In 6eters4
Tropical <ain
2orest
$p to 1000
5eciduous
2orest
-00
"econdary
jungle
100 to -00
Tall 8rass -00
"wamps 100 to =00
<ice paddies
3wet4
C00
<ice paddies
3dry4
;000
@lantations ;000
Trails up to =000
Table 1=1=. 8uide for maximum distance.
)*' "pecial navigation strategies that are helpful in jungles include,
)a' @ersonal pace table. Fou should either make a mental or written personal pace table
that includes your average pace count per 100 meters for each of the types of terrain through
which you are likely to navigate.
)b' <esection using indirect fire. .all for mortar or artillery fire 3airbursts of white
phosphorous or illumination4 on two widely separated grids that are not on terrain features like
the one you are occupying and are a safe distance from your estimated location. 5irections to the
airbursts sometimes must be determined by sound.
)c' 6odified area>point navigation. 'ven when making primary use of the compass for
dead reckoning you are fre?uently able to area navigate to an expanded objective which is easily
identified by terrain association. Then simply develop a short point1navigation leg to your final
destination.
%rctic Terrain
#rctic !errain
%rctic terrain includes those areas that experience extended periods of below free9ing
temperatures. In these areas the ground is generally covered with ice or snow during the winter
season. %lthough fro9en ground and ice can improve trafficability a deep accumulation of snow can
reduce it. Aehicles and personnel re?uire special e?uipment and care under these adverse conditions.
a. Operations.)oth the terrain and the type and si9e of unit operations vary greatly in
arctic areas. In open terrain armored and mechani9ed forces will be effective although they will have
to plan and train for the special conditions. In broken terrain forests and mountains light forces will
predominate as usual. 7owever foot movement can take up to five times as long as it might under
warmer conditions.
b. =nterpretation and #nalysis.)oth the terrain and cultural features you may
confront in winter may vary to any extreme as can the weather. The common factor is an extended
period of below1free9ing temperatures. The terrain may be plains plateaus hills or mountains. The
climate will be cold but the weather will vary greatly from place to place. 6ost arctic terrain
experiences snow but some claim impressive accumulations each season such as the lake1effected
snow belts off :ake Ontario near 2ort 5rum Dew Fork. Other areas have many cold days with
sunshine and clear nights and little snow accumulation.
)' In areas with distinct local relief and scattered trees or forests the absence of
foliage makes movement by terrain association easier/ observation and fields of fire are
greatly enhanced except during snowstorms. )ut in relatively flat open areas covered with
snow 3especially in bright sunlight4 the resulting lack of contrast may interfere with your
being able to read the land. #ith foliage gone concealment 3both from the ground and from
the air4 is greatly reduced. %s in desert areas you must make better use of the terrain to
conceal your movements.
)*' 2ro9en streams and swamps may no longer be obstacles and thus identification of
avenues of approach may be difficult in winter. 7owever the concept as to what is key
terrain is not likely to be affected.
c. ,a&igation."pecial skills may be re?uired in arctic terrain such as the proper use of
winter clothing skis and snowshoes/ but this does not affect your navigation strategies. There are no
special techni?ues for navigating in arctic terrain. Hust be aware of the advantages and disadvantages
that may present themselves and make the most of your opportunities while applying the four steps
and two techni?ues for land navigation.
)' <emember the highest caliber of leadership is re?uired to ensure that all
necessary tasks are performed that security is maintained and that soldiers and their
e?uipment are protected from the physical effects of very low temperatures. There is a great
temptation to do less than a thorough job at whatever the task may be when you are very
cold.
)*' Dight navigation may be particularly enhanced when operating in arctic terrain.
6oonlight and starlight on a clear night reflect off the snow thus enabling you to employ
daytime terrain association techni?ues with little difficulty. 'ven cloudy winter nights are
often brighter than clear moonlit summer nights when the ground is dark and covered with
foliage. 6ovements with complete light discipline 3no black1out drives4 can often be
executed. On the other hand areas with severe winter climates experience lengthy periods of
darkness each day which may be accompanied by driving snow and limited visibility.
.ield "ketching
" sketch is a free3hand drawing of a map or picture of an area or route of travel. #t shows
enough detail and has enough accuracy to satisfy special tactical or administrative reuirements.
#;. 8?28O"-
"ketches are useful when maps are not available or the existing maps are not ade?uate or to
illustrate a reconnaissance or patrol report. "ketches may vary from hasty to complete and detailed
depending upon their purpose and the degree of accuracy re?uired. 2or example a sketch of a large
minefield will re?uire more accuracy than a hasty sketch of a small unit0s defensive position.
#;*. /=:=!#2K "J-!($-"
The scale of a sketch is determined by the object in view and the amount of detail re?uired to be
shown. The sketch of a defensive position for a platoon or company normally calls for a sketch of
larger scale than a sketch for the same purpose for a division. 6ilitary sketches also include road and
area sketches.
a. .ield "ketches. % field sketch 32igure %11 4 must show the north arrow scale
legend and the following features,
8ower lines.
2i&ers.
/ain roads.
!owns and &illages.
.orests.
2ail lines.
/a7or terrain features.
2igure %11. "ketch map.
b. 2oad "ketches. These sketches show the natural and military features on and in the
immediate vicinity of the road. In general the width of terrain sketches will not exceed =+- meters on
each side of the road. <oad sketches may be used to illustrate a road when the existing map does not
show sufficient detail.
c. #rea "ketches. These sketches include those of positions O@s or particular places.
)' $osition S;etc%.% position sketch is one of a military position campsite or
other area of ground. To effectively complete a position sketch the sketcher must have access to all
parts of the area being sketched.
)*' Obser!ation $ost S;etc%. %n O@ sketch shows the military features of
ground along a friendly O@ line as far toward the enemy position as possible.
)+' $lace S;etc%. % place sketch is one of an area made by a sketcher from a single
point of observation. "uch a sketch may cover ground in front of an O@ line or it may serve to extend
a position or road sketch toward the enemy.
/ap .olding !echni0ues
!ne of the first considerations in the care of maps is its proper folding.
%;. .O:D=,< /-!$OD"
2igures )11 and )1; show ways of folding maps to make them small enough to be carried
easily and still be available for use without having to unfold them entirely.
2igure
)11. Two
methods of
folding a
map.
%;*.
82O!-(!=O, /-!$OD
%fter a map has been folded it should be pasted in a folder for protection. %pply adhesive to the
back of the segments corresponding to % 2 : and E 32igure )1; 4.
2igure
)1;. 7ow to
slit and fold
a map for
special use.
%;+.
82#(!=(- (?!
It is suggested that before attempting to cut and fold a map in the manner illustrated in 2igure
)1; make a practice cut and fold with a piece of paper.
?nits of /easure and (on&ersion .actors
This appendix provides conversion tables for units of measure and conversion factors that are
used in military operations.
1; inches
=+ inches
= feet
1B+0 yards
;0;+.C yards
-;C0 feet
N
N
N
N
N
N
1 foot
1 yard
1 yard
1 mile statute
1 mile nautical
1 mile statute
+0C0.* feet
+==+0 inches
B;&+= inches
N
N
N
1 mile nautical
1 mile statute
1 mile nautical
Table .11. 'nglish system of linear measure.

1 millimeter
10 millimeters
10 centimeters
10 decimeters
10 meters
10 decameters
10
hectometers
10 kilometers
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
centimeter
centimeter
decimeter
meter
decameter
hectometer
kilometer
1.0 myriameter
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
0.0=&= inches
0.=&=B inches
=.&=B inches
=&.=B inches
=;.C1 feet
=;C.1 feet
0.+; mile
+.;1 miles
Table .1;. 6etric system of linear measure.

1 mil
1 grad
1
degree
N
N
N
1>+*00 circle
1>*00 circle
1>=+0 circle
N
N
N
0.0-+;-K
1+.0 mils
about 1B.C mils
N
N
N
0.0+;- grad
0K-*0 N 0.&K
about 1.1 grad
Table .1=. '?uivalent units of angular measure.

O,-
=,
($-"
.
--!
K
#2D"
"
!#!?!
-
/=:-"
,
#?!=(
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Table .1*. .onversion factors.
-6ample =
@roblem, <educe B+ centimeters to 3U4 inches.
B+ cm x 0.=&=B N ;& inches
%nswer, There are ;& inches in B+ centimeters.
-6ample ==
@roblem, 7ow many feet are there in ;.B* metersU
;.B*
N & feet GG
.=0*C
%nswer, There are approximately & feet in ;.B* meters.

"(#:
-
=,($ -L?#:"
(-,!=/-!-2
-L?#:"
1,-00
0
*1+.+B feet
1;B.00 meters
1+*.00 feet
-0.00 meters
1,100
00
C==.== feet
;-*.00 meters
=;C.10 feet
100.00 meters
1,1;-
00
10*1.++ feet
=1B.00 meters
*10.10 feet
1;-.00 meters
1,;00
00
1+++.B0 feet
-0C.00 meters
+-+.;0 feet
;00.00 meters
1,;-0
00
;0C=.=0 feet
+=-.00 meters
C;0.;0 feet
;-0.00 meters
1,-00
00
*1++.B0 feet
1;B0.00 meters
1+*0.*0 feet
-00.00 meters
1,+==
+0
-;C0.00 feet
1+0&.=0 meters
;0BC.B0 feet
+==.+0 meters
1,100
000
C===.=0 feet
;-*0.00 meters
=;C0.C0 feet
1000.00 meters
1,;-0
000
;0C==.00 feet
+=-0.00 meters
C;0;.00 feet
;-00.00 meters
1,-00
000
*1++B.00 feet
1;B00.00 meters
1+*0*.00 feet
-000.00 meters
Table .1-. 8round distance at map scale.