UNIT-1 P-N junction Diode Characteristics and Parameters

Forward and Reverse Characteristics (I) Forward Characteristics

Semiconductor Diodes and Applications

* A positive bias voltage is applied to the P-side and a negative voltage to the N-side. As the holes on the P-side are positively charged particles, they are repelled from the positive bias terminal and are forced to move towards the junction. Similarly, the electrons on the N-side are repelled by the negative bias terminal and are driven towards the junction. * The depletion region is narrowed down, and along with it the barrier potential is also reduced. If the applied voltage is graduall y increased from zero, the barrier potential too gets gradually smaller, until it disappears and charge carriers readily flow across the junction. * Electrons from the N-side are attracted across to the positive bias terminal and the holes from the Pside tq the negative terminal. Thus, a majority carrier current flows and the junction is forward biased. * The graph of fig 2 shows the forward characteristics,the forward current is plotted against the forward voltage for germanium and silicon P-N junctions. * From these curves we see that very little forward current flows until VF exceeds the junction barrier potential (0.3V for Ge and 0.7V for Si). * With the increase of VF the barrier potential is gradually reduced,and IF increases almost linearly with increase in VF.

*On application of an external bias positive to the N-side and negative to the P-side electrons from the N-side are attracted to the positive bias terminal and holes from the P-side are attracted to the negative terminal. * As a result,the depletion region is widened and the barrier potential is increased by the magnitude of the applied voltage. * Due to the increase in barrier potential and the resultant electric field,it is not possible for the majority carrier current to flow across the junction and the junction is reverse biased. * A small reverse bias voltage is enough to pull across all available minority carriers across the junction. *When all the minority carriers have crossed over, any further increase in bias voltage will not increase the current.this is called Reverse Saturation Current IS.

* For a diode with the characteristics as shown in fig.3,the reverse saturation current(IS) is very smaller than the forward current(IF),thus IS is quite negligible as compared to IF.

Fig.3 Reverse characteristic for Sikicon diode

Fig.4.Reverse characteristic for Ge diode

The Diode Current Equation and Forward Bias Characteristics

Consider a P-N Junction Diode across which a variable forward voltage is applied,as shown in fig 5(a).

(a) Forward-Biased P-N Junctin Diode Fig.5

( b) P-N Junction Diode Forward Bias characteristics

It can be shown that the general characteristics of a P-N Junction are defined by the following Diode Current Equation.

Where

The Diode Current Reverse Saturation Current Applied Voltage (positive when diode is forward-biased and negative when diode is reverse-biased). is a constant 1 for both silicon and germanium for higher levels of diode current 2 for silicon and 1 for germanium for relatively low levels of diode current Volt equivalent of temperature At room temperature,

As the diode is forward-biased, V is positive and I=IF. When V>>VT, then Equation (1.1) reduces to which shows that the diode current rises exponentially when the diode is forward - biased, as shown in Fig. 5(b). We also notice that the forward current is zero upto a certain forward voltage , as shown in the figure. The voltage at which conduction starts is called the cut-in voltage Vt . However, the cut-in voltages are different, being about 0.2 volt for Ge diode and about 0.6 volt for Si diode.

THE Diode Current Equation and Reverse Bias Characteristics

Let us now take up a P-N Junction Diode, across which a variable reverse bias voltage is applied, as shown in Fig. 6 (a). Again taking the equation (1.1) for Diode Current,

When reverse or negative voltage is applied across the diode, V is negative and I = IR ' and when V > > VT

Equation(1.3) reduces to

(a) Reverse-Biased P-N Junction Diode Fig.6

(b) P-N Junction Diode Reverse-BiasCharacteristics

This shows that the current is constant and is independent of the applied reverse bias. However, when the Reverse Voltage is increased to V RB , breakdown occurs.

Temperature Dependence of V-I Characteristics

We shall now study diode voltage variation with temperature at a fixed current. It has been found that the following expressions for 1 0 are applicable in the case of germanium & silicon diodes. For Ge, For Si, where V GO is a voltage numerically equal to the Forbidden Energy gap E GO in electron volts and are constants which are independent of temperature. A general equation for 10, valid for both Ge and Si diodes is

where K is a constant and qV 00 is the forbidden energy gap in joules, q being the magnitude

of the charge of an electron. For Ge: For Si: A t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e , 2 2 C ( 7 2 ) , T = 2 9 5 K a n d V = 0 . 0 2 5 v o l t . Hence, for germanium( )

where I = reverse saturation current at room temperature. These equations show that when the di ode i s f or ward -bi ased (V positi ve) t he current r ises exponentially with voltage above a few tenths of a volt, 0.2 V for germanium and 0.6 V for silicon. * We know that the reverse current is very much dependent on temperature and shows an increase of 7%/C for both germanium and silicon. This indicates a doubling for every 10C rise. * A graph showing the variation in a silicon diode's characteristics with temperature is given in Fig. 7. A germanium diode's characteristics are very similar except for the much larger value of I . which is in the microampere range.

Fig 7. Effect of Temperature on Volt Amp.Characteristics of a practical silicon diode

* The maximum temperature a germanium junction can withstand without breakdown and consequent damage to the diode is in the range of 60 0 to 100C and for a silicon diode it is between 150 and 225C. * As a rule, a germanium diode is hardly used at temperatures exceeding 75C, and a silicon diode is not operated at higher than 175C. The lower limit for both types of diode is 65C.

Zener Diode
* When a reverse voltage is applied to a j unction diode, a small reverse saturation current I0. flows, and this is due to the minority charge carriers present in P- and N-regions of the diode. * The reverse current is only a few micro-amperes, and it remains practically constant, even when the reverse bias is increased (Fig. 8). When the reverse bias is further increased, the junction breaks down and a large reverse current flows. If this reverse current is limited by means of an appropriate series resistor R, (Fig. 9),

Fig 8

Fig 9

There are two tpes of breakdown mechanisms,namely avalanche breakdown and zener breakdown. Schematic Symbol and Package *The schematic symbol of a zener diode is shown in Fig. 10(a). The arrow head represents the anode and the twice bent bar represents the cathode. * The arrow head indicates the direction of flow of conventional current when the device is forward biased.

*For the normal operation of the zener diode the positive potential is on the cathode and negative on the anode so that the device is reverse-biased.

(a) Schematic Symbol Fig.10

(b)Low current zener diode package

Characteristics and Parameters

Fig.11. V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode * The volt-ampere characteristics of the Zener diode are given in Fig. 11. When the reverse voltage is applied a small reverse current 1, flows until the breakdown voltage V R B is reached. * The breakdown voltage has a sharp knee, f ollowed by an al most vertical increase in current (The portion AB of the characteristic), during which period the voltage across the device remains almost constant. *Thus, is the minimum Zener current required to sustain breakdown and is the maximum Zener current at the operating voltage V z l z represents an operating current at a Zener voltage V. * Dynamic resistance of the zener diode is defined as the ratio of change in Zener voltage to the change in Zener current under reverse bias conditions. * Another important feature of a Zener diode is Power dissipation, which is the product of V across the device and current I through it, at a specified working temperature.

Zener diode parameters The various parameters of the Zener diode are given at a specified temperature. Prominent among them are as follows (i) Zener voltage V z : This is the normal working voltage of the device. Usually, the variation in the Zener working voltage is specified as a percentage. For examp:e, a 12 V Zener diode with a 10% variation has a working range from 10.8 V to 13.2 V. ( i i ) Ze n e r C u r re n t I z : T h i s i s t h e n o r ma l w o r ki n g c u r r e nt at w h i c h t h e temperature of the device remains within safe limits.

(iii) Dynamic Resistance Z R : This is the resistance of the Zener at its normal working current and voltage and is determined by taking t he ratio of a small change in voltage to a small change in current. (iv) Zener Knee Resistance ZN: This is the zener diode resistance at the knee of the characteristic. Generally knee resistance is far more than the dynamic resistance. (iv) Maximum Zener Current I ZM : This is maximum current that can be handled by the device without crossing the limit of its power dissipation capability. (v) Minimum Zener Current I Zk : This is the minimum current below which the device reverts to its normal diode operation. This is also the minimum current required to sustain breakdown. (vi) Power Dissipation P D : This is the product of Zener voltage Vz and the Zener current lzm at a particular operating point, i.e., PD=Vz X lzm.

OTHER FULL-WAVE CIRCUITS

BRIDGE RECTIFIER METER
Fig.12 gives the circuit of a rectifier meter which is essentially a bridge rectifier system except that no transformer is needed. The voltage to be measured is applied through a multiplier resistor R across one diagonal of the bridge while a d.c. milliammeter is connected across the other diagonal. The d.c. milliammeter reads the average value of the current. Hence the voltmeter scale is calibrated to give the rms value when a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the input terminals. Accordingly the instrument reads incorrectly when the applied voltage waveform differs from sinusoidal one, i.e., when it contains appreciable harmonics.

Fig .12 Rectifier voltmeter

Voltage Multiplying Rectifier Circuits

By voltage multiplying rectifier circuit is meant a rectifier circuit capable of delivering a d.c. voltage two or more times the peak value (amplitude) of the applied a.c.voltage. Common voltage multiplying rectifier circuits are (i) voltage doublers (ii) voltage quadruplers. Voltage Doublers : Voltage doublers are of two types (a) Fullwave voltage doublers or asymmetrical voltage doubler and (b) halfwave voltage doubler or cascade voltage doubler. We shall take up for study only the Full-Wave Voltage Doubler.

Fullwave Voltage Doubler : * A voltage doubler provides a d.c. voltage approximately equal to twice the peak value of applied a.c. voltage at no load. * Fig.l2.1. gives the circuit. During the positive half of the applied a.c. input voltage v i , diode D i alone conducts and charges the capacitor C 1 to the peak value V m of the applied a.c. voltage in the polarity shown. * During the negative half cycle, diode D 2 alone conducts and charges the capacitor C2 to the peak voltage Vrn in the polarity shown. * The output voltage v o is the sum of the voltages across the capacitors C i and C2. Current is being continuousl y drawn from the capaci tors through the load resistor R L. * For large value of load resistor R L, variation in the output voltage across the capacitors is small. The capacitors serve the dual function of developing the output voltage and smoothing out the pulsations from the output voltage.

Fig.12.1.Full-wave voltage doubler

Approximate Analysis of Capacitor Filter

Fig. 13 (a) shows the circuit of a capacitor filter. The filter consists of a capacitor C connected in parallel with load resistor R L. The rectifier output is available across the capacitor. The voltage waveform, as shown in Fig, 1.43 (b), is available across the load resistor. We notice that the ripple is reduced to a great extent due to the addition of the capacitor.

(b)

Fig,13
* Capacitors store energy. They can take a charge and then later deliver that charge to a load. With the increase in rectifier voltage, the capacitor is charged and more current is supplied to the load.

* Later, when the rectifier output decreases, the capacitor discharges through the load, and the voltage across the parallel combination of R and C decreases. * The undermentioned factors determine the effectiveness of a capacitor filter : a) The size of the capacitor b) The value of the load C) The time between pulsations. Ripple factor If f is the line frequency and 'C' is in Farads and 'R' is in ohms,

These three are related by the formula

T=RxC where T = time (seconds) R = resistance (in ohms)

C = Capacitance (in farads) The product (R x C) is known as the time constant of the circuit.

Fig. 1.44 shows the time between peaks for full-wave and half-wave rectifiers. * In a half-wave rectifier, the capacitor has more time to discharge, and hence ripple will naturally be greater. * Full-wave rectifiers are used when most of the ripple must be removed. This is because it is easier to filter a wave whose peaks are closer together. * If higher frequencies are used, filtering is rendered much easier. * Good filtering may also be achieved by using a very high value of capacitance. * For a very low load resistance, good filtering is achieved by incorporating a large capacitance.

Power Supply Performance

we need to assess the performance of the power supply arrangement, For this purpose we take up the Source Effect and Load Effect as discussed below.

Source Effect * In a d.c.power supply system, the a.c supply to the input of a transformer may not be
constant and may fluctuate. A 10% change in the a.c. source voltage (Vs) is quite common. * Any such voltage variation will lead to variation in the output voltage V 0 , from a power supply.

* Such a change in output voltage as a result of the change in the input is known as the Source Effect. Thus, Source Effect= for a 10% Change in VS * If the output varies by 200 mV due to source voltage changes by 10%, the source effect is 200 mV

Fig,14.Power Supply Source Effect

* Another way of expressing the change in d.c.output Vo is to show AV as a percentage of the d.c. output voltage (V0), in which case we use the term line regulation.
Thus, LINE REGULATION=

Load Effect
The d.c.output voltage is also affected by changes in load current ( ). When increases, output voltage decreases; when decreases, output voltage increases. The change in output voltage with the increase in load current from zero to its specified maximum level [ ] is known as the load effect. Thus,

Load Effect=

Thus, if change in load current (A/L) results in change in output voltage (A1/0) of 200 mV, the load effect is 200 mV. This load effect may also be expressed as a percentage of the output voltage, in which case it is called load regulation. Thus,

Zener Diode Voltage Regulators

Regulator Circuit with No Load

* A Zener Diode is sometimes called a voltage regulator diode because it maintains a constant output voltage even though the current through it changes. * For normal operation we have seen that we have to reverse bias the Zener diode. Furthermore,

to get breakdown operation, the supply voltage Vs must be greater than the Zener breakdown
voltage Vz, as shown in the simple regulator circuit of Fig. 15.

Fig. 15 Zener diode Voltage Regulator Circuit on No Load for Use as a Voltage Reference Source

* A series resistor Rs is always used to limit the zener current to less than its maximum current rating. Otherwise the zener diode will burn out due to too much power dissipation. *The circuit of Fig. 15 is used as a voltage reference source that supplies only a very low current (much lower than 'z). * The voltage across the series or current-limiting resistor RS difference between the supply
voltage and the zener voltage. Therefore the current through the resistor is

Loaded Zener voltage Regulator

Rs

Fig.16.Loaded Zener Voltage Regulator * A loaded Zener Voltage Regulator Circuit is shown in Fig. 16.
* The total supply current,which flows through the series resistor RS is the sum of IZ and IL. * It must be ensured that the minimum Zener current is sufficient to maintain the device in the breakdown region. * The current through the series resistor is given by

*sometimes the load current IL may be reduced to zero.however as the voltage drop across Rs remains constant, the supply current Is remains unchanged, that is

* It is apparent that the above current flows through the zener diode when RL is disconnected. Regulator Performance: * We may assess the performance of the Zener diode regulator in ter ms of the source and load effects. * The ratio of the output ripple voltage to the input ripple voltage is known as the ripple rejection ratio. * We shall start by drawing the a.c. equivalent circuit by replacing the Zener di ode by i t s maxi mu m i mpedance Z Z T as shown i n Fi g.17( a) . Hence t he a.c.equivalent circuit may be taken to be a simple voltage divider. If the input voltage varies by VS , the change in the output voltage is,

(a)Regulator on No-Load Fig.17.

(b)Loaded Regulator

* Fig. 17(b) gives the a.c. equivalent circuit, in which a load R L is connected in parallel with Z zT. The output voltage variation is now given by,

*If it is required to calculate the ripple rejection ratio, the above two equations may be used. Here, the input ripple voltage amplitude and the output ripple voltage amplitude are substituted for the input and output voltages in eqns.

* Similarly, in the case of a loaded regulator, eqn

becomes

We shall now find the Load Effect of the Zener diode voltage regulator. First, we have to determine the output resistance, for which we will use the Thevenin's Theorem as follows.

Step 1: Redraw Fig. 17, for convenience, as in Fig. 18(a).

(a)

(b) Fig.18

(c)

Step 2 : Remove the voltage source and replace it by its internal resistance; r e mo ve t h e l o a d r e s i s t a n c e a n d l o o k i n w a r d s a s i n d i c a t e d i n Fig. 18(b). S t e p 3 : A s s u m e z e r o s o u r c e r e s i s t a n c e , a n d t h e c i r c u i t b e c o m e a s i n Fig. 18(c). Now the equivalent circuit looking inward shows that Rs & Z. are in parallel; hence the circuit output resistance is given by

When the load current changes by

,the output voltage change is