Prepared By

Faraz Ali Siddiqui

ANSWER NO 1 THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL AND SEVEN LAYERS OF OSI

The OSI Reference Model and Seven Layers of OSI. When Doret invented solid chocolates he needed a way to deliver it to people undamaged so he thought to cover it. He also decided that for good delivery why not to put covered chocolates in boxes and why not to even cover these boxes for better view! Of course he will label the box in order to reach its proper destination. When you buy the box, you first open its cover then the box itself then the cover of the piece of chocolate until you finally get your chocolate! Congratulations. If you got that then you understood what I want to say today. Yah, Im not joking. In network world our main aim is to deliver data transferred from one device (source) to the other (destination).The data we want to deliver is called packets. But again, what is the data (or packets) transferred?

Consider the example of you chatting with your friend, then chatting is that data. Another example is your surfing the web, the URL for example is a data sent, and the page is a data received. Now think about OSI seven layers model in the same way; a way to cover packets for proper delivery and to reach undamaged no more. Now lets dive into the technical details of these layers and how they work. The OSI Reference Model consists of seven layers as shown

APPLICATION LAYER:
This is the layer at which user communicates with the computer, or in other words it includes users programs such as IE (or any other browser), Yahoo, and Skype. But to be honest, application layer just works as an interface between these programs and the protocols of the internet such as HTTP. If you dont know what the protocol is, dont worry as I will cover it later.

Sec : B Roll # 2010-CE-089

Prepared By

Faraz Ali Siddiqui

PRESENTATION LAYER:
This layer just presents the Application layer and does data formatting. Of course you wonder what is meant by data formatting!! To answer this question, we will consider an example of you chatting with your friend through Yahoo or Skype. Of course computer wont understand what you are writing, as it just knows (0s and 1s). Ya thats the language of the computer.

SESSION LAYER:
You are now doing both, browsing through Mozilla Firefox and chatting through Skype. Both are converted through Presentation layer to 0s and 1s. How they are separated?? How to know that this data is of browsing and this is for chatting?!!

Sec : B Roll # 2010-CE-089

Prepared By

Faraz Ali Siddiqui

TRANSPORT LAYER:
When you send a message with a little kid to deliver it to someone, you do one of two things. The first you send him and forget about him if the message is not important or the person you are sending him is not so very important.

Transport layer is the layer that determines whether the communication is reliable or unreliable, through selecting the protocol if TCP or UDP (We will cover these protocols later). This layer also establishes the connection between the two communicating hosts and determines what is called window size which is how many packets will the sender send for one Acknowledgement from the receiver.

Sec : B Roll # 2010-CE-089

Prepared By

Faraz Ali Siddiqui

NETWORK LAYER:
You might have previously heard about IP address and actually this layer is its source. This layers uses IP address (which is a logical address) to move packets from one network to the other, or from one LAN to the other. The router specifically works on this layer as it understands the IP address labeled on the packet and delivers it from source to destination.

DATA LINK LAYER:

This layer works on the MAC address labeled on the packet. Unlike the IP address, MAC address is a real address, and it is the address burned on your Ethernet card so it called built-in address.

PHYSICAL LAYER:
This layer just does two things: send bits and receive bits and this is done in wired cables or wirelessly. Now to get the full picture, lets consider of you chatting with your friend.
Sec : B Roll # 2010-CE-089

Prepared By

Faraz Ali Siddiqui

Now you got a piece of data.

The session layer will go on its work and if any other application is used, it will separate it from this data. In transport layer and according to the application you are using, it will determine whether to use TCP or UDP, and then assign the port number used to the data. Assuming using a source port of 2077 and destination is 50 then both of these port numbers will be labeled on the data, hence it will be called segment. Going down to the network layer, both source and destination IP addresses (10.0.0.2 and 172.160.4) will be labeled on the frame, hence it will be called packet (and this the common name).

ANSWER NO 2 :

DOD FOUR-LAYER MODEL

The Department of Defense Four-Layer Model was developed in the 1970s for the DARPA Internetwork Project that eventually grew into the Internet. The core Internet protocols adhere to this model, although the OSI Seven Layer Model is justly preferred for new designs. The four layers in the DoD model, from bottom to top, are:
1. The Network Access Layer is responsible for delivering data over the

particular hardware media in use. Different protocols are selected from this layer, depending on the type of physical network. 2. The Internet Layer is responsible for delivering data across a series of different physical networks that interconnect a source and destination machine. Routing protocols are most closely associated

Sec : B Roll # 2010-CE-089

Prepared By

Faraz Ali Siddiqui

with this layer, as is the IP Protocol, the Internet's fundamental protocol. 3. The Host-to-Host Layer handles connection rendezvous, flow control, retransmission of lost data, and other generic data flow management. The mutually exclusive TCP and UDP protocols are this layer's most important members. 4. The Process Layer contains protocols that implement user-level functions, such as mail delivery, file transfer and remote login. The Internet Protocol (IP) was originally developed by the Department of Defense (DoD), and was a cornerstone for a group of protocols that became known as the TCP/IP protocol suite. The DoD developed their own networking model, which became known as the DoD or TCP/IP Model. It consists of four layers: OSI Model DoD Model 7 Application 6 Presentation 5 Session 4 Application 4 Transport 3 Host-to-Host 3 Network 2 Internet 2 Data-link 1 Physical 1 Network Access The consolidated DoD model is generally regarded as more practical than the OSI model. Upper layer protocols often provide services that span the top three layers. A converged Data-link and Physical layer is also sensible, as many technologies provide specifications for both layers, such as Ethernet. The following chart illustrates where common protocols fit into the DoD model:

ANSWER NO 3 :

The network layer implemented in software.

ANSWER NO 4 :

Sec : B Roll # 2010-CE-089

Prepared By

Faraz Ali Siddiqui

The Data Link layer performs a number of separate activities, including: Physical addressing, Network topology, Error notification , Access to the physical medium and flow control The Transport layer ensures the reliable transfer of data. Each Transport protocol provides for the establishment of a transport connection, which carries a stream of two-way communications traffic between two processes on the same or different systems. A transport connection is a temporary logical connection that normally exists until one of the processes terminates the connection.

ANSWER NO 5 :
The primary difference between gateways and routers is that a gateway is the single point of access to computers outside your network. Depending on the complexity of your network, gateways can only be one or a few since they provide the exit and entry points like doors of a house. Routers, on the other hand, determine the shortest possible path your data can travel from Computer A to Computer B, like hallways and staircases.

GATEWAYS
o

If Network A wants to connect to Network B and vice versa, both networks must have gateways that provide exit and entry points for computers from the two networks to communicate. Gateways are important. They define the boundaries of your network.

ROUTERS
o

Routers are programmed with routing tables to determine the shortest possible path between Computer A and Computer B. A routing table contains a list of IP addresses that a router can connect to transfer data. It is sophisticated enough to determine the number of possible "hops" from one computer to another.

ANSWER NO 6 :

Sec : B Roll # 2010-CE-089

Prepared By

Faraz Ali Siddiqui

ANSWER NO 7 :
data reassembled at the destination In networking, PDU means "protocol data unit", and it is the generic name of the "packets" of data used at different levels of the network. Using the numbering of the OSI layers: At layer 2, the PDUs are called "frame". Example: An Ethernet frame, a frame-relay frame. At layer 3, the PDUs are called "packets". Example: An IP packet. At layer 4, the PDUs are called "segments". Example: A TCP segment, a UDP segment.

DATA ENCAPSULATION IN TCP/IP

The N-1, N-2 stuff makes this seem more difficult than it really is, so lets use a real-world (simplified) example instead. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) operates at layer 4 of the OSI model. It transmits messages called segments that contain data encapsulated from higher-layer protocols. The layer below TCP is the Internet Protocol (IP) at layer 3. It receives data from TCP and encapsulates it for transmission. So, in the formal language of the OSI Reference Model, TCP segments are created as layer 4 PDUs. When passed to IP, they are treated as layer 3 SDUs. The IP software packages these SDUs into messages called IP packets or IP datagrams, which are layer 3 PDUs. These are in turn passed down to a layer 2 protocol, say Ethernet, which treats IP datagrams as layer 2 SDUs, and packages them into layer 2 PDUs (Ethernet frames) which are sent on layer 1. (Actually, in some technologies further encapsulation even occurs at layer one prior to transmission.)

Sec : B Roll # 2010-CE-089

Prepared By

Faraz Ali Siddiqui

Figure 16: OSI Reference Model PDU and SDU Encapsulation

This example shows in more detail how OSI PDUs and SDUs are created and encapsulated. A TCP segment (layer 4 PDU) becomes a layer 3 SDU, which is encapsulated into a layer 3 PDU through the addition of an IP header. This becomes the payload of an Ethernet frame, which is a layer 2 PDU containing an Ethernet header, layer 2 SDU (the IP datagram) and Ethernet footer. The receiving device extracts the IP datagram from the Ethernet header and passes it to layer 3; the IP software extracts the TCP segment and passes it up to the TCP software.

Sec : B Roll # 2010-CE-089

Prepared By

Faraz Ali Siddiqui

ANSWER NO 8 :

WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Signals are usually transmitted over some transmission media that are broadly classified in to two categories.Guided Media:These are those that provide a conduit from one device to another that include twisted-pair, coaxial cable and fiber-optic cable. A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and is contained by the physical limits of the medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic that accept and transport signals in the form of electrical current. Optical fiber is a glass or plastic cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.Unguided Media: This is the wireless media that transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. Signals are broadcast either through air. This is done through radio communication, satellite communication and cellular telephony.

Sec : B Roll # 2010-CE-089